0.5 Functions and Their Figure A Fanti Graphs Section 0.5 Functions and Their Graphs 29 ‘The concept of function is one of the most basic in all mathematics, and it plays an indispensable role in calculus. Definition A function fis a rule of correspondence that associates with each object x in one set, called the domain, a single value f(x) from a second set.‘The set of all values so obtained is called the range of the function. (See Figure 1.) “Think of a function as a machine that takes as its input a value x and produces fan ouput f(x). (See Figure 2.) Each input value is matched with a single output value, It ean, however, happen that several different input values give the same urput valve, qT 1 ii PS 1) b itt Range Figure 2 Figure 3 ‘The definition puts no restrietion on the domain and range sets ‘The domain :ht consist of the set of people in your calculus class, the range the set of grades {A.B.C, D, F} that will be given, and the rule of correspondence the assignment of grades. Neary all functions you encounter in this book will be functions of one or more real numbers. For example, the function g might take a real number x and ‘square it, producing the real number 22. In this case we have a formula that gives the rule of correspondence, that is, g(x) = x4. A schematic diagram for this func- tion is shown in Figure 3. Function Notation A single letter like f (or g or F) is used to name a fune- tion. Then f(x), read “fof x" or “fat x." denotes the value that f assigns to x. Thus, it f(x) =~ 4, then fQ)=B-4 fa) =a 4 fla +h) = (a+ hy - Study the following examples carefully. Although some of these examples may look odd now, they will play an important role in Chapter 2. [EXAMPLE] For f(x) = x° - 2s, find and simplify (@) fa) &) fa +h) (© fd +h) ~ FA) @) Lid +m) ~ Faye @ + 30h + 3ah? + WP 4 SOLUTION (@) f(a) =# 2-4-8 (b) F4 +h) = 4 + AP 24 + A) = 16 + 8h + - 8 ~ 2h 8+ 6h +i (©) (4+ h) = f(4) = 8 + Oh += 8 = 6h EE f+) =f) _ oh + ne _ 6 +h) Oe a +h s30. Chapter 0 Preliminaries ayer eh Figure 4 Figure § Graphing Calculator ‘Remember, use your graphing ealeu- lator to reproduce the figures inthis book. Experiment with various graphing windows until you are convinced that you understand all important aspects of the graph. Domain and Range To specify a function completely, we must state, in addition to the rule of correspondence, the domain of the function. For example, if F is the function defined by F(x) =x? + 1 with domain {~1,0,1,2,3) (Figure 4), then the range is (1, 2,5, 10}. The rule of correspondence, together with the domain, determines the range. ‘When no domain is specified for a function, we assume that itis the largest set of real numbers for which the rule for the function makes sense. This is called the natural domain. Numbers that you should remember to exclude from the natural domain are those values that would cause division by zero or the square root of a nggative number. [EXAMPLE 2] Find the natural domains for (@) (3) = Ye -3) () (= Vo-F (©) tw) = 1 V9 = SOLUTION (a) We must exclude 3 from the domain because it would require division by zero. ‘Thus, the natural domain is {x x # 3). This may be read “the set of xs such that xis not equal 103." (b) To avoid the square root of a negative number, we must choose r so that 9~ FP = 0. Thus, ¢ must satisfy |i] = 3, The natural domain is therefore {lel < 3}, which we can write using interval notation as [~3, 3] () Now we must avoid division by zero and square roots of negative numbers so We must exclude ~3 and 3 from the natural domain, The natural domain is therefore the interval (—3,3). . ‘When the rule for a function is given by an equation of the form y = f(x), ‘we call x the independent variable and y the dependent variable. Any value in the domain may be substituted for the independent variable. Once selected, this value ‘of x completely determines the corresponding value of the dependent variable y. ‘The input for a function need not be a single real number. In many important applications, a function depends on more than one independent variable. For ex- ample, the amount A of a monthly car payment depends on the loan’s principal P, the rate of interest r, and the required number n of monthly payments. We could write such a function as (2 r,n). The value of A(16000, 0.07, 48), that is, the re {uited monthly payment to retire a $16,000 loan in 48 monthsat an annual interest rate of 7%, is $383.14, In this situation, there is no simple mathematical formula that gives the output A in terms of the input variables P.r,and n. 3] Let V(x; d) denote the volume of a eylindrical rod of length x . (See Figure 5.) Find (a) aformula for Vix, d) {(b) the domain and range of V (© Man) SOLUTION (a) Vixed) = wn($) = (b) Because the length and diameter of the rod must be positive, the domain is the set of all ordered pairs (x, d) where x > 0 and d > 0, Any positive volume is possible so the range is (0,00). wae 4 Chapters 1 through 11 will deal mostly with functions of a single independent variable. Beginning in Chapter 12, we will study properties of functions of two or ‘more independent variables. (©) (4,04) = 0.017 =Figure 6 Section 0. Functions and Their Graphs 31 Graphs of Functions When both the domain and range of a function are sets of real numbers, we can picture the function by drawing its graph on a coordinate plane. The graph of a funetion fis simply the graph of the equation y = f(x). Sketch the graphs of (a) fle) -2 (b) s(x) = /(x — 1) SOLUTION The natural domains of f and g are, respectively, all real numbers and all real numbers except 1. Following the procedure described in Section 0.4 (make a table of values, plot he corresponding points, connect these points with @ smooth curve), we obtain the two graphs shown in Figures 6and 7a, Figure 7 Pay special attention to the graph of g3 it points to an oversimplification that we have made and now need to correct. When connecting the plotted points hy a smooth curve, do