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HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
AND LEARNING
BY
EHTESHAM ABBAS
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Growth
 A biological processes that naturally occur over a period
of time is called Growth.
 The increase in the bodily aspects that can be measured,
for example, height, weight, size, muscles and length.
(Woolfolk, 2014)
 The natural, spontaneous, specific, genetically
programmed and measurable quantitative gains in a
human body.
Development
 Itis process of function and physical maturation of an

individual it is progressive increase in skill and capacity
or function.
 Most of these changes are qualitative in nature and
influenced by context, for example, changes in
behavioral, social, moral and intellectual aspects of an
individual. Overall, these changes result in better,
adaptive, organized and complex human behaviors.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
 Development implies overall change in
 The term is used in purely physical shape, form or structure resulting in
sense. It generally refers to improved working or functioning.
increase in size, length.  Changes in the quality or character rather
than the quantitative aspects comes in this
 Changes in the quantitative aspects
domain.
come into the domain of Growth.
 Development is a wider and
 Growth does not continue comprehensive term and refers to overall
throughout life. It stops when changes in the individual. It continues
maturity has been attained. throughout life and is progressive.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
 Growth involves body changes.  Development involves changes of
 The changes produced by growth an orderly, coherent type tending
are the subject of measurement. towards the goal of maturity.
They may be quantified.  Development implies improvement
 Growth is cellular . It takes place in functioning and behavior and
due to the multiplication of cells. hence bring qualitative changes
which are difficult to be measured
 Growth may or may not bring directly.
development.
 Development is also possible
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Domains of development
.  Physical development is defined as the

Physical biological changes that occur in the body and
Domain brain, including changes in size and strength,
integration of sensory and motor activities.
Cognitive  Cognitive development is defined as the

changes in the way we think, understand, and
Domain
reason about the world.
 Social-emotional development is defined as

Social- the changes in the ways we connect to other
emotional individuals and express and understand
Domain emotions. For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Core Features of Emotional
Development
The core features of emotional development include the ability of a
child to;
 Identify and understand their own feelings,
 Accurately read and comprehend emotional states of others,
 Manage strong emotions and their expression in a beneficial
manner,
 Regulate their own behavior
 Develop empathy for others Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
 Establish and maintain relationships
Stages of Development
Stage Age period Characteristics

Prenatal Conception till • Rapid changes
period birth • Transformation of a single cell
into a human body.
Infancy and Birth up to 2 Extreme dependency
toddlerhood years • Beginning of intense physical,
cognitive and socio-emotional
development (e.g., symbolic
thought, language development
and social learning)
Early 2 to 6 years • Self-sufficient

childhood / • Psychological and moral
Preschool development
years • Considerable expansion in
thought and language
Stages of Development
Stage Age period Characteristics
Middle childhood / 6 to 11 years • Increased responsibility

Elementary school years
Improved thought processes and
athletic abilities Mastery of reading,
writing and mathematical skills
Increased self and social awareness
Adolescence 11 to 18 years • Adolescence • Transition to adulthood •
Rapid physical changes • Increased
independence, abstract thinking and
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And reasoning • Development of a strong belief
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
 Development is life-long
 Development is both multidimensional and
multidirectional
 Development involves both gains and losses
 Development is plastic
 Development is situated in context and history
 Development is multidisciplinary
ISSUES/CONTROVERSIES IN CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
 Continuous or discontinuous
 Single or multiple courses
 Nature or Nurture (stability vs. plasticity)
 (Nature is often defined in this debate as genetic
or hormone-based behaviors, traits, and
dispositions, while nurture is most commonly
defined as environment, culture, and
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Factors Affecting Growth &
Development
A number of factors affect growth and development,
including:
 Biological factors
 Interpersonal relationships
 Environmental factors
 Early environment and experiences
Biological factors
 Biological factors refer to the genetic features that individuals receive from
their parents.
 These include gender, as well as general, physical and mental health,
inherited traits etc.
 Boys and girls tend to develop differently. • Similarly, general health of the
child, for example, birth weight, and medical condition influence his/her
development over time.
 Besides, maternal age, health, stress, and nutrition are likely to influence a
child's development.
Interpersonal relationships
 Interpersonal relationships are critical for a child' learning and

well-being.
 Healthy interpersonal relationships are characterized by
– attachment,
– positive parenting style
– parental interactions with children
– supportive social networks.

Environmental factors
 Environmental influences:
Including parenting, nutrition, housing, education, culture, income,
employment, health services, safety etc. affect a child's
development.
It is important that children are brought up in a safe,

healthy and nurturing environment to positively influence
their development.
Early Environment and Experiences
 The most important early environment for an infant is provided
by his/her primary caregiver. • A child's relationship with his/her
caregiver, and mutual effects on each other, lay the foundation for
development.
 Consequently, a child's development of social, physical,
emotional, language, and cognitive skills is largely influenced by
Early environment and experiences Gained through reciprocal
social interactions with adults and caregivers.

physical development

what is physical development
 Refersto a process which brings progressive

changes in the external as well as internal organs.
 The physical growth from birth to adulthood.

