PC G8 Se ease | PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PAPER -Il Useful for: IAS/PCS, University Exams, UGC-NET and others Scanned with CamScannerContent Page No. . Evolution of Indian Administration .... 1-18 + Kautilya’s Arthashastra 2 + Mughal Administration _ + British Legacy sce evens HL Philosophical & Constitutional .... 19-42 Framework of Government + Constitutionalism 20 * Political Culture 26 + Bureaucracy and Democracy «srs 32 + Bureaucracy and Development Public Sector Undertaking Public Sectors in Modern India... Forms of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) Problems of Accountability, ‘Autonomy and Control Impacts of Liberalization & Privatization ... 1 Disinvestment Policy 52 Impact of COVID-19 on MSME Sector .. 57 Union Government and . 61-100 Administration Executive: Parliament Judiciary Intra~governmental Relation Cabinet Secretariat. Prime Minister's Office (PMO) Secretariat and Directorate .. Ministries and Departments... Attached Offices Board and Commission Plans and Priorities - + Planning Commission State Government and .. Administration Union-States Relation Characters of Indian Federalism... 123 Union-States Administrative Relation .. 127 Union-States Legislative Relations...... 129 Union-States Financial Relations... 130 Tensions between Union and States...... 131 Finance Commission ...eeeeesseee 137 Gover os vesessteeee eens 138 Chief Minister «0 141 Chief Secretary scenes 142 District Administration 147-166 Democratic Decentralisation ... 148 District Administration ....c.0--neene 149 Machinery of District Administration ... 149 Functions of District Officer wed SE + Changing Profile of District ou 154 Administration + Way Forward... 166 Civil Services + 167-185 Constitutional Provision of Ci 168, Civil Services Recruitment. 169 Training and Capacity Building... 173 Code of Conduct «.........0. 7 176 Grievance Redressal Mechanism sn. 179 Civil Service Neutrality and Activism ... 181 Financial Management 186-208 Budget as a Political Instrument Parliamentary Control of Public Expenditure Accounting Techniques Audit Controller General of Accounts aa) Scanned with CamScannerAp, Administrative Reforms since Independence © Administrative Reforms ~ : «Reforms in Financial Managemen! Systems «= Reforms in Human Resouree Development ; «+ Problems of Implementation wwe 11. Rural Development 229-262 + Rural Development ..230 + Machinery of Rural Development + Rural Development Programme: Foci and Strategies + Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI): Evolution . Urban Local Government... 263-295 Urban Local Government 264 Main Features of Urban Local .....ss+266 Government Structure of Urban Local Bodies ........268 Functions of Municipalities 270 (Corporation/Council/Nagar Panchayats) Challenges (Issues) of Urban sansaennee 27h Management (or City Management) Urban Problems and Solutions: ... Recent Trends Reforms in Urban Local Government ..276 Urban Local Finance sw 281 New Localism ... 283 Global-Local Debat 288 What is Smart City? 292 275 13. Law and Order Administration ..296-342 * Police in India... * British Legacy of Indian Polic fe's Role in Police Administration ... 392 Police Organizations lization of Politics and 15. Significant Issues in Indi: Administration Impact of Covid-19 Police-Public Relation ... [Community Policing] Reforms in Police... a Modernization of POlCE wenn 33Q Forces scheme Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA)...349 343-381 313 Values in Public Services 344 Problems of Administration in Coalition Bra Human Rights « a Central Social Welfare Board Corruption and Administration . Disaster Management .. Handling Migration by ‘Administrators during COVID . 382-388 = Part I: Impact of COVID-19 382 App pendix Appendix 1 ..., on Public Administration Part If: Impact of COVID-19 -....r:383 on Indian Public Administration Part IM: Critical Analysis of 000+ relationship between COVID-19 and Policy-making on Public Administration 386 Summary of 15 Report — Start and District Administration Appendix 2 Summary of 4" Report - Ethics in 390 Governance Appendix 3 .. Summary of 10 the P New Heights Recruitment oe BOR a Report - Refurbishing sonnel Administration - Scaling Appendix 4. Impact of Covip- Public Administrati 19 on Indian ion Scanned with CamScannerEVOLUTION OF INDIAN — ___ ADMINISTRATION CHAPTER-1 Evolution of Indian Administration : + Kautilya’s Arthashastra * Good Governance in Kautilyan Administration + Comparison between the Kautilyan Administration and Weberian Bureaucracy + Saptanga Theory of State + Mandala Theory Mughal Administration + Nature of Mughal Administration * Personnel Administration + Mansabdari System + Revenue Administration * Provincial Administration British Legacy + Political Legacy + Administrative Legacy — Secretariat System — Secretariat Reforms — Local Self Government — Pay, Promotion & Transfer ~ Indian Civil Service — Revenue Administration ~ Financial Accountability — Law and Order — District Administration | Scanned with CamScanner, i) 2 ration (Paper aan ations inthe world. Since then India hg vi -” . . lt ain on tne od Today India’s administration has imprints of its ion it 1e Wi . ‘ys | tion a British administration. administration laid the real foundation for Indian agupta Maurya and he au em The Nar BM ar ‘Reowil ex Chanakye), ‘The amine Splat and pitcian Kau aes asym in the teats * z 7 i as bees . saernisatve system, followed in Maunyan TA aie main iterary sour for Mauryan Arash ae eat the administrative system of Mauryan Empire administration. K, M. Panikkar 0bSe5"S" by the medieval Muslim rulers (especially the (described in Arthashastra) was carried forward by Mughals) and further by the British administration. ‘The Harappan Civ yest nal evolved to be one canes, Mughals a past including the Tt can be rightly said that the Mau? Kautilya was the Prime Minister and Chief Advisor of Chandragupta Maurya. Though the date of Arthashastra is disputed, but it is by and large accepted to belong in the period from 321 to 296 B.C. It contains fifteen books or adhikaranas. The word Artha means livelihood of men, Arthashastra dealt with science of polity, government and wealth. However, it gives maximum emphasize in science of wealth. Table of Contents of Kautilya’s Arthashastra Book I Conceming Discipline Book II The Duties of Government Superintendents Book III Concerning Law Book IV The Removal of Thorns Book V The Conduct of Courtiers Book vi The Source of Sovereign States The End of the Six-Fold Policy B bar Mad Conceming Vices and Calamities a The Work of an Invader Book x Relating to War aX The Conduct of Corporations Book — $e*ing Power Enemy rategic Means t Bos xv Seen pees fo Capture a Fortress The Plan of a Treati: Consider the ce alse Arthashaste ‘ontent table ag mentioned above, we can di L Principles of Publi , este ‘ee " ‘oA. e broad parts o! Hierarchy, Centralisation of roy archy, Centralisation of Specialisation, Divisi Administration exist 2 shes sevioes. Codified i andes and Coordination 39 ge son of Work ota Be 5 ace minal laws, Science of poligy yee -ouidelines for Pe a i Srsonnel Administration: Paig Sal olity — Wealth, Surplus finance. ary, Strict ict Code of Conduct for Public figure. Scanned with CamScannerChapter-I : Evolution of Indian Administration GBI Arthashastra deals with nitty-gritty of administration at depth including of principles of administration, personnel management and machinery of the administration. He dealt with the concept of sovereignty of state, where he mentioned the principles of duty and interest, obedience & discipline, authority & responsibility. He also dealt with the concept of functioning of the state, whereby he explained about hierarchy, equity, division of work, job specification and coordination. Kaultilya recognised the importance of personnel management. The Mauryan Administration was working with top-to-bottom i.e. hierarchical approach. It was a feudal-federal political set-up. The Kingdom was divided into smaller unit called Provinces, headed by the Viceroys. The Viceroys were accountable to the King. However, the Viceroys enjoyed autonomy on many counts. The Viceroys were usually the royal blood or the relatives of the King. The provinces were further divided into 4/5 territorial divisions. These territorial divisions were headed by Samhartas. They were assisted by officials called Asthanic and Gopa. And the villages were at the lowest level. The village head was known as Gramika or Gramkuta. The Gopa had 8 to 10 villages under him. Gopa reported to Asthanic, Asthanic could control around 800 villages. He reported to Samharta. At the Central level, the King was assisted by a group of Mantries/Tirthas. They were the Council of Ministers. The Mantries were assisted by Adhyakshas, who constituted the Council of Departmental heads. The Mauryan Administration had 2 major tasks, namely constituent functions (which included law & order, protection of subjects & properties of the state, defending against external aggression etc.) and ministrant functions (which included welfare administration of the State). Kautilya prescribed certain qualities for the state service or the administration of the State. The three qualities for State Service were (1) Sattva: Energy —One must be energetic to serve and be responsible to the state. (2) Pragya: Intelligence — One must be intelligent enough to serve the state. (3) Vakyashakti: Power of Speech. The Mauryan administration conducted ‘test’ for personnel to serve in the state at various levels: > Dharmapadha: To test the ones who will not conspire against the State. Those who pass this test were selected for Mantries and Adhyakshas. > ‘Arthapadha: Related to Artha — wealth and money. To test whether the person is greedy for money and wealth or not. Those who pass this test were selected for revenue department. > Bhayapadha: To test whether when devoted will conspire against the State. Those who pass this test were selected for Army. > Kamapadha: Related to Kama or worldly pleasures. Those who pass this test were selected for Royal Houses. There were 3 attributes which were considered unfit for State service — 1. Mulhara: Squanders the patrimony — spends the inherited resources. 2. Tadatrika: No saving of his earning — spends everything of his earning. 3. Kadarya: Thrift and Miser — Cause harm to him and others. In short, the Mauryan Administration or the Kautilya’s Arthashastra clearly outlined the Tequirements for recruitment. Other aspects of Personnel Management like Salary, Pension, Promotion, Transfer, Removal, “ etc. were detailed in Arthashastra. Salary was paid for all the personnel. The compression ratio was very high. This high compression ratio was visible during Mughal period, British period and even in independent India. The 6" Pay Commission rectified it to large extent (1:12). Pension was visible in rudimentary form. If an official dies during state service, the dependent (3) were offered ‘compensation. Promotion was ‘seniority-cum-merit’ system. However, the King had the final say. Scanned with CamScannernm (Paper!) iblic Administra Pull nat the right ace was the basis for transfey, ransfers. The right pers foved. In brief, the Arthashastra had all the rule for t Gob were Fem Te cial be were, not fit for the jt evion in rudimentary form. ca Toe oeandelements ofpersonnel MINIT’ | ey of the administration - Civil/Policey asp o ittation emphasized nery is carried forward a umn ane ote of the Mauryan state machinery nd Judicial/Spy System. it exists even today. / The Mauryan administration is oa now Mn ci adm terprise. In fact, day state, the state was one en ee cianation— in almost all aspects of admini ; an, Trade, Mining, Quarrying were some of the important sectors. ‘ar ere private sectors which were involved in generating more revenue, ler the control of the state. All the commercial activities were und ‘The approach was to widen rather broaden the tax base and tax proceed. Service taxes were also imposed. - Even the prostitutes were taxed. This is crude example of enterprising nature of state, The traders and shopkeepers were also taxed. ‘New habitation rather villages were promoted in order to increase the tax base. ‘There were three major vocations: (1) Agriculture — the most important activity. (2) Trade (3) Cattle tending. Like modern day planning and budgeting, there were planning and budgeting. But the purposes were different. The planning and budgeting were carried out for control and generation ofr eente (development in modern days). Similar to the system of modem days, there were income heads —seven (106 items in modern days). Kautil Sines Herm tesa er ae defined in Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988) tds. (27 categories Good Governance in Kautilyan Administration Can Ka anieteats ae ace Maurya Administration be considered an example of good governance? Admitistaton cana ae vont to ancient India, there is no doubt that the Mauryan aracters man tefl good goverane ae of good governance of today. Some of the features which rr its financial administration. Like the modem istration reflected the enterprising VYVYYVYYVY The King had two maj ‘ ajor ends — private or indivi two ends were merged phen Private or individual ends and duti i itor * merge Thais the King ha fulfilled att luties or public ends. These B King as the Co . 