not do so in a mechanical way that ignores special fea- tures that may be apparent from the formula for the function. In the case of s(x) = 2/(x — 1), Something dramatic happens as x nears 1. In fact, the values ‘of |g(x)| increase without bound; for example, g(0.99) = 2/(0.99 — 1) = —200 and (1.001) = 2000. We have indicated this by drawing a dashed vertical line, called an asymptote, at x = 1. As.x approaches 1, the graph gets closer and closer to this ine, though this line itset is not part of the graph. Rather. itis a guideline, Notice that the graph of g also has a horizontal asymptote, the x-axis. Functions like g(x) ~ 2/(x ~ 1) ean even cause problems when you graph them on a CAS. For example, Maple, when asked to plot g(x) = 2/(x ~ 1) over the domain [~4, 4] responded with the graph shown in Figure 7b. Computer Alge- bra Systems use an algorithm much like that described in Section 0.4: they choose a number of x-values over the stated domain, find the corresponding y-values, and plot these points with connecting lines, When Maple chose a number near 1, the re~ sulting output was large, leading to the y-axis scaling in the figure. Maple also con- nected the points right across tie break at x = 1, Always be cautious and careful ‘when you use a graphing calculator or a CAS to plot functions. ‘The domains and ranges for the functions fand g are shown in the table below. Funotion Domain Range fix) = all real numbers {yy = 2) a= text) tyey 40} Even and Odd Functions We can often predict the symmetries of the graph of a function by inspecting the formula for the function. If f(—x) = f(x) forall x, then the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis Such a function is called an32. Chapter 0 Preliminaries ‘even function, probably because a function that specifies f(x) as a sum of only even. powers ofxiseven.The function f(x) ~ x? ~ 2 (graphed in Figure 6) is even;so are Slee) = 3x8 = 2x4 + Lx? = 8, f(x) = 2/1 + x4), and f(x) = (x9 - 2x)/3x. If f(=x) = —F(x) for allx, the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin, ‘We cail such a function an odd funetion. A function that gives f(x) asa sum of only ‘odd powers of x is odd. Thus, g(x) = x° — 2x (graphed in Figure 8) is odd, Note that (ox) = (rx) = 2(-x) = ax) + 2x = -(49 = 22) = -g() Consider the function g(x) = 2/(x — 1) from Example 4, which we graphed in Figure 7. It is nei rioure8 er even nor odd. To see this, observe that g(—1) = 2/(-x ~ 1), which is not equal to either g(x) oF ~x(x). Note thatthe graph of y ~ g(x) isneither symmetric with respect tothe y-axis nor te origin. xo+3x , 1s $02) = SFE even, o, or neither? ¥ SOLUTION Since . (Hx) + 3(-x) ~(8 + 32) . FEN Oe ited ae ~#(x) + 1 (x)= 3-2) sx Fis an odd funetion. The graph of y = f(x) (Figure 9) is symmetric with respect to fs the origin. a ‘Two Special Functions Among the functions that will often be used as Figure 9 examples are two very special ones: the absolute value function, | |, and the greatest integer function, | J. They are defined by bas Gey -x ifr al ‘We must also exclude x = 3 from the domain of f° g because g(3) is not in the domain of f (It would cause division by 0.) Thus, the domain of f © g is [0,3] UG, -~). 7 In calculus, we will often need to take a given function and write it as the com- position of two simpler functions, Usually, this can be done in a number of ways. For example, p(x) = Vix? + 4.can be written as p(x) = g(fx)), where g(x) = VE and f(x) =? +4 P(x) = s(f(x)), where g(x) = Vx +4 and f(x) = (You should check that both of these compositions give p(x) = V2 > 4 with domain (—20, 20),) The decomposition p(x) = g(f(x)) with f(x) = x? + 4 and g(x) = Vais regarded as simpler and is usually preferred. We can therefore view pts) =-V/i +A ea thestparescorota function ote Thi way-at iookingat fos: tions will be important in Chapter 2. EXAMPLE 3] Write the function p(x) ~ (x + 2)* as a composite function eer SOLUTION The most obvious way to decompose p isto write p(x) = g(f(x)), where g(x) = x5 and ffx) =x +2 We thus view p(x) = (x + 2)° asthe fifth power ofa function of x. " ‘Translations Observing how a function is built up from simpler ones can be a big aid in graphing. We may ask this question: How are the graphs of He) y= Pe-3) yas) +2 vase related to each other? Consider f(x) = |x| as an example, The corresponding four ‘graphs are displayed in Figure 4. 3) +2 Figure 4 Notice that all four graphs have the same shape: the last three are just transla- tions of the first. Replacing x by x ~ 3 translates the graph 3 units to the right; adding 2 translates it upward by 2 units, ‘What happened with f(x) ~ |x is typical. Figure 5 offers an illustration for the function f(x) = 33 +2,38. Chapter 0 Preliminaries The const 2 “The dency Figure 10 vase yates Durr fF panes? aucrtieur Origin “Traslted | uit ‘Tans 2 unis ‘Translated 1 it eruph ‘oie own ef, 2units down Figure 5 Exacily the same principles apply in the general situation. They are illustrated in Figure 6 with both h and k positive. If h < 0, the translation is to the left; if ke <0, the translation is downward, he fe ie i yar vefie=M funek vase nek Original ‘ransied ‘Transl F ‘Transat nits pir nist height ‘it op ‘orheright sand units op Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 EXAMPLE] Sketch the graph of g(x) = Vr +3 +1 by first graphing f(x) = Vand then making appropriate translations. SOLUTION By translating the graph of f (Figure 7) 3 units left and 1 unit up, we obtain the graph of g (Figure 8). 