CHAPTER Destructive Testing Contents intent eet ae aca areca aed a eee ‘Tensile Testing f : 131 Hardness Testing... 136 ‘Toughness Testing 139 Soundness Testing... i: eee eee an aatn aa. Destructive Tests for Chemical Properties... coeerene — 149 Metallographie Testing ....nnsnm sumenmnenininenininaneninnnnnmmmmnmnnenennnnne Metric Conversions. 151 Review—Chapter 8—Destructive Testing. ..0:onuinmuinmnininnnnnninnnnnnnnnninnnnnnnen IT 129(CHAPTER @DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Chapter 8—Destructive Testing Introduction la Chapter 7, many of the important properties of met- als were discussed in detail. Once itis recognized that these properties may be important to the suitability of a metal ora weld, it then becomes important to determine the actaal values for those properties. That is, the designer would now lke to assign a number to each ofthese impor tant properties so that the designer could effectively design ‘a srverure using materials with the desired characterises. ‘As discussed in Chapter 6, numerous tests exist that are used to determine the various mechanical and chemi- cal properties of metals. While some ofthese tests provide values for more than one property, most are designed t0 determine the value ofa specific characteristic ofthe met Therefore, it may he necessary to perforin several i= ferent fests to determine al the desired information (see Figure 8.). T's important to understand each ofthese tests, the re sults they provide, and how to determine if the results are in compliance with specification requirements Itmay also HARONESS TEST be helpful for the welding inspector fo understand some of the methods used in testing, even though the inspector ‘may not be directly involved with the actual testing, ‘AS a group, these tests are referred to as destructive, because generally the test piece is rendered useless for service once the test has been performed. Typically the technician will destroy, ofall, the material (o leam how it behaves in resisting failure. Some of these tests are also referred to as destructive tests, even though they do not ruin the part to the extent it cannot he used (e.g, hard ness testing). However, that depends on the shape, size, and requited surface condition of the part and its end use. ‘Throughout this discussion, little mention will be made about whether a specific destructive test is being, used to determine a base metal or weld! metal property. For the most part, this does not represent a significant ‘change in the manner in which the test is performed. There will be occasion when testing is performed specifically to test the base or weld metal, but the mechanics of the testing operation will vary lite, if at al. IMPAOT TEST TENSILETEST Figure 8.1—Inspectors Must Be Able to Interpret Data from a Variety of Tests 130AAs these various methods are discussed, it is impor- tant to relate the actual test method with the appropriate material property(ies) In that way, it will be easier to un- derstand and relate the values determined from the test ‘with the properties that they describe, ‘The results of destructive testing are often indicated (on Mill Test Reports. An inspector may be required to ‘compare the Mill Test Report values with the applicable ‘material specification to determine conformance. Conse- quently, the following discussion should enable the in- spector to understand the information appearing on a typical Mill Test Report. Tensile Testing The fist destrctve test method o be discussed wil be the tensile test. Tis one test provides us witha reat amount of information about a meal. Some properties that ca be determined result of tensile testing include + Ultimate Tensile Strength Yield Stengin > Dectity 2 Pereent Elongation 5 Percent Reduction of Area Some of these values can be determined through a direct reading of a gauge, while others can be quantified only after analysis of the stress-strain diagram that is pro- duced during the test. The values for ductility can be found by making comparative measurements ofthe tensile spec- imen before and after testing. The percentage of that dif- ference indicates the amount of ductility present. Attimes, the sole purpose of the tensile test will be 10 determine whether the weld zone performs as well as the base metal, ll that is necessary for such an evaluation is removal of « specimen (sometimes referred to as a strap) transverse to the longitudinal axis of the weld. The weld is roughly centered in the specimen. The two sides should be cut parallel using a saw or cutting flame, but no further surface treatment (such as removing any exist= ing weld reinforcement) is needed, This approsch is used for procedure and welder quali fication testing, in accordance with API 1104, Standard BI (CHAPTER @—DESTRUCTIVE TESTING for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities, which de- scribes a successful tensile test as one that has a speci- men that fails either: (A) In the base metal, or (2) In the weld metal (as long as it fails at some strength level above the specified base metal strength). In most cases that require a tensile test, however, there is a need to determine the actual values for strength and. other properties exhibited by that metal, not just deter- mining whether the