'e ends. KP Jayaswal referred that 2. The Mauryan a, » the Ki .dininistre ti ing had to work ; offi als tad wo fol rs io eat Buided by well detren foe the welfare of the people. - TheKing and other Savio we: Conducts. The goals and pur le of conducts. The King and 4 is aims and fancies, re salaried people. This me a ees were clearly defined. . ie law and order wz '¢ money were not withdrawn the King’ as the chief, va 5 mete’ say This means ay ofthe King. Even the theft 6 Thepreventnne Animal husband res SPHSie for the yer ost Were deducted from Weand punii *e the major activities sre oe of ive me; embezzlements defined, Thee or the conupt official F es of the people, i s. For i , Pled were punished Kautilye on there were 40 kinds + ‘4 was skeptical of person’s ee Scanned with CamScannerRR i Re a em Chapter-I : Evolution of Indian Administration GI nature. Kautilya had said it is difficult to know when a fish drinks water. Similarly it s difficult to detect when a public servant indulges in bribery. The officials who are at the ae | affairs of finances, may misappropriate the money at any time and it maybe difficult to jetect. 7. The Mauryan administration recommended emulation of good administrative qualities even at the times of instabilities which may be caused to external attacks or emergency situaticns Some of the pertinent examples are — If the army marches over farming land during war, then the king or the state should compensate the lost (of crops) and there were state relief measures in the times of calamities. There were 8 categories of calamities — Fire, Flood, Famine, Ferocious Animal, Demons, and Diseases, etc. . 8. There was provision for public health facilities, such as ban on unwholesome food and drinks, regulation of the medical practitioners in the interests of patients and provision for free state medical facilities in cases of emergencies — outbreak of diseases or epidemics. 9. The state had provision for protecting the customers from dishonest traders, merchants, shopkeepers (similar to Consumers Protection Act of Modern days). ‘The state believed in Yogakshema — the welfare approach of Mauryan Administration: Yogak means successful accomplishment of an activity and Sema means the enjoyment of the same that is enjoyment when the purpose is served. The purpose should be to serve the people. This is very similar to the idea of Ministrant administration. In one of the mandals, it was written that the happiness of the King lies in the happiness of the people. This clearly indicates that the king or the state was concerned about the welfare of the people. Comparison between the Kautilyan Administration and Weberian Bureaucracy ‘The Mauryan Administration and Weberian Bureaucracy have both similarities and differences, The similarities included both dealt with monarchial administration, both emphasized in rationality and efficiency, both believed in maxims of hierarchy, division of work, co-ordination and control, responsibility, etc. and both believed in the separation of officials from the means of the administration. ‘That is both emphasized in ethics and values. Kautilyan identified 40 types of embezzlement. He also talked of exercising greater control through spy system working at different levels of administration and among different classes of officials. The differences are presented in table given below: = ‘Kautilyan Ac a | Weberian Bureaucrac ‘Temporal ‘Ancient India -2™ and 3 Bi Modem 5 ‘Type of Authority) Traditional Authority. Monarch of German which was Ee on legal-rational authority. India ~| Germany aaa Kautilya at best was involved in. | Weber as a student of systematic studying the empirical reality of | sociology was involved in theory| system, In this Way, he was in terms defining typologies o normative and prescriptive in his | administration according to. approach (King should do this} environment. The normativism. and that, etc.) prominent in his approach. He dealt - ideal mental construct based on th imagination of accentuation of human attributes, In a way, Wel prescriptive..But he. was quite | fom Kantilya’s prese Scanned with CamScannerer) Public Administration (Pap. a oie H nea nor be iate was based on Saptanga Theory. The Saptanga theory that a Saministration had 7 Limbs. | Ee ; ‘The seven clements/limbs were: 1. Swami (King) - The ruler. ; [Rae 2, Amatya ‘The Minister to assist the King 3. Janapada— The territory 4, Durga ~The Fort 5. 6 Positeg . Kosh - The Treasurer . Danda — The Amy ~ to enforce the command Tanapada| of the State I ea Dias 7. Mitra ~The Friend, Kautilya attached enemy with the friend. Saptanga Theory includes all the seven organs of the state which had been separately elaborated among the various volumes of Arthashastra. It explains the role of the king (Swami) who had been treated as the life of the state and who should be the defender of Dharma, who was supposed to be Dharmic, enthusiastic, powerful, aggressive, decisive, fearless and free from self-indulgence. Along with this, the other organs include the Amatya (or the ministers) who was to occupy the next position in the hierarchy just after the king who was the topmost public official responsible for carrying out the public relations and representing the kingdom in the absence of the king. The third clement of the state was the Janapada which comprises of the territory and the people, the mountains, rivers, forests, etc. which are included in the territory of the kingdom. Forts (Durga) form the fourth element of the state which defined the construction of the forts and their security which has been elaborated in the Construction of Forts in Book Il of Arthashastra. Treasury (Kosh) formed the fifth clement of the state which is supposed to be enriched with all the sources of taxes and collection of revenue to be deposited in the state treasury. This also includes the Army (Danda) which was responsible for securing the boundaries of the kingdom; this brings us closer to the friend (Mitra) ‘who shall be the biggest ally of the conqueror in confronting the enemy. Arthashastra laid down a number of features for selecting an ideal friend who shall have royal birth and will be available at fies st, Alongwith Shastra also includes a list of Council of Ministers who shall assist the = tye \¢ prime minister. Thus, the Saptanga theory mainly includes all those who used to iy out the internal administration of the state for the king, Mandala Theory Scanned with CamScannerChapter-1 : Evolution of Indian Administration claims to sovereignty that were equally legitimate. States forged multiple relationships with their frontier zones, The emergence of kingdoms and empires inevitably led to the creation of frontiers or borderlands, zones where the state authority gradually came in dispute. These were the territories where, according to Kautilya, “those likely to be won over” lived. Kautilya divides “those likely to ‘be won over” into four categories, that is, the “angry,” the “greedy,” the “frightened,” and the “haughty”. Kautilya mentioned four Upayas - Sama, Dama, Danda and Bheda as the ways to get solution in state politics to avoid conflicts and war situations. This phrase is also more often used whenever you need to find a solution to a problem anyhow. a 1, Sama, the first step, means conciliation or alliances. When the situation of conflict arises between the states, the first step is to talk. Dama, the second, means gifts or compensation, Sometimes, itis referred to as price, it means to pay the value, Bheda refers to usage of Logic or Trickery, to influence the mind. Danda refers to force or armaments. To take up war with the opposite state. All the four Upayas are generally spoken together in a single colloquial phrase - “Sama Dama Bheda Dandopaya’’. This is a very common quote which is used all over India as a suggestion to resolve any type of conflict. ‘These behaviours could be instigated in the borders against their own kings by stoking anger, greed, fear or pride through the use of conciliation (sama), gift (dama), won over through sedition (bheda) and force (danda), the last to be used only if all other means have failed. Re—visiting the Mauryan Empire, Romila Thapar views the Mauryan frontiers as buffer zones that were deliberately kept underdeveloped, with an intention to keep them pliant rather than maintaining a firm control. Kautilya further classified ten types of kings in the mandala system — (1) Vijigishu — Central king; (2) Ari — the enemy in front of the central king; (3) Mitra — the friend; (4) Arimitra — the enemy's friend; (5) Micramitra ~ the friend’s friend, (6) Arimitra mitra — the enemy's friend’s friend; (7) Parshanigraha-the enemy in rear; (8) Akranda — the friend in the rear; (9) Parshanigrahasara — the enemy's friend in rear; (10) Akrandasara — the friend’s friend in rear. In addition, there are intermediary kings called madhyama and neutral kings called udasina. ‘Ari-Enemy /Madhyam- Intermediary, | These states are | These states may either! enemy state. They |help or act against || usually create ~ | depending on the disturbances and circumstances, conspiracies. ‘Such states have to | Such states shi Nothing essential may 1 be [detakenup. | Ksutlya also came out with three types of officals ofthe foreign department, They are a) Sasanhara: The messenger of the royal writ. (2) Parimitartha: Envoy on definite mission. ‘Mishrishtartha: Ambassador ~ This official is empowered of taking dec Werauvecs ing decisions on war and peace. Scanned with CamScannerb i jon srl) Public Admint pration (Paper) _—_——— jes (1556-1857). Babur invaded In sa for more than three centuries ( - ia The Mughal ued Ind or Toy classic period” ofthe empire started in 1556 with won the First Battle of Panip: the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, nj, i to the throne. Under ascension of Aviat ie aa well ‘as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in logy enjoyed economé mo eTsitions, The eign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, was the golden age o¢ religious anc " a ts, the most famous of which is the Ty; Mughal architecture, He reed sr Mae ne Red For, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lah a coerce a ae ped the zenith ofits territorial expanse during the reign of Auranga Fae ties tenninal decline in hs reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shiv ne then the Mughals that is after Aurangzeb were weak rulers, The maximum innovations av ehanges administration were manifested during Akbar reign. In fact, Mansabdari systems ‘he sat significant administrative system of Mughal era. The Mughal administration had all he major elements of administration revenue, police, judicial and personnel administrations. ‘As regards the sources of the study of Mughal Administration, those are scattered at many places. The ‘Ain-i-Akbari’ of Abul Fazal is the means of information but it does not give us much help in drawing a correct and detailed picture of the administrative machinery. Nature of Mughal Administration ‘The Mughals established an imperial state in the true sense free from even shadowy allegiance toan extemal authority like the Caliphate, and exercised unrivalled power over vast territories. The Mughal Padshah and the Turko-A fghan Sultan belonged to entirely different categories of monarchy. ‘The salient features of Mughal administration were — 1, Foreign origin: The Mughal administration was largely based on the administrative systems, followed in the Central Asia, The foreign administrative systems were adjusted to the Indian settings. For instance, the Mansabdar, the system was a product of Central Asia (Uzbeks). 