2 Partial Catalog of Functions A function of the form f(x) = k, where kis constant (real number). called a constant function, Its graph is a horizontal line (Figure 9). The function f(x) = x is called the identity funetion. Its graph is a line through the origin having slope 1 (Figure 10). From these simple functions, we can build many important functions ‘Any function that can be obtained from the constant functions and the iden- tity function by use of the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication is called a polynomial function, This amounts to saying that fis a polynomial func tion if itis of the form FOR) = yx" dg axe + ae + agSection 0.6 Operations on Functions 39 Where the a's are real numbers and 1 is a nonnegative integer. If dy + 0, m is the degree of the polynomial function. In particular, f(x) = ax + b is'a first-degree polynomial function, or linear funetion, and f(x) bx +c is a second- degree polynomial function, or quadratie function. Quotients of polynomial functions are called rational functions, Thus, fis a rational function if its ofthe form + ax + a9 + + bx + by ‘The domain of a rational function consists of those real numbers for which the denominator is nonzero, ‘An explicit algebraic function is one that can be obtained from the constant functions and the identity function via the five operations of addition, subtraction, ‘multiplication, division and root extraction, Examples are (x + 2)vE B+ Ve-1 fl) =3P8=3V2 gx) = ‘The functions listed so far, together with the trigonomettic, inverse trigono- metric, exponential, and logarithmic functions (to be introduced later), are the basic raw materials for calculus Concepts Review A If f(x) =? + 1 then f(x) = 2, ‘The value of the composite function f * g atxis given by (Fe ae) = 3. Compared to the graph of y= f(x), the graph of f(x + 2) is translated units to the 4. A rational funtion is defined as Problem Set 0.6 1 For f(x 3 and g(x) = 2°, find each value (it possible) @) +82) ) (F810) (©) (s/f) OFea © eM © NS) jae FOr Fa) = 8 Vand ga) = 2/(0 1 3), find each @) = a2) U/sK © #6) @ Feo) ©) AD © (+88) 3. For (u) = w+ 1 and ¥(») = 1/2, find each value @) (@ +H) () (@e Wyn) (©) (Fs @r) (@ 2) ©) (@-¥(50) O (@-H- HO 4. IF f(x) = VPI and g(x) the following and state their domains @) Uae) (0) Fe) + eX) © (eas) @ (eA) 5. IF f(s) = VA and ee) = [I + te find formats for (f + g){x) and (g © f(x). G1 (x)= 28 +1, find formulas for g(x) and (e+ 2 a) (El) % Cateutate 23.141) if au) 2fx, find Formulas for Vat ee (ve 1 Caleuat «2.029 g(x) = Calculate [g"(x) — g(m)|'* if (a) = |11 - Tol. 9. Calculate [g"() ~ g(n)]!*it g(x) = 6x — 11. Al, Find fand gso that F = g « f. (See Example 3.) (@) Fy= Veet () Fay =F +9 12, Find fand gso that p = f° x @retiy (@) p(x) ©) po) Piie 13, Write p(x) = 1/VE Tas a composite of three fune- tions in wo different ways M4, Write p(x) =1/V FT as a composite of four functions 45, Sketch the graph of f(x) = Vie~2 ~ 3 by first sketch ing g(x) = Vx and then translating (See Example 4) 46, Sketch the graph of a(x) = [x + 3] — 4 by first sketeh- ‘ng h(x) = [| and then translating 47, Sketch the graph of f(x) =(x— 2)? 4 using translations. IB Sketch the graph of g(x) = (+1) 3 using translations. 19. Sketch the graphs of f(x) = (x — 3)/2 and g(x) = VE using the same coordinate axes. Then sketch f + g by adding s-t0ordinates,40. Chapter 0 Preliminaries 20, Follow the directions of Problem 19 for f(x) =x and ate) = Ia 2A. Sketch the graph of F(A) 2 Sketch the graph of G0) = ¢ - [i 28, State whether each ofthe following isan odd Function, an «even function oF nether, Prove your statements (a) The sum of two even functions (©) The sum of two odd functions (c) The product of two even functions (4) The product of two od functions (6) The product of an even function and an odd function 24, Let Fbe any function whose domain contains ~x when- ever itcontains x Prove each ofthe following. (2) P(x) ~ F(x) isan odd function (b) F(x) + F(~x) isan even funetion. (©) eam always be expressed as the sum of an odd and an even function. 25. Ts every polynomial of even degree an even function? Ts every polynomial of odd degree an odd function? Explain, 26, Classify cach of the following as a PP (polynomial fune- tion), RF (rational function but not a polynomial function) or neither. (@) fle) = 3? +4 @ say=3 © fis) =38 +2 @ fo © fo=y 0 ey -3 Vers 27, The relationship between the unit price P (in cents) for a certain product and the demand D (in thousands of units) ap- pears to satisfy p=VB-aD TO ‘On the other hand, the demand has risen over the # years since 1970 according to D = 2+ Vi. (a) Express P asa function of (b) Evaluate Pwhen ¢ = 15. 28, After being in business for f years, manufacturer of cars is making 120 + 2r + 37° units per year.The sales price in dollars per unit has risen according to the formula 6000 + 700, Write a formula for the manufacturer's yearly revenue R(#) after ¢ years 29, Starting at noon, airplane A flies due north at 400 miles per hour. Starting 1 hour later, airplane B flics due east at 300, miles per hour. Neglecting the eurvature of the Earth and assum- ing that they fly at the same altitude, find a formula for D(), the distance between the two airplanes f hours alter noon. Hint ‘There will be two formulas for D(Q), one if 0 < ¢-< 1 and the other if = 1 =) ©) 30. Find the distance between the airplanes of Problem 29 ‘at230 pm, Ds hat ft) = ved 31 Let f(x) = & + be # Vand x # ale Show that f(/(/(2))} = x, provided Find and simplify euch value @ syn ©) Se) ©) sO/e) BM Let f(s) = @ (2) 235, Prove that the operation of composition of function is assoiatvesthtis fi» Ga J) = Ui ei) * fo 3%. Let filx) =x, Alx)= Ix, fle) =1— x, file) = C1 ha) = (8 ~ Nand fla) = f(x ~ 1) Notetat HEM) ~ RYE = 2) = = ha) = fle = y= Fo fe fat, the composition of any two of these funetioy ante one ine Ii inthe corpation table in gure. Find and simpli. &) se) elalelalalala fi be fy fe fi & % Figure 11 "Then use this table to find each of the following. From Problem 35, you know that the associative law holds. @ hehehe heh O) hehehehe heh (© FilFefe= fh @ GilG= fe h=h ©) Hithe kee f Use «compar or a graphing caeulator in Problems 37-40 37, Let f(x) =x 3x. Using the same axes, draw the graphs of y = f(x).y = fx = 0.5) ~ 06, and y = f(1.5x), all ‘on the domain |~2,$ 238, Let f(x) = |). Using the same axes, draw the graphs of y= f{a).9 = f(3x), and y= f(3(x — 0.8), all on the domain [3.3] 38, Let f(x) = 2V¥~ 2x + 0.25x%, Using the same axes, draw the graphs of y= f(x).y=f(LS2), and y= ‘f(x — 1) + 05S.all on the domain {0, 40, Let f(x) = W(x? + 1). Using the same axes, draw the graphs of y = /(x), y= f(2x), and y = f(x = 2) +06, all on the domain [-4, 4]. G3) 41. Your computer algebra system (CAS) may alow the wse orparameters in defiuing functions In each cae, draw the graph of y= f(a) forthe specified values of the parameter fusing the same ates and ~$ == 5, (a) f(x) = |kxl"? for & = 1,2,0.5, and 0.2. (©) f(x) = |e — Al" for k = 0,2, -03, and ~3 (e) f(x) = |x\* for k = 04,07, 1, and 1.7. (}42.Using the same axes, draw the graph of f(x) = |k(x — ©)" for the following choices of parameters.