weld is as strong as the base metal. ‘When the determination of these values is necessary, the specimen must he prepared in a configuration that pro- vides a reduced section near the center of the length of the specimen. This reduced section is intended to localize the failure. Otherwise, the failure might tend to occur preferentially near the tensile test machine grips, making the measure ‘ments for percent elongation extremely difficult. Also, this reduced section results in increased uniformity of the stresses throughout the cross section ofthe specimen, To obtain valid results, the reduced section must ex- hibit the following three features: (1) The entire length of the reduced section must be ‘of a uniform cross section. (2) The cross section should be of a configuration that, ccan be easily measured so that a cross-sectional area can be calculated. G) The surfaces of the reduced section should be free of surface irregularities, especially if they are aligned perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen and the applied stress. For these reasons, and considering the actual mechan- ies of preparing a specimen, the two most common cross- sectional configurations for tensile specimens are circular and rectangular, Both are readily prepared and measured (see Figures 8.2 and 8.3). If required to perform a tensile tes, the welding in- spector may have to calculate the actual cross-sectional area of the reduced section of the tensile specimen. Ex- amples 1 and 2 show the calculations for both common cross sections as follows: Example 1: Area of a Circular Cross Section Diameter (a) = 0.505 in. Radius (r) = d/2 = 0.2525 in Area (A) =n ore = 4 1416 (0.2525)? 1416 (0.5051CHAPTER 6-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NOTE 9) Dimensions in inches Saad Specimen Sai Se Species Popova a Standard Nonins Daal @s00% Rom 0.3601. Found d2s0in Round —Gaoe nh 7.000 20.005 7400 = 0508 ‘0000008 Diane Not 1) 0200 20010 360 20.007 280 20008 as ot, in 38 ue a6 4 Lenght ete eton ava 10 ha Dimensions itis worsen por ASTME 6M) Tard Specimen Sret-zaSyecears Proprio Sand Nominal art 125 mm Roun ee e—Gegeierah 25203 50201 300204 —Diametr Neto). 128-02 do201 aso em 0 ° ° Aclanghrotaedsn rm eS i 2 oe oes: educed section may have a gradual taper from the ends toward the center, withthe end not more than one percent larger in ameter than tha saat (controfing dimension). 2, li doated’ the length ofthe rodused secon may be Increased lo aocommadate an extensometer of any convenient gage length. FRotorence marks fr tne measutementofalongation should be spaced at he indicated gags length 43, The gage angin and tet shat be as shown, but the ens may Be of any form to ft the Rolders ofthe testing macrine in such a way Te mer Tl be axa. fe ends ave to bo hold in wedge gFps, is desrable I possible, to make the length of me grip section {reat enough fo alow tne specimen fo extend into the g'ips a cstance equa te two-thirds or more of the length ofthe 0s Figure 8.2—Round Tensile Specimens 132(CHAPTER 6DESTRUCTIVE TESTING MACHINE WELD REINFORCEMENT FLUSH WITH BASE METAL ‘THESE EDGES MAY BE THERMAL CUT A 4 in (6 mm) pee }-———. 6GR SPECIMEN EDGE OF WIDEST FACE OF WELD MACHINE THE MINIMUM AMOUNT NEEDED TO OBTAIN PLANE PARALLEL FACES OVER THE REDUCED SECTION Dimensions in inches (mn) ‘Test Pate (Note 1) Test Pipe in, (60mm) & ‘Bin. 200 mm) in. (25 mm Zin. (Somm) & Diameter or Tpsiin tray ta is absorbed dain he rato pec, f zen amount of energy fs supplied hy rising be pon datum toa species hegh. Upon release the pendlan wil all and continu tought stoke unt i reches a Inaximum height on the opposite side of vel (ee gure 810. ° Feve toe (001010) a HE Feel Te AN ty ‘STRIKING EDGE ania .25-mm A (0.010 in.) ee ee py ae i : - pi AF secu 10.099 in] |, OF STRIKE ANVIL ANVIL- | SeESMeN wd osm Figure 8.10—ASTM Standard Dimensions for the ‘Type A Charpy V-Notch Specimen and the Striker-Anvil Arrangements 12A—PENDULUM B—RELEASE LEVER AND BRAKE LEVER (C—POINTER AND SCALE TO INDICATE ENERGY ABSORBED D—DRIVE ARM THAT PUSHES POINTER AROUND THE SCALE ANVIL ON WHICH CHARPY SPECIMEN RESTS F—STRIKER HEAD Figure 8.11—Schematic of Typical Charpy Testing Machine If it meets no resistance, the pendulum will rise to a height that is designated as zero energy absorption. When itcontacts the Charpy specimen, there isa certain amount of energy required to initiate and propagate a fracture. This causes the pendulum to rise to a level below that for zero energy absorption. The maximum height ofthis swing is indicated by the pointer on the scale. Since this scale is calibrated, the amount of energy required to break the specimen can be read directly from the scale. This value, referred to as breaking energy, is the pri- ‘mary information gained from the Charpy impact test. ‘This energy is expressed in terms of foot-pounds of en- ergy. While most Charpy results are expressed in terms of foot-pounds of energy absorption, there are other ‘means of describing the notch toughness of a metal that are determined by measuring various features of the failed Charpy specimen. These values are lateral expan- ssion and percent shear. Lateral expansion, which is mea- sured in terms of mils, or thousandths of an inch, is the amount of lateral deformation produced during the frac