The ABC of Genetics

The ABC of Genetics
 Genetic Inheritance:
Genes are the basic units of hereditary transmission.
Chromosomes comprise of a series of proteins called
deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. DNA has a tendency to duplicate
itself through a process, called mitosis. This feature enables
chromosomes to copy themselves and produce new cells which
have exactly the same pattern of genetic information. Each DNA
carries thousands of genes across the length of the chromosomes
(Berk, 2013).
The ABC of Genetics
 Genes and environments:
Contemporary researchers believe that genes (nature) and
environment (nurture) interact to manipulate a child's development.
This is because they often influence and get influenced from each
other to form patterns of development (Keenan & Evans, 2009).
On the other hand, environment may also have a critical impact on
genetic factors. For example, certain behavioral traits such as
cognitive abilities etc change dramatically under
supportive/unsupportive conditions.
Characteristics of physical
development
 Physical development is very rapid during infancy (0-2).
 Period of pre-childhood (3-6) is a period fixation.
 Middle childhood (7-9) shows again period growth and development.
 Later childhood (10-13) is again a period of fixation.
 Early adolescence ( first three years) is again a period of rapid growth and
development.
 Early adolescence is followed by a period of slow growth.
 Physical growth ceases by the attainment of maturity.
LIFE BEFORE BIRTH - PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal period comprised by three periods
 Zygote lasts for about the first two weeks of pregnancy.
 Embryo marks the beginning of the third week and lasts until the end of the
second month of pregnancy
 Fetus longest prenatal period which starts from the ninth week and lasts till
birth. It is characterized by immense physical growth and finishing.

Cont…
Environmental Risks – Teratogens
 environmental factors may interfere with the prenatal development
 Illegal Medicines intake by mother
 tobacco, alcohol or caffeine consumption by the expecting mothers.
 Environmental pollution,
 Exposure to radiations and toxins.
 Physical harm
 It is important for the expecting parents to evaluate and minimize the possible
 Exposure to teratogens in order to ensure the safety of their unborn child.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN
CHILDHOOD
 Changes in body size. changes in body size are observed differently in all
stages.
 Changes in body proportions. 'head to toe' pattern and ‘ center to outside'
path
 Changes in muscle-fat makeup. muscles build up at a much slower rate
during infancy and childhood, when compared to the adolescence period,
 Skeletal growth. based on the number of epiphyses (the end part of a long
bone)
 Changes in gross and fine motor skills. Gross motor involves all the big
muscles and fine motor skills require a precise control of muscles and
coordination of body movements.
Environmental factors in physical
development
 Physical growth is highly dependent on nutritional intake, and
opportunities for play and physical activities.
 It is important that children do not only eat sufficient food, but
also eat the right kind of food to maintain healthy physical
growth and development.
 Besides, anxiety, fear and emotional deprivation may hinder
physical development of children.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
LEARNERS
 Children
need to move
 Improved eye-hand coordination
 Improved body coordination
 Improved perceptual abilities
 Improved gross and fine motor skills

ACTIVITIES IN SCHOOLS
 Preschool and Kindergarten:
traditional physical activities for this age level involve running,
jumping, bouncing, skipping, drawing, coloring, painting, cutting,
pasting, gluing, using play dough, rollers, and shape cutters etc.
 Elementary level:
introducing health and physical education classes and integrating
physical activities into other areas of curriculum.

Factors influencing physical
development
 Heredity
 Nutrition
 Proper ventilation
 Endocrine gland
 Prenatal period
 Family
 Sex difference
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Educational significance of physical
development
 Physical development influences the total makeup of an
individual.
 Balanced functioning of the body system depends on the
balanced physical growth and development.
 knowledge of the process of physical growth and
development help the teacher to achieve the educational
process.
Cont…
 Body system decides the interest, attitude and the

total behavior of an individual.
 Study of the pattern of physical growth and
development help the teacher from knowing what
can be expected from the child at particular age
level.
 Itcan help the teacher to arrange the school
programs. Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
UNIT # 2
PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVES
• At the end of the unit, trainee students will be able to:
1. Understand the genetic Foundations which affect child
development.
2. Aware of prenatal development and relevant issues
3. Describe the developmental course of physical growth
4. Familiar with the physical characteristics of learners
5. Develop appropriate physical activities for pre and elementary
school children

OVERVIEW
• What is Physical Development?
• “Physical development is the physical growth from birth to adulthood and
the development of both gross (e.g. Walking) and fine motor (e.g. Finger
movement) control of the body.
• Physical development means the progress of a child's control over his

body. This includes control over muscles, physical coordination, ability to
sit and stand.
The ABCs of Genetics
• Human body consists of numerous

cells.
• Each cell has it’s a core called
nucleus. Its contains of
chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are responsible for
the storage and transmission of
genetic information from one
generation to another.
Genetic Inheritance
• Genes are the basic units of hereditary
transmission.
• Heredity is the transmission of physical
characteristics from parents to children through
their genes.
• It influences all aspects of physical appearance
such as height, weight, body structure, the colour
of the eye, the texture of the hair, and even
intelligence and aptitudes.
• Diseases and conditions such as heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can also be passed
through genes, thereby affecting the growth and
development of the child adversely.
• However, environmental factors and nurturing can
bring the best out of the already present qualities in
the genes.
Genes and Environments
• The environment plays a critical role in the development of children and it represents
the sum total of physical and psychological stimulation the child receives.
• Some of the environmental factors influencing early childhood development involve
the physical surroundings and geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as
well his social environment and relationships with family and peers.
• It is easy to understand that a well-nurtured child does better than a deprived one; the
environment children are constantly immersed in contributes to this.
• A good school and a loving family builds in children strong social and interpersonal
skills, which will enable them to excel in other areas such as academics
and extracurricular activities.
• This will, of course, be different for children who are raised in stressful environments.
Cont…
• Genes and Environment work together to form behaviors
and patterns of development.
• These influences are unique to each individual,
• Caused by multiple factors and
• Lead to multiple directions
• So is the the identical twins living in the same context may
develop some dissimilar traits.