(@) cm kee (©) 680k = 090 Trigonometric Functions we, aay sin = PE cong A = yp S89 isp Figure “The wit cirle Figure 2 Pas Figure 4 o7 06 “ Section 0.7 Trigonometric Functions 41 ned Answers to Concepts Review: 1.(x+ 1)° 2. fle(s)) 3.2:left 4,4 quotient of two polynomial functions You have probably seen the definitions of the trigonometric functions based on right triangles Figure | summarizes the definitions of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions. You should review Figure 1 carefully, because these concepts are needed for many applications later in this book. More generally, we define the trigonometric functions based on the unit circle, ‘The unit circle, which we denote by C, isthe circle with radius 1 and center at the origin: it has equation x? + y= 1. Let A be the point (1,0) and let be a positive number. There is a single point P on the circle C such that the distance, measured in the counterclockwise direction around the are AP, is equal to ¢. (See Figure 2.) Recall that the circumference of a circle with radius ris 2, so the circumference ‘of Cis 2x. Thus if = 2, then the point Pis exactly halfway around the circle from the point A: in this case, P is the point (1,0). If¢ = 31/2, then P is the point (0.=1), and if = 27, then Pis the point A.If¢ > 2m, then it will take more than ‘one complete circuit of the circle C to trace the are AP. When 1 < 0, we trace the eirele in a clockwise direction. There will be a single point P on the circle C such that the arc length measured in the clockwise direction from A is 1. Thus, for every real umber ¢, we can associate a unique point PL, y) on the unit circle, This allows us to make the key definitions of the sine and cosine functions.'The functions sine and cosine are written as sin and cos, rather than as a single letter such as for g. Parentheses around the independent variable are usu- ally omitted unless there is some ambiguity Definition Sine and Cosine Funct Let # be a real number that determines the point P(x, y) as indicated above, ‘Then sint=y and cos Basic Properties of Sine and Cosine A number of facts follow almost immediately from the definitions given above. First, since ran be any real number, the domain for both the sine and cosine functions is (~90, 20). Second, x and y are always between —1 and 1. Thus, the range for both the sine and cosine functions is the interval [—1, 1} Because the unit circle has circumference 27, the values f and 1 + 2a deter- mine the same point P(x»). Thus, sin(? + 2m) = sine and cos(t + 2m) = cost (Notice that parentheses are needed to make it clear that we mean sin( + 2), rather than (sin) + 2a."The expression sin r + 2a would be ambiguous.) ‘The points P, and P, that correspond to cand ~f, respectively, are symmetric about the x-axis (Figure 3). Thus, the x-coordinates for P, and Ps are the same, and the y-coordinates differ only in sign. Consequently, sin(-1) = -s int and cos(-1) = cose In other words sine is an odd function and cosine is an even function. ‘The points P, and P, corresponding to 1 and /2 — 1, respectively, are sym- ‘metric with respect to the line y = x and thus they have their coordinates inter- changed (Figure 4). This means that so(E=1) oot and on($—1) =n42. Chapter 0 Preliminaries Figure § 7 sine corr ° fi 1 a6 12 vap aA vip VaR as vse 12 af 1 0 af V3/2 12 aA VQ =V Sm/6 Tey -V3/2 Fe ° -1 Finally, we mention an important identity connecting the sine and cosine functions: sin’ + cost = 1 for every real number t. This identity follows from the fact that since the point (%,9) ison the unit eircle,x and y satisfy x? + y? = 1 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Tograph y = sin rand y = eos , we follow our usual procedure of making a table of values plotting the corresponding points and connecting these points witha smooth curve So far, however, we know the valtes of sine and cosine for only a few values of tA number of other values can be determined trom geometric arguments For example, i | 7/4 then ¢ determines the point half of the way counterclockwise around the unit circle between the points (1,0) and (0,1) By symmetry, x and y will be on the line y = x, soy = sin and 2x = cose will be equal. Thus, the two legs of the right triangle OP are equal, and the hypotenuse is 1 (Figure 5). The Pythagorean Theorem can be applied to give 12 +x? = cos + cost 4 “a Ftom this we conclude that cos(n/4) = 1/2 = -V2/2. Similarly, sin(a/4) = °V/2/2. We can determine sin rand cos tfor a number of other values of Some of these are shown in the table in the margin, Using these results, along with a num= ber of results from a calculator (in radian mode), we obtain the graphs shown in Figure 6. Figure 6 Four things are noticeable from these graphs: 1, Both sin rand cos ¢ range from ~1 to 1 2, Both graphs repeat themselves on adjacent intervals of length 27. 