turing ofthe specimen. Percent shear isthe amount of the fracture surface that failed in a ductile, or shearing fash- ion, No matter which method of measurement is em- ployed, the results are taken from a series of tests. Values. change with temperature, therefore, once a number of specimens has been tested at various temperatures, itis possible to determine how the values change with metal temperature. If these values are plotted versus tempera 143 CHAPTER DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ture, the result will be a curve having upper and lower horizontal shelves. For each category, there is a tempera- ture at which the values drop abruptly, These tempera- tures are referred to as transition temperatures, because the behavior of the metal changes from ductile to brittle at that temperature. The designer then knows thatthe metal should behave satisfactorily above that temperature (see Figure 8.12), Th the Charpy test, other tests that can be used {to measure 4 metal’s notch toughness include drop-weight nil-ductility, explosion bulge, dynamic tear, and crack tip ‘opening displacement (CTOD). These tests employ differ- ‘ent methods for applying the load to the specimen. Soundness Testing ‘These groups of tests are designed to aid in the deter- mination of the metal's soundness, or freedom from im- perfections. Soundness tess are routinely used forthe qualification of welding procedures and welders. After test plate has been welded, specimens are removed and then subjected to a soundness test to determine if the weld contained any imperfections or defects. ‘There are several different types of bend tests, de- pending onthe orientation of the weld with respect the bending action. There are three types of transverse weld bend specimens: face, root and side bends. With these three types, the weld is aligned across the longitudinal axis ofthe specimen and its name refers othe side of the ‘weld that is placed in tension during the test. That is, the face of the weld is stretched in a face bend, the root of the weld is stretched in a root bend, and the side of a cross section of the weld is stretched in aside bend (see Figure 8.13). Bend tess are normally performed using some type of test bend jig, oF fixture. There are three basic types: guided bend, roller-equipped guided bend, and wrap- around guided bend. The standard guided bend test fix- ture consists of a plunger (also referred to as mandrel or ram) and a matching die that forms the previously straight ‘bend specimen into a U shape (see Figure 8.14) To perform a bend test, the specimen is placed across the shoulders of the die with the side to be placed in tension facing down toward the inside ofthe die. The(CHAPTER @—DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ENERGY, FT/L.B ‘SHEAR, % LATERAL EXPANSION, % SEMIKILLED STEEL, 0.18%C, 0.54% MN, 0.07% SI "0 40-200 20 40 60 80 100 120 140, NoyoH oof FRACTURE APPEARANCE ‘TRANSITION 80] cueavace, a FRACTURE SHEAR 40 FRACTURE 20} “30-4020 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 18 INTIAL DUCTILITY LATERAL, 4 TRANSITION. Lcianaisel "30 40-20 0 20 49 60 80 100 120 140 Figure 8.12—Relation Between Energy Transition and Fracture Appearance Transition in Charpy V-Noteh Impact Specimens with Changes in Temperature 148CHAPTER 8DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ee ne 1 1-172 in ' a t (38 mm) I 1 1 I 4 fe in 180 mm) in >| emer ey BEND Beno 2/8 in. (10 mm TEST PLATE Test PLATE ovER alin (10 mm) THICK Pee (1) LONGITUDINAL BEND SPECIMEN 6 in, (190 mm) Ra RADIUS 118 in. (mm) WAX BEE NOTE 4) TTA: y ! \ VY 15 iy Nore 2 note @ t Nore 4 —— q ee hi —_———_— (10 mm) Cat cece a rn re aaa FACE BEND SPECIMEN 6 in (150 mm) MIN RADIUS 18 i, b—* fs Roi?" — ois Ma pate r \ y ! i vores? Hesse Mh MATERIAL TO B= REMOVED dt i ase se ee eee ey T—— ee = + (PLATE) (PIPE) vores a ROOT BEND SPECIMEN (2) TRANSVERSE BEND SPECIMEN Dimensions Test Specimen Width, W ‘Tost Wolarent in. (rw) Plate 12 0) Test pipe or tube 15) $4 in. (100 mn) In dlameter ‘est pips oF tube 1-172 (40) > 4 in. (100 mm) in diameter Notes 1. longer specimen length may be necessary when using a wraparound ype bending fatur or whon testing soe with a yield strength (2F 90 fs! (620 MPa) or more. ‘Those edges may be thermslcut and may or may nat be machined, ‘The weld reinforcement ans backing, any, shal be romoved Tish wth the surface ofthe specimen (soe 5.28.41 and 6244.2) a {recessed backing Is used, this surface may be machined fo a depth nat exceating the dopth ofthe recoss fo remove the backing: such a case, the thickness ofthe frisnea specimen shall be that speciied above. Cut sutacos shall be smocth and pale, ‘Ta plate or pipe hesness. ‘When the thickness of te test plat isles than 28 in (10 mm), use the nominal thickness for face and toot bens. Figure 8.13A—Face and Root Bend Specimens, us(CHAPTER &-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING je 6 in. (150 mm), ——J 118 i. (mm s at 38 IF THERMAL-CUT, ALLOW. NOT LESS THAN 1/8 in. (@ mm) TO BE MACHINED FROM EDGES (10 mm) are Tt RADIUS 1/8 in oe (3 mim) MAX GR SPECIMEN : Lt ia WHEN 1 EXCEEDS 1-1/2 in. (38 mm). CUT ALONG THIS LINE, EOGE MAY BE THERMAL CUT. 318 to 1-1/2 > 1412 Notes: 1 19180 si (620 MPa) or more. MACHINE THE MINIMUM AMOUNT NEEDED TO OBTAIN PLANE