Life Before Birth – Prenatal Development
• Time period between conception and birth is referred to as prenatal
development.
• It has considerable influences on the well being of the child in later
life.
• Prenatal development comprises Nine Months which are further
characterized by three periods including;
• Zygote
• Embryo and
• Fetus
(Keenan & Evans, 2009) For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Duration of Each Periods
• Zygote
• Lasts for first two weeks of life before birth
• Characteristics:
• It involves rapid multiplication of cells to form a complex being.
• Embryo
• Beginning of the third week and lasts until the end of the second month of pregnancy
• It is characterized by the most rapid changes during prenatal period which set the stage
for the development of body parts, structures and systems.
• Fetus
• The longest prenatal period which starts from the ninth week and lasts till birth
• It is characterized by immense physical growth and finishing.
• Brain's growth is at its peak at this stage.
Environmental Risks-Teratogens
• Despite minimal contact with the outer world,
• A number of environmental factors may affect and cause
damage to the development of embryo or fetus during this
period, referred as teratogen (Berk, 2013).
• These possible effects of teratogens include;
• Physical damages,
• Psychological consequences,
• Developmental delays,
• Even death For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Cont…
• The most critical teratogens for the expecting mothers are
consumption of;
• Tobacco, alcohol or caffeine
• Which may result of;
• Pre-mature birth,
• Low birth weight and
• other physical defects
• Maternal health, diseases, age, exercise, nutrition, and
emotional stress create prenatal complications.
• It may have long-term negative consequences for the unborn
child. For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Cont…
• Environmental pollution, and exposure to radiations and
toxins etc. can cause considerable harm to the developing
fetus.
• It may result in physical deformities, brain damage, and
cognitive deficits.
• It is important for the expecting parents to minimize the
possible exposure to teratogens in order to ensure the safety
of their unborn child.
Physical Development in Childhood
The course of Physical Growth
1. Changes in body size
• Physical growth refers to an increase in body size (length or height and
weight) and in the size of organs.
• From birth to about age 1 or 2 years, children grow rapidly.
• After this time, growth slows.
• A sharp increase in growth is again observed in early adolescence (10 to 14

years) followed by a sudden decline when the adult growth is achieved.
Cont…
2. Changes in Body Proportions
• Changes in the size and shape of the body parts are caused by
different segments.
• The first trend in the growth of the child highlights the 'head to toe'
pattern.
• For example, a baby would learn to hold up his head way before he could
walk.
• The next pattern follows the 'inside to outside' or 'centre to
outside' path.
• For example, the muscles around the trunk of the body grow stronger
before the muscles in the hands, feet etc.
Cont…
3. Changes in muscle-fat makeup
• Body fat increases at a faster rate in infancy
• It is considerably reduced during early and middle
childhood
• Muscles build up at a much slower rate during infancy and
childhood
• When compared to the adolescence period, as they start to
develop rapidly.
Cont…
4. Skeletal growth
• Physical maturity is estimated by skeletal growth or age which
specifies a measure of the development of body bones.
• It is based on the number of epiphyses and the extent to which they
are merged.
• This measure helps to understand the causes and consequences of
individual differences in physical development.

Cont…
5. Changes in gross and fine motor skills
• Gross motor skills are larger movements.
• Baby makes with arms, legs, feet, or entire
body.
• For example;
• Crawling, running, and jumping
• Fine motor skills are smaller actions.

• Baby can control his arms before his hands,
and control his hands before his fingers.
• For example;
• Drawing, writing, and cutting with scissors
Environmental Factors in Physical
Development
• Physical growth and development is dependent on both biological and
environmental factors.
• Whereas biological structure and hormonal influences play a central
role in manipulating physical development.
• Some of the Environmental influences are also critical such as;
• nutritional intake
• emotional well-being
• cultural practices

Cont…
• Physical growth is highly dependent on nutritional intake.
• Its not only important to eat sufficient food, but also eat the
right kind of food.
• It helps in maintaining healthy physical growth and
development.
• Besides, anxiety, fear and emotional deprivation may hinder
physical development of children.
Physical Characteristics of Learners
• Children need to move

• Children at the pre and elementary
school level have an inherent need
to move their bodies.

Cont…
• Improved Eye-Hand Coordination
• Also referred to as visual motor integration
skills,
• Begin to develop during infancy.
• It controls the hand movement of a child
guided by his/her vision.
• This coordination is not sophisticated during
infancy.
• It reaches to the point of near independence
during the pre-school years.
• It continues to improve through middle
childhood. Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
Cont…
• Improved Body Coordination
• Balance and coordination are critical physical
attributes, help to maintain a controlled body
position.
• Pre and Elementary school children show increased

body coordination in activities like; running,
climbing etc.
• They can still fall easily.
• It is, thus, important to remain vigilant and ensure For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
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Cont…
• Improved Perceptual Abilities
• The ability to be able to deal with and
give meaning to sensory stimuli.
• Although the five basic senses are well-
developed at birth
• The child continues to develop perceptual
abilities during Pre and Elementary school
years.
• It helps the child to interact with the physical and
social world in an effective way.
Cont…
• Improved Gross and Fine Motor Skills
• Pre and elementary school children develop
better upper body mobility and coordination.
• They continue to develop improved gross
motor skills through age 7 and beyond.
• This results in refined fine motor skills for
children with greater precision.
• The development of fine motor skills is
crucial for other activities which require
increased physical controls and skills such as
writing, painting, etc.
Activities in Schools
• Physical activities play a critical role in developing the
basic movement skills of children.
• It is difficult for children to work on sedentary activities for
longer duration of time.
• So it is necessary to engage them into some physical activities.