2. Militaristic in nature: The functionaries of Mughal administration were holding military positions. ‘Though they were civilian officers in the time of peace, they were military officer in the time of wat. 3. Centralised Despotism: The entire administration was centered on the king. The king hadall the powers. 4. Kagazi Raj: Except for actual conduct out through kagaz (paper), 5. Strong blend of Religion and P ofthe Ulemmas. Thats they foll in the polities of the state, Jadun: of campaign, the Mughal administration was carried ‘olities: The Mughal rulers revered the teaching and preaching oped is 'siamic trations. There was intervention of eiion : ath Sarkar said that the Mughal Kings had 2 different attitudes te , _—. bee bets ~ (1) To Muslim —Socialistic approach and ©) To Hindus — Limited to They believed tat an ons. However, this argument by Sarkar is not accepled by ma. instance, Akbar aboli aot many socialistic functions for both Hindus and Muslims. For He also inducted Hine 2%, He introduced Din-i-llahi which welcomes every religio® ant-Hindu measures, He ne 4ehal nobility. On the contrary, Aurangazeb is well known fot Mughal state was an lant tne set land to Hind yop and Brahmins Nonethls it was biased against the Hinde UoWed the ideals and values of Muslims and at times 6. Overemphasis in Revem lue and Police functions, Scanned with CamScanner poe | 10. Pel mo the sys pil su; apt all po: ofChapter-t : Evolution of Indian Administration Less emphasis in education and health services. No interest in Science and Technology. Enterprising Nature: The Mughal Administration was enterprising in nature. The concept of public corporations and Karkhanas maintained by the state was firmly entrenched in system. 10. Less emphasis in far flung areas. Personnel Administration ‘The Mughal administration presented a combination of Indian and extra-Indian elements, or more correctly, it was the “Perso-Arabic system in Indian setting”. The bifurcation of authority in the provinces - the division of power between the subhadar and the diwan - was based on the system prevailing under the Arab rulers in Egypt. ‘The Mughal Empire was a centralized disposition based on military power. It rested on two pillars: the absolute authority of the emperor and the strength of the army. The emperor was the supreme commander of the armed forces (sovereign authority), and all other commanders were appointed and - if necessary-removed by him. He was the preserver of peace, symbol of unity and all the major functions of the state were under him including appointments, removals, transfers, posting and promotions. In short, he was the head of civil and military administration. In fact, there was no Senapati in Mughal administration so that the authority of the king is never questioned. Although the emperor had few important officers to assist him, there were chief departments of administration, They were — ¢ Wazir — Prime Minister: Exchequer and Revenue Mir Bakshi — Pay Master General: Military and accounts office Chief Qazi — Judicial Head: Canon law both civil and criminal Chief Sadr — Religious Head: Religious endowments and charity Daroga-e-Dakchowki — Department of Post and Intelligence Daroga-e-Topkhanna — Department of Artillery Diwan-e-Tan — To look after Salary Diwan--Khalisa ~ To look after the Crown Land The modern principles of administration, such as unity of command & centralization, specialization (division of work), coordination & control were also manifested in the Mughal administration. The most important feature of personnel administration was Mansabdari (Mansab ~ officer and Mansabdari — officer) system. Mansabdari System The mansabdari system introduced by Akbar was a unique feature of the administrative system ofthe Mughal Empire. The term ‘mansab’ (i.e. office, position or rank) in the Mughal administration indicated the rank of its holder (mansabdar) in the official hierarchy. The mansabdari system was of Central Asian origin. According to one view, Babur brought it to North India. But the credit of giving it an institutional framework goes to Akbar, who made it the basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration. In fact, it is the most significant administrative system of ‘Mughal administration. Itis said that the whole of Mughal administration depended on the mansabdari system, The system was imported from foreign soil. Rather it was the system, followed mostly in central Asia (Uzbeks). ‘The Mansabdar acted as a military officer during war and a civilian officer in the time of peace, William Irwin remarked — The peerage of military and civilian administration was rolled into one. In other words, the mansabdars belonged both to the civil and military departments. They Scanned with CamScannerPublic Administration (Paper-I) m 1 were transferred from the civil Sen and the sawar (cavalry rank i.e. number of soldiers zat (pe a's reign, the mansabs commanded from 10 tg system had two aspects — 2 md sxe bythe mars) Inthe carl years of Akos? ©7180 Tessa that there were \der mansal \diers. The number of soldiers un ee ‘nthe range of 10 soldiers to 12,000 soldiers, ‘the emperor, who also granted promotions on the basis Inthe ee eo pers holding ranks below 500 soldiers wer called ste innit pan 300 but below 2,500 were called amirs and those holding ranks of goed above wereclled air-umdaorani-razam or onal. The mansabdars- who recived pay ineash, were own as nagd/and those pad through assignments of jagirs were called jagirdar “The mansabdari system had a number of merits. The system rather career was open to talent, ‘The promotions were onthe basis of performance. It provided greater unity and integration ofthe empire, The mansab was not hereditary and it automatically lapsed after the death or dismissal of the mansabdar, The son of a mansabdar, ifhe was granted a mansab, had to begin afresh. Another important feature ofthe mansabdari system was the Jaw of escheat (zabti), according to which when a mansabdar died, all his property was confiscated by the emperor. This measure had been introduced so thatthe mansabdars could not exploit the people in a high-handed manner. It allowed equitable distribution ofthe resources among the ruling elites, thus ensuring peace in the empire However, it suffered from certain demerits, The system could be maintained only in two conditions ~ (1) when there is a strong central authority and (2) when there is equitable distribution of the power and privileges. After the demise of Aurangzeb, it was difficult for the later rulers to ensure both the preconditions thereby leading decline and weakening of the Mughal Empire. Besides, te system was very comprehensive i. it as related to every aspects ofthe administaton, The abdari system meant the failure of the complete administration. Thus, the survival of the Mughal administration was purely dependent on this system. casa ae j ~Alagiris a group of revenue villages from where the taxes and revenue are collected. | _Jagits were given to Mansabdars to collect tax 1 een es and revenue, The collected revenue Was, fagirs — local chieftans who were gi i f given the rights to collect taxes and revenue. | Mansabdars ere jagirdars but all the jagirdars were not mansabdars. Revenue Administration > Amilgulzar ~ At 5 P The Amil Gulzar ree em a Gulzar is responsible for the financial administration. > Amil, Quanungo and F ee Pargana level. ‘otahddhar - The officers responsible for revenue administration at Scanned with CamScannerChapter-I : Evolution of Indian Administration The Mughal administration adopted innovations, such as incentives (including chaudhari, Ahut and muggaddam) to encourage better participation. The elaborate and detailed arrangement exhibits the ingenuity of financial administration in Mughal administration. Though the state was very much concern about the collection of taxes and revenue, the state did not provide compensation in terms of services like health care, civic amenities, etc. Provincial Administration ‘The empire was divided into twelve provinces and each province is called subah (later increased to fifteen). The administrative agency in the province of the Mughal Empire was an exact miniature of that of the central government. The officers in the provincial administration were — 1. Subadhar: The Subadhar was officially called the nazim or regulator of the province. His essential duties included the maintenance of law and order, to help for the smooth and successful collection of revenue and execution of royal decrees and regulations. Provincial Diwan: Provincial Diwan was the second officer in the locality and was the jealous rival of the subadhar. The provincial Diwan was selected by the imperial Diwan and acted directly under his orders and in constant correspondence with him. bakshi: Appointed by the king on the recommendation of the central mir bakshi, his responsibilities included maintenance of mansabdars and fixing of recruitment pay of soldiers. He sent reports to the king from time to time about the working of the mansabdars. As a wakiya nigara, he sent reports to the king on the incidents of the province. Sadr: At the provincial level, sadr also worked as qazi. Appointed by the king on the recommendation of sadr-us-sadr, he, as a sadr, watched the religious activities of Muslims, As a qazi, he performed judicial functions. Faujdar: In the maintenance of peace and the discharge of executive functions, in general, the Subadhars’ assistants were the Faujdars. These officers were placed in charge of suitable subdivisions of the provincial officers. Kotwal: The ideal kotwal is described as a man who follows the regulations in his outward actions and fears god inwardly. He should attend, when the sovereign or provincial viceroy holds a court of justice or grants public audience, ‘The Mughals, through their administration, installed an element of homogeneity in the Bovernance of the country. All the subahs of the empire were governed in the same manner of administration, The present day Indian administration is largely a legacy of British-India administration, Indian stem, both political and administrative systems exhibits characters of British-India administration, The reasons for lasting imprints of British-India administration include —(1) Peaceful transfer of Power: The transfer of power was certain and peaceful. By the fag end of Second World War, it was quite evident that the power will be transferred to Indian hands. (2) Depletion of Administrative Cadre: It is unfortunate that India was Partitioned at the time of independence. The communal Conflict and the partition led to decrease in the number of officers, Many left for Pakistan and some left for Britain. (3) A convinced. leadership: A State Organization Committee was formed under the leadership of Vallabh Patel, The Committee was convinced: that the old system will help move out from the crisis, se Scanned with CamScannerZao Public. Adm stration (Paps itis ia. Some of them we iti Political Legacy British India. Som Te Positive indi after ins listed under: and a few were negativ 1. Political Institutions? er) adopted many systems ol nce , dependenc ‘of positive legacies are ive. Some "em: India adopted Britis Parliamentary System™: Federal ‘System: ‘The Gol Act, 1935 had the : 'e time of British. We ine At 1919 for the first time mentioned about the bicameral system in cc. Bicameral- S e country follows bicameral system even today. India. And the count i . ou i ce. have been adopted BY So ae mae ten Sritish India also had Panchayati Raj System. * a ve Snrmnission of 1907 recommended for self-rule and self-governed body. 4. system of Political Parties and Election: The independent India adopted both the system of Political Parties and election from the British India. ; 5. Political Tactics: The political tactics that were prevalent prior to independence of India still eet For instance, Gandhi's Struggle to Struggle, hunger strikes, hartals, boycott, ete 6 Feeling of oneness and Nationalism: The feeling of oneness and nationalism was lacking in Indian people before the arrival of British, The freedom struggle united the people of India and it loft an indelible feeling of nationalism. And it remains strong rather even stronger to date 7. Polities for development: A new value was established. 