PARALLEL FACES (OPTIONAL) 10 t0 98 t >38 See Note 2 ‘longer specimen length may be necessary when using 2 wrararcunde-type bending fixture or when testing steal with a yield strength 2, Forplaies over 1-1/2 in. (88 mm) tick, cut the specimen ito approximately equal sips with T between 14 ih (20 mm) and 1-1/2 (28 mm) and test each stip. = Pate oF pipe thickness. Figure 8.13B—Side Bend Specimens plunger is then situated over the surface area and forced toward the die causing the specimen to be bent 180° and become U shaped. The specimen is then removed and evaluated. ‘The second type of guided bend test fixture is similar to the standard guided bend fixture, except itis equipped ‘with rollers instead of hardened shoulders on the die portion. This reduces the friction against the specimen, allowing for lower loads to achieve the bending. ‘The last common type of guided bend test fixture is referred to as the wraparound jig, because the specimen is bent by being wrapped around a stationary pin. This type is useful for bending specimens that have different strengths of base and weld metal. If there is a great im- balance, there will be a tendency to bend preferentially in the weaker metal, resulting ina kink or a bend away from the area of intersection. With any of the bend tests, the specimens must be carefully prepared to prevent test inaccuracies. Any _rrinding or sanding marks on the tension surface should run parallel to the direction of bending to prevent stress raisers that could cause the specimen to fail prematurely. ‘The comers of the specimen should also be radiused to(CHAPTER 8 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING as nequnéo——+ tapeeo HOLE To Sut eer magus sun —_— E ny ‘ | sHou.nen HARDENED sto oneness ee a 08 8 Bay 41-118 in, ee ais eat n, aed (Ry tum iit3 im fa tt sue i ; tupoENED | > Fenn + ea im hen] | wind 8 ° I OINETER MAY fama ry eeedsrrore ieeemnat mA rien cosmo) | S58 er) OE oe | on. 2208 mm SReULBERS A 8 c eo Sostedr Au Base atl Ys Seth (eee ee 50 (48 Pa) ner eer gry cr meg er 0 45 HP 9 20 Me) 2 ea) ie otal 20 MPa oer Geary gue cere "Note: Plunger and interior die surtaces shal be machine-inished Figure 8.14A—Guided Bend Test Jig relieve that stress concentration. For specimens removed from pipe coupons, the side of the bend specimen against the ram may need to be ground flat to eliminate the bend in the direction transverse to the bending direction ‘The acceptability of bend test specimens is normally based on the size and/or number of defects that appear on the tension surface. The governing cod or specification will dictate the exact acceptanceftejection criteria. ‘The next type of soundness test to be discussed is the nick-break test. Ths testis used almost exclusively by the pipeline industry as described in API 1104. This method Judges soundness by fracturing the specimen through the ‘weld so that tae fracture surface can be analyzed for the presence of discontinuities. The fracture is localized in the ‘weld zone with saw cuts along «wo or tree surfaces Once the specimen has been saw cut, itis then broken by pulling in a tensile machine, striking the center with a hammer while supporting the ends, or striking one end with a hammer while the other end is held in a vise, It is neither the method of breaking nor the effort requiced to fail the specimen that is significant. The sole purpose of this testi to fail the specimen through the weld zone so it can be determined if any imperfections are present. ‘The fracture surface is then examined for evidence of any steas of slag inclusions, porosity or incomplete fusion If present, the imperfections are measured and accepted or rejected, based on the code Hmitations (see Figure 8.15) ‘The last soundness test to be discussed hee isthe f- ter weld break test Like the other two types, this sound- ness testis used primarily in the qualification of welders. 147— (CHAPTER DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ro Bea MN © irom b—e- nian Speed rl x 3 3 x8 3 BENET ron sien) i £ é fie mim Bo 05) a CS) ov 50 (645) 180 (620) 2 1 zm | 08 4 780 00 620) ve oi san | mss Figure 8.143—Alternative Roller-Equipped Guided Bend Test Jig for Bottom Ejection of Test Specimen aN @ mm) ROLLER ANY DIAMETER, wei BaA2 Specified or Actual a B a e Base Metal Yikd Suength, ksi(MPa) in mm rm 50 (945) & uncer rar wa 3a 130 over 50 (345) 1099 (620) 2 1 508 254 80 (620) & over 2a 1a 635 a8 Figure 8.14C—Alternative Wraparound Guided Bend Test Bend Jig 48Vain. APPROX CHAPTER DESTRUCTIVE TESTING NOTCH CUT BY HACKSAW an | sia wn ‘vein. approx t WELD REINFORCEMENT SHOULD NOT BE REMOVED ON EITHER, SIE OF SPECIMEN 1 io Tot 190 V8in |-+-————— sn. wn ——______.