Preschool and Kindergarten
• At this level students have sufficient control over their fine motor
skills.
• It help them to draw, write and engage in activities that require precise
control of hand and body movement.
• Some of the traditional physical activities for this age level involve;
• Running,
• Jumping/Skipping, Hopping
• Drawing, coloring, painting, cutting, pasting, gluing, using play
dough, rollers, and shape cutters etc.
Elementary Level
• At this age children continue to develop their gross and fine motor
skills.
• They become expert in activities which require precise hand and
body control.
• Daily physical activities should be incorporated into the school
routine to maintain active physical development.
• This can be done in different ways,
• For example;
• Introducing health and physical education classes
• Integrating physical activities into other areas of curriculum
UNIT–3
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
Online Workshop for B.Ed.

(1.5) 2020
Presented by Ehtesham
AIOU Islamabad
Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Discuss intelligence and how is it measured
2. Discuss theories of multiple intelligences
3. Review the controversies and issues in intelligence
4. Understand the intellectual characteristics of learners
5. Work out activities relevant to children's intellectual
development at pre and elementary school level

Concepts
DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE
• Dictionary has many definitions:
– Capacity for learning,
– Reasoning, understanding,
– Aptitude in grasping truths, relationships, facts, meanings,
– The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.
• Intelligence is thought of a combination of different attributes.
Example:
“The ability to solve problems and adapt and learn from experiences”

Theoretical Positions
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
• Robert Sternberg proposed that intelligence is composed of
three basic components including
– i) Analytical, ii) creative and iii) practical intelligence
• The analytical component deals with a person's ability to
solve problems.
• Creative intelligence refers to the ability to combine different
ideas to form something novel by thinking outside of the box.
• Practical intelligence involves applying knowledge and skills
into different kinds of environment.
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Intelligence Characteristics Related activities
Logical Ability to understand and use Experimenting, calculating,
mathematical numerical patterns, solving logical puzzles etc
mathematical operations,
reasoning and logic
Linguistic Ability to acquire and use Reading, writing, playing word
functions of language, games, listening to and telling
express oneself and stories etc
comprehend others
Spatial Ability to understand, Navigating, designing, visualizing,
recognize and manipulate drawing, solving jigsaw puzzles et
patterns, spaces and objects c
Musical Ability to appreciate and use Singing, creating tunes, humming
the components of music etc
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Intelligence Characteristics Related activities

Bodily- Ability to coordinate and Dancing, running, cycling,
kinesthetic use fine- and gross motor swimming etc
skills in a productive way
Interpersonal Ability to interact with Leading, organizing,
others in a productive way socializing etc
Intrapersonal Ability to appreciate one's Goal-setting, organizing,
own self to guide one's planning, dreaming, meditation
own life etc
Naturalistic Ability to appreciate the Understanding, working with
natural environment and caring for mother nature
etc
Emotional Intelligence
• Both Gardner and Sternberg emphasize the abilities to

understand one's own self and others.
• Contemporary theorists show considerable interest in
students' emotional intelligence which enables them to
understand emotions and express emotions appropriately.
• Monitor their own and other's emotions and feelings
• Allow emotions to guide their thinking and actions
• Criticized for broadening the concept of intelligence without
adequate research based evidence

Issues and Controversies
• One of the greatest controversies in the area of educational and
developmental psychology is:
– Whether intelligence is an inherited ability (nature)
– Whether it can be developed by an individual's personal and
contextual experiences (nurture)
• Early psychologists view intelligence as an inherent and
fixed capacity which cannot be altered
• It can be improved with practice and a supportive
environment.
• This view is known as the Incremental view of Intelligence.

MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
A number of standardized tests have been used to

measure intelligence:
1. Individual intelligence tests
2. Group intelligence tests
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
• Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that

children move through four different stages of mental
development.
• His theory focuses not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge
• But also on understanding the nature of intelligence.
• Piaget's stages are:
– Sensorimotor Stage: birth to 2 years
– Preoperational Stage: ages 2 to 7
– Concrete Operational Stage: ages 7 to 11
– Formal Operational Stage: ages 12 and up
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
• Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• The infant knows the world through their movements and
sensations
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they
cannot be seen (object permanence)
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around
them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in
the world around them
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words
and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
things from the perspective of others.
• While they are getting better with language and thinking, they
still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
• Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about
concrete events
• They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, for example
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still
very concrete
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from
specific information to a general principle
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
• Abstract thought emerges
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information
The Socio-cultural Theory
• Did NOT focus on the individual child but on the child as a product of
social interaction, especially with adults (parents, teachers).
• Focus on Dyadic Interactions (e.g., child being taught by a parent how to

perform some culturally specific action), rather than child by himself.
• Social world mediates children's cognitive development.

• Cognitive development occurs as child's thinking is molded by society in
the form of parents, teachers, and peers.
• This leads to peer tutoring as a strategy in classrooms.
• People's thinking differs dramatically between cultures because different

cultures stress different things.