8. Politics for removal of various social evils: It is the British who started the abolition of social evils from Indian states. But the efforts were made after pressures from Indian social and religious reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, etc. The social evils like child marriage, sati and infanticide were abolished. h’s Parliamentary form of government. provision for federal system. However, it was Some of the negative legacies were: Sense conflicts: It is the British who planted the seeds of communal conflicts. The Gol ct, 1909 created separate electorate Muslims. This became one of major reasons behind the enmity between the Hindus and Muslims. And the country even today experiences the wounds of communal conflicts. For instance Godhra Riots of 2001 yo “ 2. Conflicts between the Ministers and Secretaries. , Administrative Legacy : ’ Itis quite obvious t i witape Nasser ee is cetoreamy iain Administrative system has been built on British Bah el - Some of them are sean i Se Administration have their roots in ice, revenue administetion pee at reforms, local self-government, All inanagerent of dete } Police system, budgeting, accounting & auditing and ‘Secretariat System ‘The Secretariat $1 ii i - " yystem in India has i i i nilestones in the evoluti ctarint Se Bttish Administrat in of Secretariat Seco ee itish Administration, Some of the important PRO owmimovaerae act tine 1/29, the Secretary General > Till 1843, the Central Scere eee as the Chief Secretary. tariat was loc ‘ial. viz., Publi : Public, Secret and Conmmereites °%"24 in Calcutta and there were three departments at, a Secretary General was created. Scanned with CamScannergee SR RRR RG Pt MORE nem Chapter-1 : Evolution of Indian Administration G3) By aresolution in 1843, four departments were set up ~ Military, Foreign, Finance and Home. In 1855, a separate Department of Public Works was created. In 1860, Central Revenue Department and Imperial Audit Department were created. In 1858, the Portfolio system was introduced by Lord Canning. And in 1861, it came into being. Under the Portfolio system, the Governor — General with the assistance of Council was responsible for all the departments. The Members of Council were given respective charges of different departments. > In 1871, the revenue and agriculture retated matters were taken away from the Home Department and put under separate Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce. > In 1905, during the Lord Curzon’s time, the control of the railway system was entrusted to the Railway Board on March 1, 1905. Later no: in Oct 1905, it was designated as the Railway Department. > In August 1921, medical administration was transferred from the Home to the Education Department which was re-named as the Department of Education and Health. In the same year, a Department of Industries was created. > - Dueto the pressures of work brought about by the Second World War, the Foreign and Political Department was split in 1937 into two separate departments - the External Affairs Department and the Political Department. > In 1941, three new departments were created, namely Information and Broadcasting, Civil Defence and the Indian Overseas. The last department was re-named the Commonwealth Relations Department in 1944. > The entire set-up or the structure came to be known as Imperial Secretariat. In 1950 (after the independence), it was re-named as the Central Secretariat. Y¥YVY Secretariat Reforms The consciousness of British towards reforms is depicted in the setting up of several commissions and committees. The Secretariat Procedure Committee recommended in 1919, a pyramidal organization for every department, with a secretary at the top, and at least two deputy secretaries. It recommended the abolition of the post of undersecretaries except in the Finance Department. The idea behind these changes was to reduce administrative delays and expedite official business. The Lewellyn Smith Committee (1920) re-examined the tenure system operating from Lord Curzon’s time in 1905. It observed that the tenure of the secretaries and deputy secretaries should remain fixed at four years to bring about stability in tile working of secretariat. The Secretarial Committee (1935), or Wheeler Committee, studied the problem of delays in the working of the secretariat and re-commended the practice of double notings to speed up the work. Further, the Maxwell Committee (1937) suggested that the secretary of the department should be responsible to the minister and that the secretary was the officer competent to guide the minister, Later, the Tottenham Committee (1945-46) reported on the organization of departments, the question of staffing and the re-organization of the entire secretariat system. It recommended that distinct duties be assigned the different grades of secretarial officers and agreed nomenclatures for each grade. The entire set-up or structure came to be known as Imperial Secretariat. The Imperial Secretariat was replaced by the Central Secretariat. Thus, there was improvement and changes in administrative system from time to time. This is because administration per se is a dynamic process which requires changes with time, Scanned with CamScannerancient India. The British, while hanges in local administration, Fa ited from za 1 system exist Local Self-Governme? sete se cn oa troduced som Tee Sonne = retaining some Some of the major In 1687, the Madras 1726, the Kolkata and Bombay jig Resoluti ‘Government of India Reso] tes ately capable of administering theit ov focal affai granted to panchayats as pe and Madras. i petty courts in Bombay 7 I is Fa an proved for financial decentralization. The local governments in 1870, blic works, ete i tof funds devoted for education, pul , etc. were responsi of the ma as been called the “father of local sel-governments > the Rig Resolution (I a edi) eed certain changes. The resolution, dated 18 May, 1882, recommended = The extension of the elected representatives. ‘@ Reduction in the size of the official element . ‘@ Elected non-official as the chairman. of rural bodies, and Financial decentralization. > The Royal Commission on Decentralization (1907 ~ 09) examined the problem of local ‘government in great detail. The Commission recommended — 1. A three-tier system consisting of: + The village panchayat or union boards, + The local tehsils or sub-district boards, and + The district board. 2. Itrecommended for the lessening of government control over local bodies. > Toe Momiogue-Chelnord Report of 1918 on Indian constitutional reforms examined the gqisting system of local government in the country and came to conclusion that local bodies ested with greater powers and outside control should be made minimal. > Through the Act of 1919, local em ransfer? ct , local self-government became a eed prctnint it became a provincial and transferred subject tandmatks ate: tablished. Municipal Corporation He rations were established. Municip’ that the people of this country are dmitted tI ay ion, 1864, had a Hence, statutory recognition was wv Of all the above detailed explanation vie ened Acts and Resotut viz, Lord Mayo’: solutions, pass the topics which are often being saat ee and Lond nay Biitish Parliament, they need SCM: . ‘ipon’s Res lains exam, ‘esolution, because these are nthe 18th May, 1882, Lord Ripon’s \d of education and the i made it necessary that this om it rules, more and more a8 Scanned with CamScanner iin adChapter-I: Evolution of Indian Administration 5) Lord Ripon’s resolution enunciated the fo and guide local government in India: 1, Local bodies should have mostly elected non-governmental members and chairman. 1, The state control over local bodies should be indirect rather than direct. 2 Thee bois must be endowed with adequate financial resources to carry out their functions. To this end, certain sources of local revenue should be made available to the local bodies, which should also receive suitable grants from the provincial budget. 3, Local government personnel should be operated under the administrative control of the local bodies. The government personnel, who are deputed to the local government, must be treated as employees of the local government and subject to its control. The resolution of 1882 should be interpreted by the provincial governments according to the local conditions prevalent in the provinces. Another significant stage in the history of local government ‘was the publication in 1909, of the report of Royal Commission upon Decentralization, set up in 1906. Pay, Promotion and Transfer The British devised a well-developed pay-structure for civil servants. In 1918, the posts were divided into ‘superior’ and ‘inferior’ categories. The system of promotion on well-planned lines, developed by the British provided an etement of social mobility for the native Indians. ‘The conditions of service provided for promotional opportunities according to seniority, conduct and quality of performance. According to a resolution of the home department on 21 Aprit, 1892, the officers of the provincial civil service could be promoted to certain listed posts in the cadre of the ICS. However, few shortcomings were involved in it. On promotion an officer could only take the rank but was not admitted to the membership of that cadre. Appointments to these listed posts ‘were, however, few and far between and, officers promoted to them were not eligible for further promotion to a higher post. The transfers of government officials were conducted periodically to prevent them from developing vested interests at particular places and offices. But this transfer policy was not as perfect as was desired. The frequency of transfers definitely sapped the vitality of the British administration lowing principtes, which were henceforth to inform Indian Civil Service ‘The most important legacy of the British rule in India was the creation of the Indian Civil Service CS), It represented the visible presence of the British in India and it was through its expanded network that authority was wielded. The members of the ICS constituted the essence of British ower in India and without ICS, one would not be able to speak of the British empire in India. in 1760, Lord Clive introduced Covenant Binding System, Under this system, people working for company had to sign an agreement promising to work fr the people and to increase the efficieney of the system, In 1793, Lord Cornwallis fixed the period for Covenant Binding System. He also Europeanized the Indian Civil Service. That is no Indian was allowed in the Indian Civil Service. According to him, the Indians were not capable and trustworthy. sed equality of Indians and Europeans in entry of Civil Services. alts har dete 183 eda er obey ii evs, Te pon i eonieed tobe the Magna Carta for competitive exam: India. In fact, this report became the basis of most of the recnntent system today. The report suggested following changes —(I) It provided for a Merit-based civil service. That is exam was open to everyon® and an was no: discrimination on Any grounds, (2) It introduced for Personality Test. (3) It os = eucting the officer young. cide of age limit was introduced. This even influenced the PC Hota Commitee, Scanned with CamScannerse important services it 1861 and the ning Fan services NETS TET Ao ofthe covenant A acquired the stag Some Statutory Civil Service and Non Stay yoess and it had less power ang fan prin meant for Indian PI eee was dom statutory was discriminatory approach i Statutory Servs in service. The Now e nto statutory # privileges: This oe vas setup in 1886 under the chaimans ‘The Atchison CO! nt ison to come UP with a scheme for fulfilling the claims of Indians srvice. It made the following recommendations ite bs of Sir Charles Umphersto! cent in public Set eth ny tohigher and more aA The two-tier classification ofcivil services into covenanted ang jnits report submitted in ssinclassification - Imperial, Provincial and -tier Cl non-covenanted should Pe replaca ty oO ier evry into civil services should be 23 yeas, Subordinate iil Services. 