| ‘Wain. APPROX t NOTE: NOTCH NOT DRAWN TO SCALE OPTIONAL NICK-BREAK TEST SPECIMEN FOR MECHANIZED OR SEMI-AUTOMATIC WELDING Figure 8.15—Nick-Break Test Specimen This is the only test required for the qualification of tack- crs in accordance with AWS DI.1, Structural Welding Code—Steel ‘To perform this test, a welder places a fillet weld on one side of a Tjoint. Once complete, the specimen is placed in press and bent to produce a fracture at or near the weld, Again, the significance of this testis not how much load is required for failure, rather the condition ofthe fracture sur- face, with respect to the presence of discontinuities. ‘With this test, the inspector is looking for @ weld that has a satisfactory surface appearance, The fractured sur- face is examined to ensure that the weld has evidence of fusion to the root and that there are no areas of incom- plete fusion tothe base metal or porosity larger than 3/32 in, in their greatest dimension (see Figure 8.16), ‘These soundness tests are used routinely in many dif- ferent industries. Their application and evaluation appear 149 to be quite straightforward. However, the welding inspec- tor should be aware thatthe evaluation of these tests may not be as simple as the various codes and specifications imply. For this reason, itis important that the inspector actually spend some time performing these tests to be- ‘come familiar with their performance and interpretation, Destructive Tests for Chemical Properties ‘The tess that have been previously discussed are used to determine the mechanical properties of a metal. However, there is also interest in the various chemical properties of ‘a metal. In fact, the chemical makeup of a metal deter- ‘mines to a great degree the mechanical properties of that metal. Therefore, itis often necessary to determine the(CHAPTER DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Loa Figure 8.16—Method of Testing Fillet Weld Break Specimen ‘chemical composition of a metal. The three most com mon test methods are spectrographic, combustion, and wet chemical analysis. ‘The welding inspector will rarely be requited to pe form chemical analysis. However, it may be necessary t review the results of an analysis to determine if 2 metal complies with a particular specification, For more infor- ‘mation regarding chemical analysis of metas, refer to the ASTM specifications that cover this subject. The partioa lar methods used for steel are listed in ASTM A 751, Standard Test Methods, Practices, and Terminology for Chemical Analysis of Steel Products Another group of tests that can generally be classified as chemical tests are corrosion tests, which are specific tests designed to determine the corrosion resistance of metal or combination of metals. Because losses from corrosion of metals cost industry tens of billions of dol- lars annually, designers are very concerned about how 2 metal will behave in a particular corrosive environment ‘The tests used to determine the degrees of corrosion re sistance are designed (o simulate the actual conditions that the metal will encounter during its service. Some of the considerations that must be addressed when setting Up a corrosion test are chemical composition, corrosive environment, temperature, presence of moisture, pres ence of oxygen, presence of other metals, and amount of stress. If any of these features are ignored, the corrosion test may yield invalid results, Metallographic Testing Another way in which the characteristics of a metal ‘can be determined is through the use of various metallo- ‘graphic tests. These tests basically consist of removing + section of a metal or a weld and polishing it to some de sree. Once prepared, the specimen can then be evaluates with the unaided eye or with the use of magnification. “Metallographic testing can be classified as either mac roscopic or microscopic. The tests differ in the amount o ‘magnification that is utilized. Macro tests are generally performed using magnifications of 10X of lower. Micrc Fests, on the other hand, use magnifications greater thar 10x. A number of features can be observed on a typica macro specimen. The cross section of a weld can be ex amined to determine depth of fusion, depth of penetration effective throat, weld soundness, degree of fusion, pres cence of weld discontinuities, weld configuration, number of weld passes. etc. A picture of a macro specimen is re ferred to as a phoromacrograph (see Figure 8.17). Micro tests can determine features such as microstruc: tural constituents, presence of inclusions, presence of mi croscopic defects, nature of cracking, ete. Similarly, pictures ‘of micro specimens are referred to as photomicrogray Metallographic tests can be very useful in such mat- fers as failure analysis, weld procedure and welder quali- fication, and process control testing. ‘The two types of specimens also differ in the amount Of preparation required. Some macro specimens need ‘only be rough ground, whereas micro specimens require fine grinding and even polishing to produce a mifror finish Because so much information can be gained about the properties of a metal by making simple macro and micro Photomacrograph (Crack Adjacent to the Weld)evaluations, metallographic ‘esting is an important toot for both the welding inspector and the engineer. Metric Conversions Inrecent yar, there hasbeen an efoto convert our US. casiomury system of measurement (oan interna ‘tional system referred to as the International Systent of Units (in French, “Le Systeme Internationale d’ Unites”) \. or SI (ee Table 8.3). The welding inspector ay ave cccsiono inspect pats and interpret specifications Com tuning ST unt In aon, the inspector may be asked to conver the St unis nto US. customary ais, for exe Ample, when converting temperature front Fahetei to Celsius (se Table 84) As & minimum, some of these conversions wil be required on te AWS CW cxamina- tion The following discussion meant provide ahs forthe welding inspector to understand How these com versions are performed. Before examining the conversion process, itis impor-* tant to understand some of the notations that will be used to express different numeric values. One of the tech- niques used to express numbers that may be very large or very small is referred to as scientific notation. This method reduces some number to an expression that in- Table 8.3 SI Prefixes Exponential Prefix Symbol Expression Multiplication Factor xa 5 1 00-000 000 000 000 000 peta Pp 11000 000-000 000-000 tera r 1 900 00090 000 sige G 1000-000 000) mege M 1040 000 kilo k 11000 ecto’ X 100 deka? da 10! 