Theory’s Principles and Concepts
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The difference between what a child can do independently
and what the child needs help from a more knowledgeable
person to do is the
Zone of
Proximal
Development
Theory’s Principles and Concepts
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Distance Between Actual and Potential Knowledge

Potential
Knowledge
Potential
ZPD
ZPD
Actual
Knowledge Actual
Two children with the same actual knowledge travel different distances to
their potential knowledge; therefore different ZPDs
Information Processing Approach
• Information processing approach presents another
major perspective which helps us to understand
cognitive development
• This approach views human brain as an active
information processing system, like a computer
machine.
• It examines how does information enter a human
mind, and how is it stored,

ORGANIZATION OF RELEVANT
ACTIVITIES IN THE CLASSROOM
• A variety of experiences affect the development of
cognition among children.
• Preschool and Kindergarten
• Elementary Level

Preschool and kindergarten
• The preschool and kindergarten children have more.
• Play, at this stage supports the cognitive development of
children. These include, for example, object play (e.g.,
building objects with blocks),
• Pretend play (role plays e.g., teacher),
• Social play (e.g., using different objects for different
purposes), locomotors play (e.g., playing tag in which
children run after each other).
• Hands-on activities (e.g., cutting out alphabets, conducting
simple science experiments, counting with the paddle-pop
sticks) are critical in developing advanced thinking and
cognition
Children's Cognitive Development
The rapid changes during the early years of school.
• A number of activities and strategies may help the elementary

school child to make cognitive progress at this stage.
• Allowing children to experiment,
• Encouraging discovery learning,
• Reading with the children,

Children's Cognitive Development
• Encouraging them to share ideas and opinions,
• Asking them to make comparisons,
• Classify and categorize objects, things or events,
• Engaging them in the drama and role playing,
• Justify their answers and actions,
• It is important to engage them in individual or small
group activities according to their interests, for example, a
portfolio or a group project.

OBJECTIVES
1. Define social development
2. Describe the meaning, nature and importance of social
development
3. Explain various social development theories
4. Describe the characteristics of learners at preschool,
kindergarten and elementary level
5. Describe various learning activities which can be provided at
preschool, kindergarten and elementary level
OVERVIEW
• Social – society – interpersonal relations
• Social development - closely associated with emotional
development.
• May be termed as socio-emotional development.
• It means that both of the developments occur simultaneously.
• Now the question is,
What is social development?
Social Development
• The ability to form positive and pleasing relationships with others is
known as ‘Social development’ (Cohen et al., 2005).
• It includes learning the values, knowledge and skills
• These skills enable children to relate effectively with their family,
school and the community.
• This kind of learning is delivered on to children by three means;
Directly by parents and teachers
Indirectly through social relationships within the family or with friends
Through children’s participation in the culture around them
Cont…
• With the help of their relationships with others
and their developing awareness of social
norms, values and expectations, children
construct a sense of identity (who they are).
Children not only learn how to react

appropriately in variety of situations, but also
play role in shaping their relationships
Cont…
• The development of the social and emotional health is important for:
Appropriate (right) behaviour
Understanding of life
Shift to adulthood
• Social emotional development helps shape a child into
“What he will become later in life by teaching proper reactions to emotional matters”?
Social Skills
Cont…
• Social skills are the ability to
Cooperate and play with others
Paying attention to adults and teachers
Making reasonable transitions from
activity to activity
• Emotional development is the process
of learning how to understand and
control emotions.
• Before moving further, stop for a while and think:
What is my definition of social development?
Social Development; Why is it Important?
Human beings are naturally social.
• It increases child’s capacity to be successful.
• It enhances mental health, success at work, and the ability to be
useful citizen.
• Social skills include various abilities such as;
Communication
Problem-solving For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
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Self-management And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Peer relations
• These skills enable an individual to build and maintain positive social
relationships with others.
Cont…
• Extreme social behaviors interfere with learning, teaching, and the classroom's
organization.
• Social competence is related to;
Peer acceptance
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Present success And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Future (post school) success
• In failure of appropriate display of social skills one may not be liked by others.
• Sometimes children work hard to display the new and better behaviors but are still
excluded by others
• It may be due to past reputation or because others don't like the newly learned
behaviors, don't seem "natural"
Cont…
• At other times, students may still fail
Because they have difficulty monitoring and controlling their behavior
When unexpected reactions occur
• Teacher can help students how to cope with such social problems and
develop adjustment ability in the circle.
• The social contexts in which children live have important influences
on their development.
• According to Bronfenbrenner,
‘Three of the contexts in which children spend much of their time are families,
peers, and schools’
How your contexts have influenced your
social development? Describe
Theories Related to Social Development
• There are various theorists who have given an insight into social
development.
• In the following section we will go through a number of theories
related to socio-emotional aspect of child development.
1. Attachment theory by John Bowlby (1907-1990)
2. Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)
3. Erik Erikson (1902 - 1994)
4. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896 - 1934)
5. Albert Bandura (1925) For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
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Attachment theory by John Bowlby
(1907-1990)
• John Bowlby (1907 - 1990) was a Psychoanalyst believed;
Mental health and behavioural problems could be attributed to
early childhood
• According to Bowlby,
“Attachment is a Psychological bond between humans. It lasts for a
long period of time”