2) °C TT ecruitment should be ‘abolished. (4) The competitive (3) The statutory civil service ors) Certain percentage of “rould not be held simultaneously Wn England and India, (5) Certain P' ige of posts in coil civil service should be filled by promotion of the members oe provincial civil service. rrerecommendations ofithison Commission Were implemented in 1892 and consequent, thesamtory evil service was abolished. And the Trnperal Civil Service became Indian Civil Serves, “The Islington Commission which was the publicname of Royal Commission on Public Services in nig ves constituted under the Chairmanship of Lord [singh in 1912. It made the following ioe tations ia its report submitted in 1915 ~ (1) Recruitment the superior posts should be saegrtly in England and partly in India. However, it did not favowt holding competitive exams mad yin England and india, which was the prime demand of the Indian Nationalists. (2) aan spperor posts should be filled by Indians, partly by direct recruitmert and partly by sromatin, (3) The services under the Government of India should be categorised into Class Tand Glas. 4) The prep of maintenance of efiiency should be adopted while fixing the salaries of iv servants, (5) There shouldbe a probationary period of 2 years for direct recruitments. For the ICS, it should be of 3 years. From 1919 onwards, 33% of the seats were reserved for the Indians. The government agreed conte te xaniamon bth i ni nd England. Itidentified 9 all India Services. In 1923 te Lee Commision (Royal Commision for Higher ivi Service) was constituted to look into oe oA Inti Servis, ssomuended following — (1) The retention of All Indi 2h S00 facet shack bs reesryed for laen appointment and control of All India Somme ed for Indian in the higher Civil Services for 15 years. (4)20% of the seat should be reserved for e st Provincial Civil is indi i Se ce eal rei clog pene deere OO A Federal Public Servi ic Service was created in 1926 and it was entrusted for the recruitment of Civil Servants. The Governmer nt of India Act, 1935 recommended for establishment a Federal Public Service Commission. The Act retained 3 services (Indiat Services, Indian Police Service (indian Civi s we ‘gome of the CO N Some 0 came in Sar civil Service CO of All India Service’ 1 The N approach After the independence, th eo 315 1353) out rendees, the Federal Public Service became the Union Public Service (Article All Indi (Indian Civil Servi " one All India Service — Indian Foreign aiteaitee and Police Service) were retained. In 19605 Revenue Administration e Was created, Initially, it was the Ac e countal of the Government of India Late, cgnettlofFort William in Bengal, who controlled the finane + attempts were made to separate the Indian accounts from the Scanned with CamScanner local ac was no Indian lieu of T budge for ea comm grate also t in 18 not P the D Fina syste crea offic thro fina was Mo’ Bar Laoil RR SRR SAO 8A RAR Chapter-I : Evolution of Indian Administration Jocal accounts of Bengal. In 1846, the Secretary to the Government of India in the finance department was nominated the ex-officio accountant general of India with powers to supervise and examine Indian accounts. Another important step was the creation of a general department of accounts in lieu of separate accounts for each presidency. This brought about integration in the system. The most important administrative innovation, in this sphere, was the introductions of the budget system vide the financial resolution ‘of April 7, 1860. Under this system, the financial estimate for each year was to be arranged, considered and sanctioned by the Government. of India before the commenced. Under the same resolution, a central revenue department was ereated in Calcutta to grate and co-ordinate the activities of all the revenue authorities. An imperial audit department was also being set up for the scrutiny. ‘Another important contribution of the British was the introduction of government paper Current sn 1860. The Governor of Bengal became the agent for the printing; issuing and circulation of the not Paper notes from Rs. 1 to RS. 1,000 were issued. In 1882, the district treasury was placed under the District Collector. Financial accountability ‘When the C&AG were made responsible to the central legislature in 1919, a full-fledged and systemic mechanism of control was evolved. In 1922, a cenitral public accounts committee was created, considering of both elected and official members, with the finance member as its €x- sfficio chairman. It considered the auditor generals’ reports on the re-appropriations amounts. Thus, through these two bodies the Indian legislature exercised control over the administration of public finance, The creation of a Standing Finance Committee with the Finance Member as its chairman was another practical step in the field of control. Ithad the duties ofthe Public Estimates Committee, Moreover, Public Accounts Committees were created in each Governor's province. ‘Under the Act of the Central Legislature of 1943, the Government of India established Reserve Bank, which began to function with effect from 1 April, 1935. Law and Order Administration The foundations of the contemporary police administration in India were laid during the British rule, particularly after the enactment of the Indian Police Act, 1861, which created an organized system of constabulary. During the British rule, at the tate Level, the Inspector General of Police (IGP) exercised control over the whole police force of the provincial government. The IGP was often a member ofthe covenant civil service, that is why evena few ICS officers held the post of IGP. At the district level, the IGP was assisted by that Superintendent of Police (S.P.). The S. P. as well as the Assistant ‘Superintendents of Police (appointed in larger districts to assist the S. P.) were Englishmen. A subordinate police force, comprising inspectors, Head Constable, Sergeants and Constables was also created. It may be recalled that the earlier system of police administration at the field level was based on the office of the station officer or Darogah. In the recognized system of 1861, the Darogah didnot disappear, buthe became a sub-inspector subject to regular training and frequent inspections. District Administration ‘The district is an administrative unit within a province that the British created, when ruling India, India was divided into ‘Presidencies’, each of which was ruled by a Governor. Over them was the Governor General - later the Viceroy. Presidencies were very large. Thus, the British created administrative districts, where the most important official was the officer responsible for collecting taxes-largely revenue from land, Naturally, he was designated the Collector. All officials reported Scanned with CamScannerer the provincial govern all over India, he also b disputes. come to contemporary India trom the Brigg vr the institutions from the Mughal Rules red to the Governor 1a Collector. In time, - “argely revenue tohim, and he: repo! were delegated t0 responsible fr sein disputeS a The traditions of District Administration have i. stration had inherited some ¢ fi u Raj. The ae mm posed of Tess oF Taluka with some variations indifferent states. Dug wees ays, the Deputy Commissioner tthe district was the most powerful officer and he yg e. ss for the maintenance of law ‘and order. Over the years, as the State took on more ang sible y bates responsi and he seal of developmental acy es arew, these were added to the portal ra eeiectoralso now called Deputy Commissions ‘As line departments expanded and posi their own officers in the districts, they came under the jurisdiction of the collector, who was invariably from the Indian Administrative Service, the sucesso? of the ICS. Over time, the revenue function declined in importance and two others grew, namely law and order, for the District Superintenden of Police came under the collector, and development programmes. Ina very real sense, the collector was the district administration. Little could be said abou district administration without the Collector. This continues till today. ee Of Administrative Despotism in District Level ] | Prior to the enforcement of the Indian Police Act, 1861, the Magistrate was the head of the, i roles and was responsible for apprehending, trying and committing criminals Under the eae pee eneat the Magistrate continued to occupy a position of authority over the eee rit S, P. in matters of distribution and movements of the police, preservation of order, and {repression of crime. Bu, in matters of general organization, including pay, clothing and trainin, | ofthe police force, the district. P. was placed under the ord he i k Febicc rhe province, e orders of the Inspector General of On the re-organization involving th i iti “Mik cere at he Mag ig the esneeie Positions of the magistrate and the police, B. B. | police functions, ceased to be direct police ai been mere exerutive oie ska | contol over police matter, and in addition athe but remained an executive officer with | criminal justice, which never had belonged ined judicial authority in the administration of _ sittin aderinoet el to his predecessor, the Mughal faujdar. District 861 and the Code of Criminal Procedure aen jena despotism. In fact, the Police Act of rowed ofexeto fengthened the position of the District) \g general control over the district police strate. This over-centralizati love lespotism at the district ri cf authority in one officiel Palsy | Magistrate (D.M.) by giving his f .M.) by giving hi | aswell as ovei subordinate mag be | the way for administrative d roe Scanned with CamScannerPHILOSOPHICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK OF GOVERNMENT 7 c Lu e a < = o Ea Philosophical and Constitutional Framework of Governme! © Constitutionalism Indian Constitutional Framework + Indian Constitutionalism in Theory i Indian Constitutionalism in Praxis # Political Culture Political Culture of India + Bureaueracy and Democracy Bureaucracy and Democracy: An Indian Perspective + Bureaucracy and Development + Buteaucracy and Development: An Indian Perspective Scanned with CamScannerwhich provides the Constitution as the supreme for a political arrangement where the f the state have been defined and we} - ationalism is the character of State, nx iting the state, It is an ideology which provides role, responsibilities and obligations ofthe varius org i i imitation . i oats i se is the idea, often associated with the political theories of John Locke con es” ofthe ‘American republic, and equated with the concept of regulatories, the a of tow that government can and should be legally limited in its powers, and that its authority Rae ea pafrcing thes imitations. There are norms creating legislative, executive and judicial powers icant limits on those powers. Often these limitations are powers but that these norms impose signi ose pol ; ; in the form of civil rights against government, rights to things like free expression, association, equality and due process of law. But constitutional limits come in a variety of forms. They can concern such things as the scope of authority (e.g., in a federal system, provincial or state governments may have authority over health‘care and education while the federal government's jurisdiction extends to national defence and transportation); the mechanisms used in exercising the relevant power (e.g. procedural requirements governing the form and manner of legislation); and ofcourse civil rights (e.g., in a Charter or Bill of Rights). Constitutionalism in this richer sense of the term is the idea that government can/should be limited in its powers and that its authority depends on its observing these limitations. Frederick, in order to explain the Constitutionalism, took the help of Constitution and Constitutional Government. Constitutional Government is a particular arrangement of the state in which the Constitution is considered supreme and there is no absolutism. Constitutionalism is a product of Constitutional Government. It is a political arrangement where the government is limited and the citizens enjoy limited rights. The government has obligations. Frederi i wallice Lae aay that the two extreme constructs (complete restraints or no restraints) extremes (some restra lo not exist in reality. In reality, it is somewhere in the middle of the two is Constitutional Governm actual government). The Government which is relatively more restraint According to him, ‘cate and the less restraint is considered to be unconstitutional one. followed characteristics ‘beeen isa al character of the state or the society. It has the and the G¢ State is regulated, the citizens enjoy their ri 5 ited rights ne jovernment has certain obligations to be fulfilled, rights (but limited rights) vernmentality j i F " which he te exercises contol ones et Michel Foul, and iter tthe We refers to th ver, or governs the body of its populace. Governmentality als le way in which authority, ike a sate op eae aught to govern themselves, shifting power from a cent therefore, be understood as how oor and dispersing it among a population. Governmentality ca” }oW conduct is shaped, making “the art