10 ded oe 1 cent? 10° ou rail m 102 oo micto 103 6.001 nano 10 6,000 001 pico P 10% 0.000 000 001 femo 302 9.000.000 000001 ato a 10" 0.900.000 090 000 008 10°" 0,000 000 090 000-000 001 “Nonprefere. Prefites sould be selected in steps of 10° so that he resllam number belo the prefix x tetwecn 0.1 and 1000 (se 1) Thee petites should not heed for wits ner meseurement, Sut aay be used for higher onde units. For example the ine messute- tment, deemeter i onprefere, but uate denne is ceepabe CHAPTER 8_DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ‘eludes # number multiplied by some power of ten. For ‘example, the number 234 567 would be expressed as 2.34567 x 10° in scientific notation, Note that the same digits are used, however, the deci- ‘mal piace has been moved. The decimal place is always moved so that there is only one number appearing to its left, The number of spaces that the decimal place was moved becomes the power of ten in the scientific nota- tion expression. If the decimal point was moved in the ‘opposite direction, as would be the case for a number less than one, then the power of ten becomes a negative number. The following examples show how scientific no- ration is used. Scientific Notation Examples it is evdent that movements of the decimal point one space is equivalent to multiplying or dividing by ten, depeniding on the direction in which the simal is moved, \ . ‘Another type of notion tha the welding iain should know isthe various prefixes that are wed inde cate powers of ten. These are ximply abbreviation to e- dice the number of digits required. Asan exanipe, “ilo” means 1000, so a kilometer is 1000-sites. Similarly, “mill means one-thousandth, therefore, & malimeter is one-thousandth of a meter of there are 1000 millimeters in-one meter. The following are exarpleh ofthe use of these preftes Examples of Prefixes for Powers of Ten, 456 000 000 Pa + 56 km = 56,000 m 234.000 mm. 456 2= 0.456 ke With this background, it is now possible to begin a discussion of how to actually perform numeric conver- sions from U.S. to SI and SI to U.S. The initial point «0 tunderstand is that the welding inspector is not intended to memorize all of the conversion factors. Every factor that is need for the AWS CWI exansimation will be pro- vided. The CWI candidate must be capable of manipulat- ing the numbers to ative at some solution. ‘A listing of the more common conversion factors is provided here to illustrate how these conversion factors, will be noted on the CWI examination. Tables 8.5 and 8.6 are arranged in four columns that will be used in the same order as they are listed: “Property.” “To Convert From,” “To,” and “Multiply By.”(CHAPTER DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 8.4 Commonly Used Metric Conversions (Fahrenheit-Celsius Temperature Conversion) 1°F = 5/9°C exactly °C = 5/9 (°F — 32). °F = (9/5°C) + 32 Find the number to be converted in the center (boldface) column, If converting Fahrenheit degrees, read the Celsius equivalent \n the column headed “°C.” It converting Celsius degrees, read the Fahrenheit equivalent in the column headed “°F.” “c € “c r “C F °C °F = A859 8 110-166 a8 il 190 a7 268 450 3 “100 A148 wo «0 7 1D 93 200392 262 440 8 130 uo BR | 16 9 040 237 430 “2 80 2 BS \ 19 1d 20438 420 “7 84 BO M33 Ho 230445 410 S10 76 8136 te 240464 400 a 6 140 1 280-482 390 0 40 40 7 6h 17260 —S00~ 380 34-30 17 By 20 si8 370 29 9 6 Ist e280 536 360 3 40 2 oe st 43 290s 380 -8 0 2 2 ss M9 300572 40 72 6 n nm ie Ist 310590 30 “6 4 B® B 6s 16) 320608 20 M6 ® wn 6 19 166, 330626 310 8 6 6 7% IR 1 MO Gas 300 0 50 7 1% \77 350 662 390 2 os 2s 180 132360680 30 “OT 18 Is 310698 20 6 Gt 300 BT 193 3R0 716 260 Bw 6 31 88190 199 390734 250 mo 8 2 194 24 400952 240 nz Rn 3 198, 20 410770 20 a 344201 216 42088 220 6 3696205 221480806 210 a 2 37 9808 a 4 at 200 3 8 38 100212 22 4g0 42 190 2 9 43 0330 235 460 R60) “180 M8 4 0 Das 23 40878 170 3% O97 sé BO 266, 29 a8 8965, 107-160 eo 6 14084 254490 Old 101-180 o 65 150° 302, 260 500932 96 =140) 2 Th 1@ 320 266 © 510950 90 130 4 nm 38 2 50968, 34-120 % 5 82 180356, 27 5986 540 1040190 838 1840 2804 116 20403708 350 10501922 8431850 2822 4121 20503722, 360 1060 1910, 8491860 2840, 127 20603740, 570 10701938 85415702888 1132, 2070 3758 580 10801976 86015802876 1138 20803776, 590 1094 588 1090 1994 866 1500 2x04. 