Cont…
• Bowlby’s Evolutionary Theory of Attachment suggests,
Children are born pre-programmed to form attachments with others
This will help them survive
Babies are born with ‘social releaser behaviours’ such as crying, smiling,
cooing, and following that stimulate caregiving from adults
Adults are biologically programmed to respond to infant’s signals
Bowlby believed it was natural to need other people throughout the life span.
• According to Bowlby,
‘Because of attachment a baby remains connected to his mother’
Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)
• Mary Ainsworth was an American Child Development Psychologist.
• She is known for her work on Emotional Attachment of infants to their
caregiver.
• She worked with John Bowlby in development of Attachment Theory.
• According to Ainsworth,
• Attachment patterns, developed in infancy and toddlerhood remains throughout the
lifetime
• It is important for parents and teachers to focus on the attachment aspect in order
to help child to develop positive social relations in future.

Cont…
Ainsworth found four different categories of attachment;
1. Securely Attached
o Emotional bond between children and their caregivers
2. Avoidant-Insecurely Attached
o Child will show no reaction when caregiver leave or returns
o Child may ignore caregiver altogether.
o Child has little or no interest in exploring area or have interaction with
caregiver
o Child will treat strangers no different that caregiver
o Can result from caregiver being disengaged and emotionally detached from
child
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3. Anxious-Ambivalently Attached
o The child is extremely distressed, when the caregiver departs.
o Child is anxious of exploration and of strangers, even when the caregiver is present.
o When caregiver returns, the child will seek to remain close to the caregiver, but will be
resentful, and resistant to caregiver's attention
o Can be a result of a caregiver who ignores or tends to the child's needs according to the
caregiver's own needs or interest rather than in response to the child's cues.
4. Disorganized-Disoriented Attached
o When a child is upset by the separation of the primary caregiver.
o These children tend to avoid their caregiver when they return at times or may seem nervous
when approaching the caregiver
o Children rocking back and forth, freezing, throwing themselves on the floor and/or hitting
themselves repeatedly.
Erik Erikson (1902 - 1994)
• Erikson provided another important theory related to social development.
• His psychosocial theory of personality development has eight stages starting from infancy
to old age.
• Erikson emphasized the relationship between the social and emotional domains.
• He highlighted the importance of interpersonal relationships which play an important role
in an individual’s life in resolving a series of conflicts.
• In infancy, the conflict is Trust versus Mistrust.
Cont…
• Erikson hypothesized that;
• An infant will develop trust through interaction with an accessible and
responsive caregiver
• Infant will develop mistrust through interaction with a negative or
unresponsive and unavailable caregiver.
• Consequently, it is this development of trust in infancy that helps an individual to
succeed in the next stage of toddlerhood called Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt.
• Success of first stage lead him to the success of the next
• So child is more likely to develop a sense of his independence and control over his own
behavior and environment.
Cont…
• The next two stages, the development of Initiative versus Guilt and Industry versus Inferiority are
particularly critical for teachers.
• Early childhood is often the age when children first begin their participation in formal education.
• Children must learn to integrate their interest in personal exploration and the use of their
imaginations working with others.
• At Elementary aged children, the task of integrating personal interests and needs with those of
others becomes even more complex.
• They must learn to follow rules and “get things right”.
• Moreover, they learn to understand the perspective of others and work in groups.
• Deficiencies at any of these stages may lead to inability of children to take action on their own
• Developing a sense of inferiority, unproductiveness, and feelings of incompetence in regards to
their peers and their social roles and abilities.
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896 - 1934)
• Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky was born in Western Russia (Belorussia) in 1896. He
is a well-known theorist in the areas of social development and education.
• He claimed that cognitive functions are linked to the external (or social) world.
• Adults and more competent peers guide a child into the social world.
• Vygotsky explained that children learn in a systematic and logical way as a result
of dialogue and interaction with a skilled helper within a zone of proximal
development (ZPD).
• It has two boundaries.
• The lower boundary of the ZPD is activities the learner can do independently without
the help of a teacher or guide.
• The upper limit of the ZPD is those learning outcomes that the learner could not
achieve at this time even with the assistance of a competent teacher or mentor.
Cont…
• Scaffolding is another concept for guiding learning
presented by Vygotsky.
• Scaffolding is the process by which the teacher
continuously changes the level of support given to the
learner as the learning needs change.
• A teacher who is engaged in scaffolding has to be
involved at every step of instruction.
• Teacher gradually decreases the support provided to
the child while learning a skill.
• As he observes that the child can perform the skill
independently, he stops assisting the child.
• Both of these concepts are important in describing
how a child becomes socially competent.
Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura (1925)
• Famous for his "Social Learning Theory" (renamed as "Social Cognitive Theory").
• According to Bandura, development of social competence depends on three factors:
(1) Behaviors children and adults observe within their home or society
(2) Mental factors such as a student’s own expectations of success
(3) Social factors such as classroom and school climate
• Bandura’s reciprocal determinism model indicated all three factors are mutually related.
• Each factor affects others equally and changes in one factor will result in changes in the
others.
• In the classroom, a child’s beliefs about himself and his competence (self-efficacy) can
affect social behavior which, in turn, will have an impact on the classroom environment.
• At the same time, changes in the classroom that lead to a change in competence will have
an impact on self-efficacy.
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
• A Russian American psychologist
• Known for his Ecological System Theory which presented view about the impact
of the environment on human development.
• According to Bronfenbrenner, the school and the classroom represent an
important role in social development for children.
• Bronfenbrenner’s work advocates the importance of communication and
partnership between the family and school in a child’s social development.