of governing” and embodied Scanned with CamScannerChapter-2 : Philosophical and Constitutional Framework of Government (i experience. According to Foucault, Governmentality allows for the creation of “docile bodies” to be used in modern economic and political institutions. While governmentality can broadly focus on the process of governing individuals. Foucault was specifically interested in neo-liberalism as a form of governmentality, Neo-liberal governmentality was of particular interest to Foucault because of the way in which it involved individuals in the process of governing. Governmentality, approach to the study of power that emphasizes the governing of people’s conduct through positive means rather than the sovereign power to formulate the law. In contrast to a disciplinarian form of power, governmentality is generally associated with the willing participation of the governed. The concept of Governmentality takes the definition of government as the exercise of organized political power by a nation or state (see also nation-state) and expands it to include the active consent and willingness of individuals to participate in their own governance. It proposes that government by the state is the only one form of governing, that the terms ‘state’ and ‘government’ are not synonymous, and that actions taken by the state alone cannot bring about its desired ends. Indian Constitutional Framework The Constitution of India draws extensively from Western legal traditions in its outline of the principles of liberal democracy. It is distinguished from many Western constitutions, however, in its elaboration of principles reflecting the aspirations to end the inequities of traditional social relations and enhance the social welfare of the population. Adopted after some two and half years of deliberation by the Constituent Assembly that also acted as India’s first legislature, the constitution was put into effect on January 26, 1950. B. R. Ambedkar, a Dalit chaired the drafting committee of the constitution. Supporters of independent India’s founding father, Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi, backed measures that would form a decentralized polity with strong local administration—known as panchayati raj, that is rule by panchayats. However, the support of more modernist leaders, such as Jawaharlal Nehru, ultimately led to a parliamentary government and a federal system with a strong central government. Following a British parliamentary pattern, the constitution embodies the Fundamental Rights, which are very much similar to the United States Bill of Rights, and a Supreme Court similar to that of the United States. It creates a “sovereign democratic republic” called India, or Bharat (after the legendary king of the Mahabharata), which “shall be a Union of States.” India is a federal system in which residual powers of legislation remain with the central government, similar to that of Canada, The constitution provides detailed lists dividing up powers between central and state governments as in Australia, and it elaborates a set of Directive Principles of State Policy as does the Irish constitution. It may be concluded that the Indian Constitutional framework is based on the following (1) Blend of British and American systems and (2) Blend of revolutionary and evolutionary. Indian Constitutional framework is based on both British Parliamentary system and American Presidential Federal system. The Indian Constitution is primarily based on Westminster Model (British Parliamentary Model). Though Indian Constitution is based substantially on Westminster system, but itis not completely based on the model. Infact, itis a fine blend of both British Parliamentary system and American Presidential Federal system. Further, the Indian Model is not the 1* one. There are a number of White Commonwealth countries which adopted a mix of both British and American systems (Australia and Canada). Scanned with CamScanneree Ee pat ee Indian system has imprints of Br of oth, the executive and legislature 19 jdministration (Paper-ID) —___._J itish Parliamentary system. For instance, there is integration the Indian system, the executive remains in power til] it i yha) and there are two different heads - Head of the enjoys majority in he Femperet? “re Government: Prime Minister (de facto). However, a a nifests dissimilarities with the British system. Some of the pertinent examples Indian sytem an ment is supreme, whereas in India, the Constitution i the supreme; are inthe British system, en Constitution, whereas India has written Constitution; the British the Bish system hs eras India has federal systom. Meanie, the Indian parliamentary oien has unit ilies with American presidental system, Itean be mentioned tha boi gystem a pan systems have constitutional supremacy with judicial review. The judi can nullify or declare a law void ithe law is found either contravening oF not following the provisions of the Constitution. And both the countries have written Constitutions. Indian Constitutional framework is a blend of both revolutionary and evolutionary changes, ‘The Preamble of Indian Constitution is a revolutionary change — ‘We the people of India...” On the other hand, some of the important imprints from the past (that is British India system) reflecting evolutionary changes are the Government of India Act, 1909, Government of India Act, 1919, Government of India Act, 1935 and Government of India Act, 1947. Nevertheless, India did not unilaterally adopt the provisions from the British India system. There were wide consultations and discussions and the appropriate ones were adopted. Indian Constitutionalism in Theory ‘The concept of constitutionalism is that of a polity governed by or under a constitution that ordains essentially limjted government and rule of law as opposed to arbitrary authoritarian or totalitarian rule, Constitutional government, therefore, should necessarily be democratic government. Inother words, Constitutionalism is a political philosophy in which the functions of government of a state must be in accordance with the provisions of the constitution meaning, thereby the actions of government must reflect constitutionality. wetitea ? ‘Douglas Greenberg, Constitutionalism is acommitment to limitations on ordinary polieal powss toyd Nes around political process, one that overlaps with democracy in seeking folelecs tiers eta individual as well as collective rights, it draws on particular cultural and peor 1m which it emanates and it resides in public consciousness. One may understand 'an Constitution ensures limitations of the government through provisions of the Preamble, fundamental ri , a ‘al rights, checks and balances, judicial review, rule of law, and separation of First of all, th i itution li . i Preamble of Indian Constitution limits the government, “ WE, THE PEOPLE INDIA, havi secu eae solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST and polities, LIBERTY, Ger ELIC anda secure tall it citizens: JUSTICE, social, eonomi¢ and of opportunity ay «2 haUsht expression, belie, faith and worship; EQUALITY of stats individ and promote among them all, FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the twenty nh ayo No zy he Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, this THIS CONSTITUTI m the p and the legal soverei REBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES ION. From the preamble itself, iti ON. Er le itself, it “Deonia! i ‘any les wit te Coe geet lear that ‘People’ are the popular sovercis Scanned with CamScanner iBE OB ea Chapter-2 : Philosophical and Constitutional Framework of Government D3) Secondly, the Part III of the Indian Constitution provides for Fundamental Rights defined in Articles 12-35 to the citizens of the India, These rights provides the citizens and every person whose rights are infringed to approach Courts of Justice under Articles 32 (Supreme Court) and 226 (High Court), which shows that citizens also have some rights to protect themselves from the arbitrariness of government. And Directive Principles of state policy under Articles 36-51 connotes that these principles should be in consideration of government while framing of its policies to provide social and economic equality among people. However, it is expected that the citizens also contribute to nation. That’s why the Fundamental duties of citizens are also explained in Article- 51A which should be obeyed by every citizen of nation. In sum, the government has responsibility to the citizens and the citizens, in turn, have obligations to the government. Third, Judicial Review restricts the power of the government. However, this doctrine is not clearly stated in Indian Constitution but it reflected in Article 13(2). The doctrine was firstly introduced in 1803 by Justice Marshall in Marbury vs Madison(3) case. In USA, where he clearly said that ‘It is the duty of judge to annul the law made by the legislature, which violated the constitution or contrary to it. The similar spirit found in Article 13(2) of Indian Constitution that the laws “which are inconsistent to Part III of the Constitution shall be declared null and void”, but it is not clearly defined that if any contrary law made, then who will check its validity, then an answer comes into light in reference to Justice Marshall that Judiciary can check such contrary acts of legislature and also can review the laws made by legislature. In other words, the Legislature functions on the principles of legislative competence and it does not enjoy the absolute power. The power of the Legislature is neatly defined in Schedule VII of Indian Constitution. Therefore, it may be concluded that the jurisdiction of the Legislature is limited and restricted. And the judiciary is the guardian rather than custodian of the Indian Legislature. The judiciary has the power to scrutiny or review the laws made by the Legislature and declared either intra vires or ultra vires. Fourth provision is “Rule of Law”, on its basis spirit of constitutionalism can be present in a state. The essence of Rule of Law is embedded in Indian Constitution. The absence of arbitrary power on the part of government, which is undoubtedly present in the form of judicial review in which judiciary always look after the actions of other organs of government. The equality of all Persons in the eye of law is ensured through Article 14-18 of Indian Constitution with some reasonable restrictions. The rules of constitutional law are the results of the ordinary law of the Jand, which means the laws made by legislature must not be contrary to the provisions of constitution, otherwise it will be declared as null and void. In England, Rule of Law flourished sovereignty of legislature, being unwritten constitution there is no higher law to circumscribe the plenary powers of the sovereign legislature but in India, there is written constitution and the concept of judicial review also present, so the doctrine of Rule of Law cannot be assigned a paramount place. But to promote the spirit of constitutionalism, the shadow of this doctrine reflects in various provisions of Indian Constitution in the form of fundamental principles of natural justice. Fifth provision is the ‘separation of powers’ among the organs of the government, In India. under Article 245,246 and Schedule VI, there is a clear demarcation of legislative power among union and state government; under Articles 256-263 administrative relations are also clearly defined, and under Article 254 if there is any inconsistency between centre and state laws, then central lavs Prevails; under Article 264-291 fiscal relation between centre and state is given. Therefore, there is Arare chance of clash between union and states. In other words, the powers ofthe State and Union ‘sclearly demarcated, there is no space to use arbitrary powers over any subject. Generally, subjects Scanned with CamScanneryn (Paper-I) Public Administrat exis in Union list and those have regional importance vest ig wich have national mpOranc® Te arte establishment of unity and integrity in the majo, Siae list. And Concur at and the Union has jurisdiction over these subjects Finally, there 18 2 ‘dian Constitution has clearly defined and outlined the roles and powers gf Furthermore, the Indian Constitution mentioned about the roles ang icle 52-73 of Indian : the executive om lei geo President ofndia, similarly Article 74 —75 mentioned about the powers ofthe Pes ani of Ministers. The constitution ofthe Parliament fs defined unde roles and