143 2090 3794 6001112 593 11002012 871 1600 291 Hg9 21003812 101130 599 1112030 877 16102930 Hiss 21103830, 201188 60s 1120 2048, B82 1620 2948 neo 2120 3848, 601166 61011302066, B88 1630 2066 1166 21303866 (continued) 182(CHAPTER DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 8.4 (Continued) = =e SS = 343 650 1150 2102 8991650 3902 =. So.: = S == 220. = = Zz =sa= 7 z 8 = nee 7 s3 Zones 3 Ae BEBE: 2 ae ean: es _ = =e. 7 = -=—- = 7 3 son. 7 .. = ss = 7 =: = =: = 7 : Bes os 7 Sees zt e sin: = 3 7 ZEBE = 7 : mee te ts = somes 7 7 oa 7 Sans 2 ig == Spee 7 == Sak = S 2s oa pa = 153(CHAPTER 8—-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 8.5 ie General Conversions i Propeny ‘To Convert From m \ Matty By ‘coekeraton (angular) ‘evolution per minute squared dl? 1745 29 10" acceleration (linear) avin ms? 7.055)556 x 10%, ai. us? 8.466 667 «10° infin? most 1085 556% 103 \ nse mst 3.088 000% 10" angle plane degre cad 1745 329% 10%} rine rad 2908 882104 secon! vad Asa8 137104 fe mt \ 81200 304 10 ye a 18.361 274% 104] in? mn? 685) 600% 108 1 ram? 9.290304 108 acre (US, Survey) m $086 873108 density pound mass in gin 2.761 990% 108 ound tase perf ky’ ‘601 84610 * nergy, work, heat and impact foot pound force 3 1355 818 cenersy foot poundal 5 4214 011 x 107 Bu" al 1.055 056 % 10° 1044 revolution per minute degreefmin, 3.600 000 x 10" velocity (linear) invmin mis 4.233 333 10-4 fmin, ms 51080-0005 10° invnin mvs 4.283 333 x 10 funn mvs 5.080000 // milefiour kimi 1609 344 volume ind mS A 1.638 794% 10-8 fe m 2.831.585 102 we im ~ 7.695 549 % 10" in mam? 1.638 706 » 10 8 som? 2831 685% 107 in L 163 706 x 10-7 w L 2.831 685% 10, gallon (US) Q 3.785.412 “Thermochenieal For any conversion exercise, the frst step is to decide ‘what particular property is described by the units that are to be converted. Once the proper category has been cho- sen from the “Property” column, look at the second col- umn (“To Convert From”) and locate the line that ‘contains the unit that is given in the exercise. This is the unit that will be converted, Moving straight across to the Fight, look for the unit that matches the unit 10 which the conversion will be made. When the line that contains both the known and desired units is locate, the value found in the last column (Multiply By") isthe appropriate conver- sion factor. At this point, simply maltiply the number of the known units by this conversion factor. The result isthe ‘umber of desired units. Examples that show how to use this table to perform typical conversions are as follows. Conversion Example An oxygen gauge shows a pressure of $50 kPa. That is how many psi? (Property = pressure (gas and liquid) (2) Known unit= $50 kPa G) Desired uni (4) Conversion factor = 1.450 x 10? Solution: 550 kPa x 1450 550 kPa psi 9.75 psi Conversion Example 2: A tensile specimen was pulled and displayed an ult imate tensile strength of 655 MPa. This corresponds to hhow many psi? (1) Property = tensile strength (2) Known unit = 655 MPa (3) Desired unit = ps (® Conversion factor = 1.450 x 10? Solution: 655 MPa x 145.0=? psi 655 MPa = 94.975 psi Conversion Example 3: ‘What is the diameter in millimeters of @ 5/32 in, electrode? (1) Property = linear measurements (2) Known unit = 5/32 in, (0.156 in.) G) Desired unit = mm (4) Conversion factor = 2.540 x 10 Solution: 0.156 in. x 25.4 0.156 in, = 3.96 mm Conversion Example 4: ‘Welding parameters were adjusted to produce a weld ‘metal deposition rate of 7.3 kefh. What is that deposition rate in terms of Ibfh? (1) Property = deposition rate (2) Known unit = 7.3 gh G) Desired unit = tifa 2 ) Conversion facsor=22 Solution: 73 kghax22=7 ih 13 kgfa= 1605 ath(CHAPTER & DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 8.6 Conversions for Gommon Welding Terms f Propenty” ‘To Comer From Te Muliply By rea dimensions (ma) in? 6.451 500% 108 1550 008 x 10 ceuent density (Aan?) 1.350003 x10 6.431 600 108 deposition ate (ehh) kg 43335924 10" tiv 2204623 cfectrical esisvity (2m) Gem am 1.000000 102 on fem 1990000 108 lectcal ore (N) pound force N 4448222 Kilogram-force N 9.806 650, N Tbr 2.248 089 x 10° flow cate (Lnin.) 1m Lin, 471947410" salon pr hour Lain, 6309 020% 107 ‘allo per minate 3.785 412 Aracture toughness (MN- Asin”? 1.098 843, Mie? 9.100477 x 1 eat inpot Vm) sin 3987 008% 10 in Si, 2.540.000 % 10 impact enerey absorption {ook pound Free 3 1355 818 linear measurements (mm) in ram 2.840 000 x10, & am 51088 000 12 mm in 3937 008» 102 mm ft 3.280 840 x 10 power density (Wit?) Win? win? 1.550 003 » 108 Wim? Wha? 6.481 60> 104 pressure (gas an tiguid) (KPa) psi ka 6.894757 fear we 4.788 026 x 10 Ni KPa L000 000 108 ipa Pst 1450377 16 ia lire? 2.08 543% 10 kPa Nim? 1.006 000° 10 seessure (vacuum) (Pa) torr (mm Hg °C) Pa 1.333 224 10 ‘micron (un Hg a °C) Pa 1333 224107 Pa ‘or 7300 617% 10° me snicron 71500 617 bar psi 1480 37710" tense strength (MPa) ps MPa 6394 757x107 tbo? MPs 4.788 0265 103 Ni? MPa 1.000 000 MPa psi 1480 377 102 MPs eae 20088 343 x 10! MPa Nima? 1.000 000 thermal conductivity (WA-K)) cal(ems“C) vwit®) 4.184 000 « 10? travel speed, wie feed spoed (rams) infin mis 4.293 333107 mms indi, 2362208 "Prefered unis are given in pesca. 