3. The graph of y= sins is symmetric about the origin, and y = cose is symmetric about the y-axis (Thus, the sine function is odd and the cosine function is even.) 4, The graph of y = to the right. in ris the same as that of y = cos 1, but translated 77/2 units ‘The next example deals with functions of the form sin(at) or eos(at), which ‘oceur frequently in applications. (MPLE 1] Sketch the graphs of (a) y= sin(2at) (b) y = cos(2t) SOLUTION (a) Ass goes from 0 to 1, the argument 277 goes from 0 to 2. Thus, the graph of this function will repeat itself on adjacent intervals of length 1. From the in the following table, we can sketch a graph of y = sin(2z7).Figure 7 Figure 8 Section 0.7 Trigonometric Functions 43 1 Sin) t Sin(2a) 0 2-0) = 0 4. sin(2n 0) ; 1 3 a a a A 4 5 e 1 a. 8 2 3 Figure 7 shows a sketch of the graph of y = sin(2z0). (b) As rgoes from 0 to 7, the argument 2 goes from 0 to 2x. Thus, the graph of y= cos(2t) will repeat itself on adjacent intervals of length 7. Once we con- struct a table we can sketch a plot of y = cos(2r). Figure 8 shows the graph. c0s(20) c0s(20) Period and Amplitude of the Trigonometric Functions A function f is periodie if there is a positive number p such that P(x + p) = fla) {for all real numbers x in the domain of f The smallest such positive number p is, called the period of f. The sine function is periodic because sin(x + 2m) = sin x for all x. Ttis also true that sin(x + 47) n(x — 2) = (x + 12m) = sin.x for all x. Thus, 4x,—2n, and 12m are all numbers p with the property sin(x + p) = sin x.’The period is defined to be the smallest such positive number p. For the sine function, the smallest positive p with the property that sin(x + p) = sinx is p — 2m. We therefore say that the sine function is periodic with period 27, The cosine function is also periodic with period 27. ‘The function sin (at) has period 2nra since sinla(« + 22) | = sinfar + 20 = sina) ‘The period of the function cos(at) is also 2n/a.44 Chapter 0 Preliminaries EXAMPEE 2] What are the periods of the following functions? (a) sin(2ar) (b) cos(21) (©) sin(2nt/12) SOLUTION (a) Because the function sin(221) is of the form sin(at) with a = 27, its period is (b) The function cos(2z) is of the form cos(at) with a = 2. Thus, the period of cos(21) is p 2m 2afi2 = (©) The function sin(2t/12) has period p If the periodic function f attains a minimum and a maximum, we define the amplitude A as half the vertical distance between the highest point and the lowest, point on the graph. [WEXAVIPEES] Find the amplitude of the folowing periodic functions. (a) sin(2ni/12) (b) 3.08 (2 (©) 50 +21 sin(2mi/12 + 3) SOLUTION (a) Since the range of the function sin(2t/12) is [-1, 1} its amplitude is A = 1. (b) The function 3 cos(2x) will take on values from ~3 (which occurs when roa Z2% ).The ampli- fade is therefore A = 3. 103 (which occurs when t = 0, a, 2m, (©) The function 21 sin(2at/12 + 3) takes on values from -21 to 21. Thus, 50 +21 sin(2nt/12+ 3) takes on values from 50-21=29 to 50 + 21 = 71.'The amplitude is therefore 21 7 In general, for a > Oand A > 0, C+ Asin(a(e + b)) and © +A cos(att + b)) have period and amplitude A. ‘Trigonometrie functions can be used to model a number of physical phenom- cena, including daily tide levels and yearly temperatures EXAMPLE 4] The normal high temperature for St. Louis, Missouri, ranges from 37°F for January 15 to 89°F for July 15, The normal high temperature follows, roughly a sinusoidal curve. (a) Find values of CA, a,and b such that T(t) = C + Asin(ale + b)) where expressed in month since January Is 2 reasonable model forthe normal hightemperature (b) Use hismadel to approximate the nonmal high temperature for May 15. SOLUTION (3) The gure function mast have period = 12 sings the seasons repeat every 12 months. Thus, = 12, so we have a= 4%. The amplitude is half the difference between the lowest and highest points; in this case,“Tenpertare ‘rnin Figure @ Madels and Modeling is important wo keep in mind that all modlels such as this are simplitiea- tions of reality. (That is why they are called models.) Although such mod- els are inherently simplifications of reality, many of them are still useful for prediction. Section 0.7 Trigonometric Functions 45 Aw 19 ~ 37)» 2th va of Cte he midpintt the loan 1 high temperatures, so C = (89 + 37) = 63. The function 7(¢) must there- forebeor he tom (0) = 63 + 26sin( 2+ 0)) ‘The only constant left to find is b. The lowest normal high temperature is 37, which occurs on January 15, roughly in the middle of January. Thus, our fune- tion must satisfy 7(1/2) = 37, and the function must reach its minimum of 37 when ¢ = 1/2, Figure 9 summarizes the information that we have so far. The function 63 + 26 sin(2r7t/12) reaches its minimum when 2at/12 = ~1/2, that is, when ¢=—3, We must therefore translate the curve defined by y= 63 + 26sin(2t/12) to the right by the amount 1/2 ~ (~3) = 7/2. In Section 0.6, we showed that replacing x with x ~ c translates the graph of y= f(x) to the right by ¢ units. Thus, in order to translate the graph of y= 63 + 26sin(271/12) to the right by 7/2 units, we must replace 1 with ¢— 7/2. Thus, ry =18 -2504(24(c-2)) Figure 10 shows a plot of the normal high temperature T'as a function of time 1. where fis given in months. § w. Ew. BS io rm Figure 10 (b) To estimate the normal high temperature for May 15, we substitute 1 = 4.5, (because the middle of May is four and one-half months into the year) and obtain T(45) = 63 + 26sin(2e(45 — 35)/12) = 76 The normal high temperature for St. Louis on May 15 is actually 75°F, Thus, ‘our model overprediets by 1°, which is remarkably accurate considering, how little information was given. 2 Four Other Trigonometric Functions We could get by with just the sine and cosine functions, but itis convenient to introduce four additional trigonomet- ric funetions: tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant. ne sine cost46 Chapter 0 Preliminaries ‘What we know about sine and cosine will automatically give us knowledge about these four new funetions, [EXAMPLES] Show that tangent is an odd function, SOLUTION sin(-1) _ -sine cos(=1) ~ cost EXAMPLE 6] Verify that the following are identities. tan(—r tan . Figure 11 Figure 12 Radians x6 mis ons sais 5x8 Dexrees 0 0 8 @ | xe 10 13s 150. 