Ecological System Theory
Cont…
• Ecological theory stated that people develop within a series of environmental
systems.
• MICRO-SYSTEM which includes home, family, neighborhood and school where
the individual spends a large part of his time.
• MESO-SYSTEM functions as interconnections between the micro-systems.
• EXO-SYSTEM involves links between a social setting in which the individual does
not have an active role and the individual's immediate context. For example, a child’s
experience at home may be influenced by the parents’ experiences at work.
• MACRO-SYSTEM describes the culture in which individuals live.
• Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status,
poverty, and ethnicity.
• CHRONO-SYSTEM is the deriving of environmental events and changes over the life
course, as well as socio-historical conditions.
Main Points
• Social development of child depends upon many factors;
Attachment to mother or caregiver
Development of healthy interpersonal relationships
Interaction between child and some competent adult
Observation and Internalization of Social Behaviors
Various Ecological Systems surrounding the child
• A teacher must have the knowledge of all such factors which affect the
Socio Emotional Development of a child.

Characteristics of Learners and Classroom
Activities to Promote Social Skill
• Social skills are ways of dealing with others that create healthy
and positive interactions.
• Children who have social skills can;
Communicate clearly, calmly, and respectfully
Show consideration for the feelings and interests of their peers
Take responsibility for their actions
Able to control themselves
Able to assert themselves when needed
• Children learn social skills through
• Experiences with peers
• Instructions from their parents
• Time with adults
Social Characteristics of Children at
Various Stages of Development
• A young child’s social life evolves in relatively predictable ways.
• The social network grows from an intimate relationship with
Parents or other guardians to include other family members
Nonrelated adults and peers
Social interaction extends from home to neighborhood
From nursery school to formal school
• Basic characteristics of children of different ages permit a teacher to
better understand and plan for their growth.

Social Characteristics of Preschool
Children
• At this age, kids
Do not have the ability to understand other people’s emotions or perceptions.
In their own world
Egocentric; however, the adults in their lives still have a major influence on
them.
Beginning to show their independence and capabilities
• At this age, they are also;
Eager to meet and play with new kids
But may not know how to approach them due to shyness or fear of rejection
• Some of the pre-schoolers prefer to play on their own
• Parents and teachers need to encourage them to make an effort to
play in a group with other kids of their age
Cont…
• Social characteristics of preschoolers can be summarized as:
Becoming more social
Moving from parallel play to associative play. Does joint activities
Helpful mainly because of interest in matching words to actions
Beginning of independence
By four growing sense of initiative and self-reliance
Becoming aware of basic gender identity
Imaginary play mates not uncommon
Factors effecting social development at
pre-school level
• Research findings indicate the following factors which effecting social
development at preschool level;
• Peer relationships
• During the preschool years, peers begin to play an important role in children’s social and
cognitive development.
• Pro-social behavior
‘Pro-social behaviors are voluntary actions towards others such as caring, sharing,
comforting and cooperation’
• Play
• Most of a preschooler’s interaction with peers occurs during play.
• Play is most important because it exercises their linguistic, cognitive, and social skills and
contributes to their general personality development .
Activities to develop social skills among pre
schoolers
• There are many preschool socialization activities that teachers
can use in their classroom that develop and promote
friendships in young children like:
• Games
• Name Song
• Free Conversation Game by Speech Paths
• Listening Activities
• Blocks by Hands On As We Grow
• Make Popsicle Puppets and Practice
Tools for Promoting Social Learning
• Nurturing Social Environment
• Conflict Resolution Steps
Social Characteristics of Learners at
Kindergarten/Early Primary
(Five and Six Year olds)
These included:
i. Very social; visit friends on one’s own.
ii. Very self sufficient
iii. Persists longer at task. Can plan and carry out activities and return to project next day
iv. Plays with two or three friends often just a short time only and then switches play
group
v. Beginning to conform. Is very helpful
vi. By six becoming very assertive. Often bossy, dominating a situation and ready with
advice.
vii. Needs to be first; has difficulty losing
viii. Possessive and boastful
ix. Craves affection. Often has a love/hate relationship with parents
x. Gender roles becoming more refined. Has tendency to gender type.
xi. Becomes clothes-conscious
Activities to promote social development at
kindergarten/ early primary
• Social play
• The Name Game
• Emoji Feeling Faces: Feelings Recognition
• PAPER PLATE EMOTION MASKS
• Feelings Activities & Fun Ideas for Kids
• Feelings Identification Activities
Social characteristics of Learners at Late
Kindergarten/Primary Level
(Seven and Eight Year olds)
Learners at late kindergarten/ primary level possess the following characteristics:
i. Beginning to prefer own gender; has less boy/girl interaction
ii. Peer groups begin to form
iii. Security in gender identification
iv. Self-absorption
v. Begins to play and work independently
vi. Can be argumentative
vii. Seven still not a good loser and often a tattletale
viii. By eight play games better and intent to winning
ix. Conscientious; can take responsibility for routine chores
x. Less selfish
xi. Able to share. Wants to please
xii. Still enjoys and engages in fantasy plays
Activities at Primary level to Develop
Social Skills
• Asking Questions
• Sharing
• Rolling a ball back and forth
• Handing toys to each other
• Passing the ball: A game for honing group
communication skills
• Teaming up to sort animals: Matching species
with the right habitats
• Story-based discussions about emotion`
Social Characteristics of Learners at
Elementary Level
• At this level students may exhibit the following characteristics:
• The elementary children want to expand social relationships beyond the home
environment.
• Peers become extremely important to elementary aged children; they are
constantly building relationships.
• They naturally form groups; they want to be with their friends. Their constant
talking is really evidence of this focus on building relationships.
• These children want to be like their friends, and to be accepted by the group is
extremely important.
• There is a cooperative, joint focus as opposed to a competitive one. This too is a
sign that children are learning to build community.
• Elementary children are looking for people to admire. They may be inspired by
older children, a family member or their teachers.
Social Skills at Elementary level
• Active listening
• The blindfolded walk
• Improvisational Storytelling
• Matching Game
• Face It
• Reading Faces / Interpreting
Emotions
• Have a staring contest
• Books about Idioms
Unit–5
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
After reading the unit students will be able to:
1. Define emotional development
2. Describe the meaning, nature and importance of emotional
development
3. Explain theories of emotional development
4. Describe characteristics of learners at various stages of
development from preschool to elementary level
5. Describe various activities provided at certain stages for the
learning purpose
WHAT IS EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT?
• Emotional development is the beginning of a child's
experience, understanding, expression, and management of
emotions from birth to late adolescence.
• These questions play an important part in child emotional
development;
– How do children start to understand;
– Who they are?
– What they are feeling?
– What they expect to receive from others?
• Children’s social-emotional development influences all other
areas of development:
– Cognitive, motor, and language development
– All are greatly affected by how a child feels about himself and how he
is able to express ideas and emotions.
Healthy Social-Emotional Development
Healthy social-emotional development
includes the ability to:
• Form and sustain positive relationships
• Experience, manage, and express emotions
• Explore and engage with the environment
• Children having well-developed social-
emotional skills are also able to:
• Express their ideas and feelings
• Show empathy towards others
• Manage their feelings of frustration and
displeasure more easily
• Feel self-confident
• More easily make and develop friendships
• Succeed in school
Why Emotional Development is Important?
• Emotional development is vital in helping children grow into