156(CHAPTER &DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Review—Chapter 8—Destructive Testing Q8-1 Which property cannot be determined from a tensile test? ultimate tensile strength b. percent elongation’ . percent reduction of area é.impact strength yield strength Q8-2 The property that describes the ability of a metal to resist some applied load is: strength, roughness hardness ductility none ofthe above spnee Q8-3. The point at which a metals behavior changes from elastic to plastic (onset of permanent deformation) i referred to as: yield strength ultimate tensile strength modulus of elasticity Young's modulus none ofthe above paage Q8-4_ Which of the following is an expression for a metal’s ductility? a. percent elongation percent reduction of area proportional limit 4d. both a and b above fe. both band ¢ above QKS__ Whatis the percent elongation of a specimen whose original gauge length was 2 in, and final gauge ength was 2.5 in.? a 30% b 25% 50% a 40% enone of the above Q8-6 The property of metals that describes their resistance to indentation is called: a strength b. toughness hardness d. duccilny enone of the above Q8-7_ The type of testing that is used routinely for the qualification of welding procedures und welders is: tensile strength hardiness soundness ‘impact sizenguh all of the above 88 Of the following, which properties can be determined as a result of tensile testing? a. ultimate tensile strength ductility percent elongation yield strength & lof the above 187(CHAPTER DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Q8-9 ‘The family of handness tests that uses both a minor and major load is called: 7 Brinell / Vickers \ Rockwell Knoop none of the above (Q8-10 Which of the following tests are referred to as microbardness tests? Rockwell Vickers Knoop both a and b above both b and c above Q8-11 What type of test uses a weighted pendulum that strikes a notched test specimen? Brine test fatigue test tensile test ‘erack opening displacement (COD) ‘Charpy impact west ppeee (Q8-12 Of the following, which is one of the most measurable features of a metal? a. fatigue b. hardness © soundness dd. tension . mone of the above Q8-13 Which of the following is not considered a soundness test? a. tensile b. face bend ©. fillet break root bend fe. nick-break (Q8-14 The type of testing used 10 evaluate the type of microstructure present in a metal is called: a. tensile b.bardness toughness 4, metallographic fe. none of the above Q&AS A 50 Ib can of welding clectrodes weighs approximately how many ke? a 227k b 23ks c. 2.7ke 6. 23.000 kg, none of the above Q8-16 Which two metal properties are directly related for many steels? 8. impact sirength and fatigue strength b. tensile strength and ductility © tensile strength and hardness 4. toughness and fatigue strength €. none of the above 158(CHAPTER 8DESTRUCTWVE TESTING (Q8-17 What is the wire feed speed that is measured at 175 in /min.? a 125 ms be 74 mas 74 mms / doth # and b above both band e above : (Q8-18 The property of metals that describes their ability to carry some type of load is: a. strength b. toughness © hardness 4. ductility none of the above Q8-19 For less ductile metals, which method is used to determine the yield strength? 2 drop of beam bolt technique stress-strain curve abrupt yielding enone of the above Q8-20 The ability of a metal to absorb energy is called: strength b. ductility ©. hardness 4. toughness none of the above (8-21 A weld joint is measured and found to be 345 mm long. How long is that joint in terms of inches? a. 1358 in b. 13.58 in ©. 8760in, 4 876in, none of the above (8-22 Which ofthe following tests is used to verify the soundness of a weld? 8. nick break . fillet break bend test 4. radiographic test &.allof the above (Q8-23 With the SAW process we achieve a deposition rate of 19.7 kg/h, How many Ibis this? a 434 Tbh 43.34 bmn © 8751bh d. 891bh none of the above (Q8-24 Ultimate tensile strength can be determined using which ofthe following tests? a tensile b. bend © Charpy nick break fe. nil-ductility drop-weight 159‘CHAPTER 8--DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (Q8-25 Calculation of percent elongation is determined after measuring the change in: ‘a. percent reduction of arca, 1b. depth of indentation diameter of indentation 6. cross-sectional area ce. length between gauge marks (8-26 With the GMAW process we use a wire feed speed of 170 mun/s. How many in/min is this? a 40.16 inJmin, b. 937m fc. 401.6 in in, 4.537 in/min. enone of the above (Q8-27 With the GIAW process, flow rates are measured at 22 L/min. How many ft/s this? a 1048 b 13988m ce. 46.6 8h é. $3.28 enone of the above (8-28 Calculation of temsle strength is accomplished by dividing the tensile oad by: cross-sectional area b. percent elongation percent reduction of area ‘gauge length none of the above (Q8-29 The metal property describing its freedom from imperfections is: a, tensile strength soundness ©. impact strength 4. toughness: 2. ductility Q8-30 Ifa metal exhibits a great deal of elongation prior to falling when a tensile load is applicd is said to have high: a. tensile strength b. hardness © impact strength 4. toughness: ductility Q8-31 A specimen approximately 2 in. long with a V-notch machined in the center of one of its sides is used for which of the following tests? a. tensile b. _nil-ducttity drop-weight Charpy end fe. twek break Q8-32 Which of the following properties can be determined from a tensile test? wi a, ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, ductility b, yield streagth, ductility, toughness ductility only’ toughness only e.allof the above 160