80, 30 a Figure 13, Figure 14 seer SOLUTION 1+ ta ume cos cost 1+ cor = 1+ = . sin? sin When we study the tangent function (Figure 11), we are in for two minor sur- prises, First, we notice that there are vertical asymptotes at 7/2, +377/2,....We should have anticipated this since cos ¢ = 0 at these values of r, which means that sin #/c0s ¢ would involve a division by zero, Second, it appears that the tangent is, periodic (which we expected), but with period a (which we might not have expect ed). You will see the analytic reason for this in Problem 33, Relation to Angle Trigonometry Angles are commonly measured either in degrees or in radians, One radian is by definition the angle corresponding to an are of length 1 on the unit circle, See Figure 12, The angle corresponding to a com- plete revolution measures 360°, but only 2nr radians Equivalently, a straight angle ‘measures 180" or a radians, fact worth remembering. 180 radians ~ 3,1415927 radians This leads to the results Lradian © 57.29578° 1° = 00174533 radian Figure 13 shows some other common conversions between degrees and radians. The division of a revolution into 360 partsis quite arbitrary (due to the ancient Babylonians, who liked multiples of 60).’The division into 2m parts is more tunda- ‘mental and lies behind the almost universal use of radian measure in calculus, Notice, in particular, that the length s of the arc cut off on a circle of radius r by a central angle of r radians satisfies (see Figure 14) nr That is, the fraction of the total circumference 2a corresponding to an angle tis the same as the fraction of the unit circle corresponding to the same angle f. This implies that s = rt ‘When r = 1, this gives s = f. This means that the length of the are on the unit circle cutoff by a eenural angle of t radians ist. This is correct even if ris negative, provided that we interpret length to be negative when measured in the clockwise direction. [EXAMPLE] Find the distance traveled by a bicycle with wheels of radius 30 centimeters witen the wheeistum through 100 revolutions,‘Another View ‘We have hased our discussion of trigonometry ‘on the unit circle, We could as well have used a circle of radius 7 aay, "Then sno =2 cos = Section 0.7 Trigonometric Functions 47 SOLUTION We use the fact that srt, recognizing that 100 revolutions ‘correspond to 100+ (277) radians. (30)(100}(2m) = 60007 = 18,849.6 centimeters = 1885 meters a Now we can make the connection between angle trigonometry and unit circle trigonometry. If is an angle measuring fradians, that ii isan angle that cuts off an are of length ¢ from the unit circle, then sin@ = sins cos = cost In calculus, when we meet an angle measured in degrees, we almost always change it to radians before doing any calculations. For example, n3L.er sn(s1 List of Important Identities We will not take space to verify all the follow- ing identities. We simply assert their truth and suggest that most of them will be needed somewhere in this book. Trigonometric Identities ‘The following are true for all x and y, provided that both sides are defined at the chosen x and cos(—x) = cos x tan(—x) = ~tanx enti Addition identities Pythagorean sin? x + cost x sin(x + y) = sin.xc0s y + cos xin y 1+ tan? x= see? c08(x + y) = e0s x-e0s y sin xsin y tan + tan y eel Pe T= tanxtany tan(x + y) = Doubl igle identities sin 2x = 2sin x cos x cos 2x = cos! x ~ sin? x48 Chapter 0 Preliminaries Product identities sinxsiny = —Heos(x + y) ~ cos(x ~ y)] cos x cos y = 3feos(x + y) + cos(x — y)] sin x eos y = 3[sin(x + y) + sin(x ~ y)] Concepts Review 4, The matural domain of the sine function is _sits range 2. The period of the cosine function is ____; the period of the sine function is; the period of the Tangent function is 3, Since sin(—x) = —sin., the'sine function is __, and since ¢0s(—x) = e08 r, the eosine funetion is, 4, IF (4,3) lies on the terminal side of an angle # whose vertex is atthe origin and initial side is along the positive x-axis, then eos 6 = Problem Set 0.7 1, Convert the following degree measures to radians (leave sin your answer), (@) 30° (b) 48° (©) -6or (a) 240° fe) -10" © 10° 2 Convert the following radian measures to degrees Od (b) 7 47 @) Se fe) —a © an [E] 3 Convert the following degree measures to radians (1° = 9/180 = 17453 x 10° radian) (@) 333° ©) 46 (© 66.06" (@) 240." fe) —369" @ ow 4. Convert the following radian measures to degrees (Lradian = 180/n ~ 57.296 degrees), (@) 341 (b) 628 (©) 500 (@) 0.001 fo) 01 (© 360 IE] 8, Caleulae (be sure that your ealeulator is in radian or de- sree mode as needed) Soa wan 42° Stan 213° in © Gas + cot 235" (©) tn0.4s2 (®) sin(-0361) 6. Calculate. 234.1 sin 156 2ost + Va @ ae (©) sin?251 + Veos 0ST 7. Caleulate 563 tan 42" sina o Sar i (aarti) 8. Verify the values of sin ¢ and cos rin the table used to con struct Figure 6. 9, Evaluate without using a calculator. a ae (o) tan (b) ser ©) @ ced @) cor 0 wn(-2) 10, Evaluate without using a caleulator. core oa me © omls) 0 (3) AL. Verify that the following are identities (See Example 6). @ eet (@) (1+ sin 2)(1 = sin z) = wee (b) (seer ~ 1)(seer + 1) = tan? (6) seer — sin tan = cosy @ - (6) sin 4x = 8 sin xcos* x — 4 sin xcos x Hint: Use a double- (d) (1 + cos @)(1 — cos é) = sin? @ (b) (1 = eos! x)(1 + cot? x) = 1 (¢) sin ¢(ese t — sin ¢) = cos? (a) sintw + 1 leesee -1 Oar ect 14, Sketch the graphs of the folowing on [= 20] (a) y= sim 2x oy @» © yo eo(x-2) 45, Sketch the graphs of the following on [-, 2x] @y =(yo eo(e 2) Determine the period, amplitude, and shifts (oth horizontal and vertical) and draw a graph over the interval ~$ = x = for the Junctions listed in Problems 16-23. (©) y= cost 3cos 5 = ah y= Daiwae th ys tane w y=2sder2s oy eels) Mh, y= 2 + Tain(Oe +3) cos(x-%)—1 28, y=tn(2x-2) 24, Which of the following represent the same graph? Check ‘your result analytically using trigonometric identities. sin(x + 3) ) y= eos(x+ $) =sinfe +) ( y= ole =) (0 y= cos(x- 2) w rom(e-) 25. Which of the following are odd functions? Even func- tions? Neither? (a) tsine, (b) sin? (©) eset (d) sine (e) sin (cos) () x + sin x 26. Which of the following are odd funetons? Even fune- tions? Neither? (a) courting @ Vi Days @ oy (©) y= -sin'a ~ x) (@) y= -cos(@ — x) () sine (©) cos (sin) (©) seer @ 2 +sinx Find the exact values in Problems 27-31. Hint: Halfvangle identi- ties may be helpful 2. coe 28, sin? 29. sind w. coe 3h sine ‘32, Find identities analogous to the addition identities for each expression, (a) sinx—y) ——_(B) eos — y) (©) tan(x— y) ‘38, Use the addition identity for the tangent to show that tan(e-+ ) = tan forall rin the domain of tan 34. Show that cos(x ~ =) = ~e08 x forall x Suppose that a tire on a tuck has an outer radius of 2.5 feet. How many revolutions per minute does the tire make when the truck is traveling 60 miles per hour 36, How far does & wheel of radius 2 feet roll along level ground in making 150 revolutions? 