pows joned about the composition of the Council of i tution, Article 80 and 81 mentioned al fe 7 ee ot the House of people respectively. In short, the Constitution of India has ster imited the roles and powers of every institutions including President, Council of Minister, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. ‘One may conclude that there are ver ry detailed descriptions of powers of organs of government so that they can exercise their powers within the boundaries of constitution, thereby restricting the inlimited powers of the organs. These provisions protect the interest of individuals in the country In short, constitutionalism is undoubtedly present in India except that the doctrine of Rule of Law does not prevail in India as in England. Indian Constitutionalism in Practice thas been seen that constitutionalism is reflected in India through various provisions, such as preamble, rule of law, judicial review and separation of power. Now, one may try to understand whether constitutionalism exist in India in practice (or reality) by analyzing various facets of India, such as ideology, institutions, civil society and political culture. India is considered to be largest democratic country in the world. And the Preamble of Indian Constitution observed that to constitute India into Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic and Republic (words Socialist and Secular inserted by 42nd Constitutional Amendment, 1976). The big question is that whether the country is truly democratic, secular or socialist in practice. Atul He een pola ska observed that India is very suecessful in procedural democracy Kehas condoned Sad air election, supremacy of judiciary, elected legislature) but failed to “ nificantly in substantive democracy (such as equality, justice). All said and done, the lemocracy in the country is only six decades old. It is quite natural that it will tak i before the democracy in the country matures. stwalltake some time Secularism per se is an ideolo, secular state has a right to profess i liberty of faith and worship. From By which never believes in the state religion. Every citizen ina etgion of hisber own choice, which promotes automatically . ‘Sry beginning, India has been secular. In other words, the lependence. However, there are some elements of concer, Scanned with CamScannerChapter-2 : Philosophical and Constitutional Framework of Government By created modern and pan-Indian values among the Indians, These values have been well-integrated and adapted to modem democratic values. Furthermore, the freedom fighters have instilled the citizens with a sense of belongingness and oneness. All these strengthens constitutionalism in India. However, Fareed Zakharia came with the text called “The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad which highlighted the change in political values and characteristics in Indian democracy. He emphasized that there is increasing intolerance in the society and this is not due to corruption and maladministration, But today, people and political parties place more importance on primordial and exclusive interests. These divisive interests have created fissures in the society thereby increasing illiberalism both, at home and abroad. Finally, all these recent developments have threatened the constitutionalism and ushering biased and authoritarian systems. ‘The Indian political parties are categorized into two main types - National and state level ies. Some of the political parties have their origin from before India’s independence, for example, Indian National Congress, Forward Bloc, Akali Dal, National Conference. Some of political parties were either social or political organization before India’s independence and they became political parties after India’s independence. But many of the present parties were established after India's independence. India being multi-religious, ethnic, regions, caste, or culture, it has a variety of political parties representing the interests of various sections of the society. And the Indian political parties are source of ‘who is who’of India. In the initial phase after independence, the political parties operated with high ideals of democracy. Among them, most dominant party was Indian National Congress. Rajni Kothari remarked that the Indian Political system as ‘one party dominant system’. With time, the political system began to mature and a number of political parties emerged and gradually became powerful. The political parties, especially the regional parties began to promote their primordial interest, such as caste, religion and language, etc. All said and done, the emergence of numerous parties strengthens the constitutionalism in the country. In short, the diversity ensures checks and balances of various agendas of different political parties. In Indian politics, there are political parties in which one person pulls all the strings. This feature existed even before India’s independence, when Mahatma Gandhi was the father figure of the Indian National Congress until his death in 1948. Indira Gandhi for some period was in complete control of her party. Likewise Shiv Sena was dominated by late Bal Thakarey. This system of centralizing the power at one individual threatens the constitutionalism. Besides, the character of political parties has became undemocratic by 1970s and criminalization (through use of money and ‘muscle power) of political parties became a rampant feature in Indian politics thereby threatening the constitutionalism. ‘Although the political parties are categorized into left, centre and right, in reality the political Parties may be broadly categorized into ‘two— Centre Left and Centre Right. This results in restricted. diversity, which is not very conducive for constitutionalism. Civil society is the organized part of the society which carries opinion on various issues prevailing in the society. Robert Putnam through his studies emphasized on social capital approach. He believed that a society which has ‘vibrant and active ci I society ‘promotes and sustains democracy thereby strengthening the constitutionalism. In India, civil society has been present in the country from the very beginning, For instance, Central Social Welfare Board, established by Dr: Durgabai Deshmukh in early 1950s, has been engaged in bringing welfare of people. However, there is a Scanned with CamScanner—arlier, the civil society had smaller numbe, y were promoted 9 these organizations enjoyed lesser autonomy, as they rks. Best en. But subsequent 10 governanee apprench fom 1850, iyere supportedand funded DY ee ‘autonomous and vibrant. The emergence a my of civ oe si ei aspects of liberalization and globalization. This has enhanced ang ce : sei pconsunai inte cou in charity and Political culture may be defined as the political psychology of a country pen i ety hereof). In other words, itis “the set of attitudes, beliefS and sentiments which give onder and mae toa political process and which provide the underlying assumptions “- rules that govem behaviour in the political system.” It encompasses both, the political ideals and operating norms of a polity. Political culture is, thus, the manifestation in aggregate form of the psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A political culture is the product of both, the collective history of 4 political system and the life histories of the members of the system and thus, it is rooted equally in public events and private experience. In short, political culture is the subjective orientation of the people towards he political variables including structures (Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary), institutions (rules, laws, and constitution), values (socialism, liberalism, and federalism), political issues (terrorism, naxalism, food security). Factors Responsible for the Development of Political Culture “The Political Culture of nations is determined by various factors. They are: '¢ Historical” [Historical facts and truths have their own impacts on the general attitude, Factors beliefs, values and behaviours of the people of a country, For example, political continuity of India is due to the fact that the old values of its people have been allowed to emerge with i i people have rge with modem attitudes without any + Geographical Geographi fi iti Germ graphical factors also help to fashion the political culture of the people ta a Indian geographical situation is such that foreign invasions and) snpexaion were followed one after the others. As a result, there WaS 've influx of foreign races that stayed and settled here permanently. s That is why, there di | Tavis re developed the values of secularism or secular political The socio~ political xine re structure of a society is another determinant of its 4 tore conservative in wenn got ieties with peasant population tend to societies are slow. A itudes, beliefs and values. The changes in such complex society: The eee ommanlly urban industrialized society i88 educational standards on ete °F Fapid communication, high) making process may orp consciousness and participation in deci Thus, z 'y Provoke a change in political values and beli¢f SE TEBY DE Continuous development in political culture. Scanned with CamScanner CeChapter-2 {Philosophical and Constitutional Framework of Government oy Iis an important determinant of political culture. Political continuity Continuity results in unbroken sets of beliefs and attitudes. It is necessary to merge the older values with new attitudes. > Symbols In the development of political culture, symbols play an important role. National flag and national anthem, political rituals like ceremonial opening of parliament, religious rituals like coronation ceremonies , social rituals like observance of different martyrs day and many other symbols are constantly made use of to evoke people’s emotional attachment and reverence for the political system. Thus, a number of factors play an important role in the development of political culture of a nation. This, in tur, influences the political participation of the citizens. within their political syst Components of Political Culture Political culture is the pattern of individual attitudes orientations towards polities. It is composed of attitudes and orientations which people in a given society develop towards objects tem. These orientations have three distinct dimensions, which are as follows: + Cognitive Orientation Cognitive orientation refers to acquisition of knowledge and skills by individuals, which enable them to participate as members of a particular group. In context of political socialization, it refers to people’s knowledge about political objects, beliefS and familiarity with the working of the political system, + Affective Orientation ‘Affective orientation reflects emotions and feelings of the individuals towards the political system. It is related to the subjective feelings of attachment, disenchantment or alienation towards the political system and political issues confronting the nation, It also refers to the parameters which shape the attitude and judgement of people towards the political systems. « Evaluative Evaluative orientation encompasses the judgements and opinions of Orientation individuals about the political objects, which generally involve application of value standards to the political objects and phenomena. These components of political culture help to assess the level of political socialization in a particular society. Types of Political Culture ; — On the basis of participation level of citizens, the political culture can be classified into three types: * Parochial This type of political culture is characterized by low awareness, expectations Culture and participation of citizens.In this type the citizens do not possess a satisfactory level of cognitive orientation towards the political system. Societies characterized by this type of political culture neither expect anything postive from the government nor do they participate in polities because it is visualized as an elite domain, Scanned with CamScanner— ration (Paper-I) characterized by his ype of polit al cutie ow patiipation on the part of the citiey, and expectation Dut tive cognitive orientations only towards the outpy Inthis type the Ct ath em. This tends to be reflected in a citizens whg| aspect ofthe political Sr the government but they themselves are not bear po ye and om ees inclination for any kind of politica politically eta a eat culture is characterized by higher levels ot aver