7. A belt passes around two wheels as shown in Figure 15, How many revolutions per second does the small whee! make when the large wheel makes 21 revolutions per second? Section 0.7 Trigonometric Functions 49 a sin Figure 15 34 ‘The angle ofincination of tne the smallest positive angle from the positive ans tothe line (a = 0 fr a horizontal Tine). Show thatthe slope m ofthe line equal to tan a. 39. Find the angle of inclination ofthe following lines (see Problem 38). @ y=Vie-7 () Vir +3y=6 48, Let; and (be two nonverial intersecting tines with slopes mand mm, respectively C0, the angle rom € to isnot Aight angle. then OT mim ‘Show this using the fact that @ = @ ~ 0, in Figure 16, Figure 16 (E144, Find the angle Gin radians) from the fis ine tothe see- cond (see Problem 40}. (@) y= Ixy = 3 ) y= (@) 2x ~ 6y = 12.28 + 42, Derive the formula A = £°r or the area of a sector of a circle, Here r is the radius and is the radian measure of the ‘central angle (see Figure 17). Coy Figure 17, 0 Figure 18 “43, Find the aie of the seotor ofa citele of radius 5 eentime- ters and central angle 2 radians (see Problem 42). 44, A regular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle of ra dius r, Find formulas for the perimeter, P, and area, A, of the polygon in terms of» and r.50 Chapter 0 Preliminaries 48. An isoscoles triangle is topped by a semicircle, as shown in Figure 18. Find a formula for the area 4 of the whole figure in terms ofthe side length rand angle ¢ (radians). (We say that A is ‘function of the two independent variables rand.) 46, From a product identity, we obtain efor tH) vm) Find the corresponding sum of cosines for 0s # cos $ cos * cos Do youseea generalization? 47, The normal high temperature for Las Vegas Nevada. is 58°F for January 15 and 105° for July 15. Assuming tha these are the extreme high and low temperatutes fr the year, use this information to approximate the average high temperature for November 15. 48, Tides are often measured by arbitrary height markings at some location, Suppose that a high tide occurs at noon when the water level i at 12 fect. Six hours later, alow tide with a water level of 5 feet occurs and by midnight another high tide with @ water level of 12 feet occurs. Assuming that the water level is periodic, use this information to find @ formula that gives the ‘water level asa function of time. Then use this function 19 ap- proximate the water level at 5:30 rt 3] 49. Cireular motion ean be modeled by using the para~ metric representations of the form x(t) = sin and y(0) ~ eos (A parametric representation means that a variable, i this ese determines both (2) and y(9.) This wll give the fll czele for 0 = 1 = 2p. Ifwe consider a 4-footdiameter whee! making one complete rotation clockwise once every 10 seconds, show that the ‘motion of a point on the sim of the wheel ean be represented by (0) = 2sin(a/5) and y(4) = 2eos(at/S) (a) Find the postions ofthe point on the rim ofthe wheel when 2seconds, 6 seconds, and 10 seconds. Where was this point when the wheel started to rotate ate = 0? (©) How will the formulas giving the motion ofthe point change ifthe wheel is rotating counterclockwise (€) Atwhat value of ris the point at (2,0) for the first ime? A 50, The circular frequency v of oscil Qn sven by v = <=, What happens when you add two motions jon of w point is that have the same frequency or period? To investigate, we ean graph the functions y(¢) = 2 sin(t/5) and y(0) = sin(a/S) + .cos(1/5) and look for similarities. Armed with this information, ‘we cam investigate by graphing the following functions over the interval [~5, 5} (a) y(t) = Bsin(mt/) ~ 5 cost t/5) + 2sin((nt/S) ~ 3) (b) vie) = 3cos(art/S — 2) + cos(amt/S) + cos((=rt/5) ~ 3) 1. We now explore the relationship between A sin(r) + Beos(or) and Csin(et + 6), (a) By expanding sin(or +4) using the sum of the angles formula, show that the two expressions are equivalent if A= Coos band B = Csin (®) Consequently, show that A® + B* = C® and that @ then saltisfes the equation tan (6) Generalize your result to state a proposition about A, sin(wt + 6,) + Arsin(ae + 62) + Aysin(ar + 5) (2) Write an essay, in your own words, that expresses the impor- tance of the identity between A sin(w) + Beos(at) and Csin(wot + 4). Be sure to note that |C] = max(|l, |B) and that the identity holds only when you are forming a lin- ear combination (adding and/or subtracting multiples of sit le powers) of sine and cosine of the same frequency. Trigonometric functions that have high frequencies pose spe- ial problems for graphing. We now explore how 10 plot such functions. (5ls2, Graph the fimtion f(x) = sn SOx using the: window sven by a y range of -1:5-< y= 15 and the x ange given by (a) [-15.15} (6) [-10, 10] (©) [-8.8) @ (ta) (e) (025.025) Indicate bretly which xwindow shows the true behavior of the function, and discuss reasons why the other sewindows ive resus that look different ss, Graph the function f(x) = cos.x + sn Sox using the windows given by the following ranges of and y. (@) S=xs5-1eye1 () Tsxstossysis (© ~01=x=0109=y=14 Indicate briely which (,y)-window shows the true behavior of the fneton, and discuss seasons why the other (x, 3)-vindows give results that look diferent. In this ase, is it trae that only one ‘vindow gives the important behavior, or do we need more than fone window to graphically communicate the behavior of this function? oa us EBSA, Let f(x) = 35 and g(x) = jpjs0st 002). (2), Use functional composition to form h(x) = (f » g(x). as well as (x) = (8 Fa): (©) Find the appropriate window ox windows that give a clear picture of hx). (©) Find the appropriate window or windows that give a clear picture of x). 15, Suppose that continuous function i periodic with peri ‘od 1 and is linear between (and 0:25 and linear between ~0.75 and 0. In addition, it has the value 1 at O and 2 at 0.25, Sketch the funetion over the domain [1,1], and give «piecewise definition ‘ofthe function, 6, Suppose thats continuous function is periodic with per ‘0d 2 and is quadratie between ~0.25 and 0.25 and incar between 1.75 and ~0.25, In addition, it has the value 0 at 0 and 0.0625 at 40.28. Sketch the function over the domain [=2,2], and give piecewise definition ofthe funtion. Answers to Concepts Review: (50, 50): [-1,]] 22ms2eim Zoddeven 4-4/50.8 Chapter Review Concepts Test Respond with true or false to each of the following assertions. Be prepared to justify your answer Normally, this means that you should supply a reason if you answer true and provide a counter- ‘example if you answer fae 1. Any number that can be written as a fraction p/a is rational 2. ‘The difference of any two rational numbers is rational, 3. The difference of any two irrational numbers is irational. 4, Between two distinct irrational numbers there is always another irrational number. 5. 0.999... (repeating 95) is less than L 6, The operation of exponentiation is commutative; that is, (any = (wey 7. The operation * defined by mtn = mii associa 8. The inequalities x = y, y= =, and 2 = x together imply thats = y =z 9. Tix] 1/b. 12. Its possible fortwo closed intervals to have exactly one point in common, 13, If two open intervals have a point in common, then they have infinitely many points in common 44. Hx <0, then VP 4S, Ix isa real number, then |-x| 16. Ifo] < [pl then x < y 47. If |x| < ly), then x* < y 18, Lf.x and y are both negative, then |x + 9! 1 19, tll < Lthen l a 2. Arle > A. then. 21, Irisalways true that llx| ~|p|| = lx + yl 22, For every positive real number y, there exists real num- ber: such that x = y. 23, For every real number y, there exist areal number x such that x= 24, tis possible to have an inequality whose solution set con- sist of exactly one number. 28, The equation x? + for every real number a 26, ‘The equation x2 + forall real numbers & b,c. ax + y= 0 represents a ciscle ax + by represents a circle 27. If (a,b) ison a line with slope 4 also on that Fine. hen (a +4, + 3) is Section 0.8 Chapter Review 51 28. IE (a, B). (6 A) and (ef) are on the same Tine, then oat pap 7 Fa oid aM toe points are ferent, 29, If ab > 0, then (a, b) lies in either the first or third ‘quadrant 30. For every e > 0, there exists « positive number x such thaty b @ let ils2 27, Find the equation of the circle with diameter AB it A= (2,0) and B= (10,4), 3. Find the center and radius of the circle with equation yh Br + oy =O, 28, Find the distance between the centers ofthe circles with equations oD tye 2y=2 and a+ 6x + ye dy= 7 ‘30, Find the equation of the line through the indicated point that is parallel tothe indicated line, and sketch both lines, @ G2: ) (1-1: ©) (SMey= 10 @) (3.4): 3A, Write the equation of the line through (—2, 1) that (a) goes through (7,3); (®) is parallel © 34 ~ (6) isperpendicular to 3x + 4y = 9; (@) is perpendicular to y = (e) has yrintercept 3 32, Show that (2,—1), (5,3), and (11, 11) are on the same tine ebay =6 jet 233, Figure I can be represented by which equation? @ ya @) r= @ ya @x=¥ . Figure 2 can be represented by which equation? @s with a > 0,6 > O,and e > 0 OO) with a <0,b > Q.ande > 0 © with a <0,b > Q,ande <0 @ with a > 0,6 > O,ande <0Figure 1 Figure 2 {In Problems 38-38, seth he graph ofeach equation. 383y —4n = 6 36-2 + y= Bsn. y= e+2 Ge x= 5 TEl9, Find the points of intersection of the graphs of yes —2e+ dandy —2=4 40, Among all lines perpendicular to 4x ~ y= 2, find the ‘equation of the one that, together with the positive x- und y-axes, forms. triangle of area &. 41, For f(x) = 1/(x+1)—Ifx. find each value (if possible) @ @ se-1) 4-3 © #2) 42, For g(x) = (x + 1)/s find and simply each value (@ 5 () (2) s2+M—s0) os © #1) 48, Describe the natural domain of each function, @) f= () a) = Va 44, Which ofthe following functions are odd? Even? Neither ‘even nor odd? @ se) (6) gtx) = lsinxl + cos.x @ eay= 7h (© Ay isa Section 0.8 Chapter Review 53 45, Skeich the graph of each function. @ As) 2-1 el (b) gx) = it0sx=2 x ifr>2 © Als) = {e 46, Suppose that fis an even function satisfying f(x) = 1+ VE for x= 0. Sketch the guph of f for dees 47, An open box is made by cutting squares of side x inches from the four corners of a sheet of cardboard 24 inches by 32 inches and then turning up the sides. Express the volume V(x) in terms of x: What isthe domain for this function? 48, Let f(x) = x — t/vand g(x) = x2 + 1. Find each value @) UF +82) (0) U8) © U8) @ (ee N2) © FEY) © PQ) + #2) 49, Sketch the graph of euch of the following, making use of (b) y= ie + 2P 1+He+ 2) 50, Let f(x) = Vi6 — x and g(x ‘of each ofthe following? ws fe Os SL Write F(x) = Vit sin®x as the composite of four functions, f+ g 2 he k. 52, Calculate cach of the following without using a calculator. What isthe domain (osnse oo © e(=22) 4, Uisind = O8 and cos ¢< 0 find each ve (a) sin(-2) {b) cost (c) sin 2¢ () ne @ (Zs) © sine +o S54, Writsn vin wan of sin Hine 3¢ = 20 + « 85, A fly sits on the rim of a wheel spinning at the rate of 20 revolutions per minute. Ifthe radius of the wheel is 9 inches, how far does the fly travel in I sccond?