expectation and participation on the part of the oe a type the citizens have cognitive orientations towards both, the input 7 i ey asp of the political system. The societies, which possess such yp political culture, tend to have citizens with high expectations from government and high levels of participation in politics. This type of culture is central ~ to the principles and successful functioning of any democratic system, Public Admini igher level of awareney Thus, in parochial culture the citizens tend to be passive and do not take any part in ; the decision-making process. In subject political culture, the citizens perceive themselves as subjects of the government and notas participants in the political system of the nation. “ ‘In participant Political culture, the citizens actively participate in the politics of the country. The masses play a major role to influence the government. Participant political culture is the foundation of democratic system. The term “political culture” was first used by Gabriel Almond in “Comparative Political ‘System” which appeared in the Journal of Political System Vol. 18, 1956. Several others like Samuel Beer, Adam Ulams, Sidney Verba, Lucian Pye, Dennis Kavangh, etc., have been responsible for popularising it. Gradually, this term became popular and now it has come to stand as a very important touchstone for 2 morphological study of the political system. In the words of Almond and Powell, “Political culture is the pattern of individual attitudes and orientations towards politics among the members of a political system. Lucian Pye writes that “Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments of that give orders and meanins i : . ig t0 a political pro the underlying assumptions and rules that gover a process died that provide) i n behaviour in the politi es both, the political ideals and the operating norms of a polity, Pall hae ee maniistation in aggregate form of the psychological and subjective dimensions of politics” foun ae, ferba “Political culture is the subjective orientation to politics or the system cetion takes pees aeresive Symbols, and values which define the situation in which political son cemns edhe pat ar ir, uo ae oan or eee as Seecat for an understanding of the polieal eat ey festa yy the existen Sgee neues on net ; : ce of ethnic di 5 ; several ethnic groups or minorities which ive in the sosieng ees 84 tne conflicts amoo8 conchusic i clusion similar to that drawn by Aristotle. nce or mixture of these cultures, # Scanned with CamScannerChapter-2 : Philosophical and Constitutional Framework of Government (29) ‘They observed that “When we speak of the political culture of society, we refer to the political system as internalized in the cognitions, feelings, and evaluations or its population.” ‘Types of Political Culture and how it affects the political system: Almond and Verba: The Civie Culture Modal Attitude | Parochial Culture ‘Subject Culture |Participant Culture — ~people do not know — people know but |people know and act. and do not act. 'do not act. Support to Low: The support to the /High: There isa high | High: Similarto the subject| Government: | government is very low. support for government, culture in its recognition To what extent do} This case may be attributed| The citizens believe that and acceptance of the people support | to the unawareness of the | they belong to a legitimate] legitimacy of government. government? —_| existence of the central __|political system. Other __ | Thedifferenceisinthe major| government at all. For | loyalties exist but they are|belief in the role of masses| the remote tribesman instance |secondary after the loyaltyfin influencing the in Central Africa or Latin |to the state. |government. They usually America may have never approach the state as its known about the existence interest is compatible with| of the central government. their own individual interests. Trust in other | Low: Long social and — |High: There is more | High: Most people in political parties: | psychological distance with |trust to other groups in |society accept the same The feelings of | others. When citizens feel |society comparing to _ {rules for gaining and people toward | closer to their tribes, regions,|the parochial culture. _ transferring power other individuals | religions or ethnic groups, (through elections, for and groups. they do not acquire the sense| instance) and their loyalty| of the other social or ethnic| to the nation is more groups, the nation, the state] important than other | or the political system as such. specific group loyalties, | + __| This tendency of losing trust Be in others usually is nurtured by the cross-cutting cleavages and civil wars. For instance, -Would a Bosnian or Kosovian easily trust a Serb? Efficacy of one’s| Low: Along with the low |Low: The individuals |High: The level of |Fole in the support to government is the |have low sense of political efficacy is very [Political system: | low sense of efficacy. How efficacy. However, high. [Importance of | would individuals think individuals, still, do not individuals in the | about their ability to think that their partici |Political process? | influence a government that [pation would much matter ce of | they do not believe in its jor affect politics. They ae a > think that politics are made. a existence’ pyiteisltottirmunes Scanned with CamScannerferba’s edited volume, . Almond a culture in each of their subject countri ; redictable from the origi nal study, suagesting ic opinion, is never static. Critics of affect culture. The effective governance an\ that political culture, while morg The Civic Culture’also pointed out thay d economic policies of Wes made that country’s citizens embrace democracy, whereas Britain’s economic demonstrat little of which was prec durable than mere publi political structure oa any’s government a re may be chaotic, passi \d bearing on the administrat ties, The problem, again, is determining causality, lt ve, exclusive, non-participative, authoritarian ang ibs ae tion. It strengthens the constitutionalism of the absolutist. country or the society. Political Culture of India political culture includes not only the attitudes to the polities, politica! values, ideologies, national character and cultural ethos, but also the style, manner and substantive form of politics, The political culture of a people gives them an orientation towards their polity and its processes, Political culture is, thus, the manifestation in aggregate form of the psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A political culture is the produet of both the collective history of a political system and the life histories of the members of that system. The political culture of India is characterized by dualistic nature that is modern and traditional, elite and mass-folk; nationalism and regionalism. In fact, a number of scholars believe that there is no single politcal culture in India, Rather, there ae multiple political cultures in India, In other words, the political culture of India is not homogenous rather than heterogeneous. The contrasting political culture, say modern and traditional, elite and mass exist in confrontation as well as co-operation. | Pi political culture is also considered as defensive political culture. The elite political culture slain an outgrowth a Beilin pole culture. The British administration believed in i ; ., Tule of law, autonomy and supremacy of judiciary and separation of power. This very conceal of Bash salsa was accepted by limited population of india mile ipper class, educated and forward looking Indians. Howe: it i the paca Ai it . However, these ideas did not percolate to vos and ita Tie inytcruak reepatn eg Honk esd rural) cannot ideniy with hen culture which exists in confontation and oo onettina an es he mass has a folk poi n and co-operation with elite political culture. Igbal Narain found that it is i sal trae ema tak general perception of people that traditional and mass political ent and I people are more with their pri loyalty of the people towards the nation (or country). The Rajni Kothari came up wit 3 d i with the idea of saintly politi polities for achiceece? wi lea of saintly political cult i i of Gandhi, Baba Amte snd Ja; Benn not ad ethical objectives is fatily oliien Sie ats disabilities. During the day: Yan used politics to eradicate Untouchablity, poverty snd S of freed om struggle of the country, saintly political culture was P™™ Scanned with CamScannerChapter-2 : Philosophical and Constitutional Framework of Government dominant. The freedom fighters fought with high principles and ideals. Meanwhile, the politics has become an end in itself for some leaders. These leaders in the name of achieving higher moral and ethical goals use politics to achieve their personal goals. During post 1960s, this practice of unsaintly political culture has become rampant in India. Since the political culture decides the tone and tenor of administration, the unsaintly political culture mires the governance of the nation. However, it is encouraging to note that the practice of saintly political culture has increased remarkably in recent years. A number of civil societies including MKSS (Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan), Narmada Bachao Andolan, National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights have done commendable works in ensuring better governance in the country. Andre Beteille, sociologist observed that the political culture in India is ambivalent ~ confusing and irresponsive attitude. Most of the Indians have a tendency to be cynical towards the politics, people in politics and people with position of authorities. The common people blame these people (people in politics and authority) for failure and underdevelopment in society. On the other hand, the common people think that if at all something could be done to improve the society, then it is responsibility of these people at the helm of affairs to perform. Itis ironical that the common people don’t want to take up responsibility voluntarily but want to blame others. This irresponsible behaviour of the common people is a moral hazard for the country. However, Beteille believed that the administration can be effective if people in authority are sincere and honest. The common people should be participative and assertive. The common people should not shy away from their responsibilities rather they should participate voluntarily to ensure better governance in the society. In other words, Beteille emphasized in active participation of voluntary organizations (and civil societies). There has been rapid increase in the number of civil societies in India since 1990s, which is a welcome development as society with vibrant civil society and conducive for better administration and governance. The political culture of India, according to MP Singh, is pluralistic and multicultural. This pluralistic feature of Indian political culture flows from the following reasons ~ (1) Indian population has three major races ~ Aryan, Dravidian and Mongoloids. The remaining population is made of mixed races. (2) The vedic brahminic foundational world view and neo-Hinduvite movement co- exist in India. (3) The Hinduism and Islam co-exist in co-operation and confrontation. (4) The imprints of British colonial administration. And MP Singh believed that pluralistic political culture is healthy for effective administration. Almond and Verba had mentioned three types of political culture ~ parochial, subject and Participative. They observed that the political culture of various countries. They found that the Political culture of developed countries, such as US and UK is participative. And the participation fiom the citizens of these developed countries is very disciplined and civilized, They also found that the participation from citizens of developing countries is violent and vandalizing. The civilized and disciplined type of participation is referred as civic culture. Further, they found that Indian Political culture is participative in nature, But they believed thatthe participation is not very civilized and disciplined. Therefore, they advocated India should strive to achieve civic culture, The former editor of ‘The Hindu’, N. Ram wrote a text ‘Political India over Fifty Years’. He observed that a common man in India is very much aware of the politics. However, this same common man has very poor knowledge about the issues of the country, such as Torture Bill, Sexual Scanned with CamScanner