well adjusted adults.
• Being able to identify different feelings, express them and
process the difficult emotions enables children to be
healthy emotionally and psychologically.
• Infant and toddlers whose families and other caregivers focus
on building trust and healthy relationship set the stage for the
life time learning.
Emotional development involves:
• Understanding how and why emotions appear
• Recognizing one’s own feelings and those of others
• Developing effective ways of managing them
Aspects of Social Emotional Development
i Caring environment
• Developing kind, trusting, relationships with responsive
caregivers in early childhood settings are essential
ii. Emotional knowledge and emotional regulation
• Children at very early age are capable of recognizing basic
emotions particularly happy and sad
• The act of labeling an emotion helps to move it to the
language/cognitive part of brain.
• This creates a space between feeling and action which
ultimately helps children to process feelings in a matter that is
more cognitive than reactive.
ASPECTS OF SOCIAL EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
iii. Social Understanding

• At the age of four children begin to understand that others have internal
worlds where they keep feelings and thoughts, and that certain
events/actions are causes for certain emotional reactions.
iv. Relationship management
• The knowledge of social norms influences the interaction between
children. For example, it helps a child how to express emotions effectively
or to respond to problems.
v. Social responsibility
• The goal of social emotional education is to enable children to be internally
motivated to act kindly; and to develop a system of ethical values directed
toward feeling for others.
FACTORS AFFECTING EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
There are many factors, both internal and external, which impact
a child's level of emotional development.
Internal (the genetic part of an individual's personality)
• Children who have more tolerant and relaxed temperaments
incline towards easier learning of emotional management
• Children who have difficult temperaments have a tendency to
make efforts in order to regulate their own emotions.
External
• The environment and role models will also impact how
children react to the world emotionally.
Erikson’s First Four Stages of Social-Emotional
Development
Erikson’s First Four Stages of Approximate Description
Social-Emotional Age
Development Stage
Basic trust vs. basic mistrust Birth to 12-18 Infants need loving and trusting relationships
An infant needs consistent caregivers months with parents and other caregivers to develop a
who provide for their basic needs in a sense of trust. Infants who do not receive
nurturing and caring environment. consistent and nurturing care nurturing care are
at risk for developing a sense of mistrust of
others.
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt 18 months to 3 During this stage the child becomes more
Toddlers need caring adults who provide years independent, learning to walk, run, climb, build,
a supervised, safe, environment that draw and talk. Toilet learning is a key skill for
provides the child with opportunities to this stage. Children who are supported and
learn new physical skills. supervised by adults as they develop new skills
and independence feel responsible and capable.
Children who receive negative messages from
parents and caregivers may begin to doubt their
abilities and lose self-confidence.
Erikson’s First Four Stages of Social-Emotional Development
Erikson’s First Four Stages of Approximat Description
Social-Emotional e Age
Development Stage
Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 6 years At this age children become more
Preschool children need a safe independent, assertive and take more
environment that encourages initiative.
making choices. Teachers and other adults need to provide
an environment that supports the child’s
efforts but also helps guide their activities
to prevent “unhappy” endings that may
create feelings of guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority 6 to 12 years School age children are learning to develop
School age children need an more complex social and academic skills.
environment with encouraging Children who experience success discover
adults that provides opportunities to that being productive is satisfying. On the
develop and create their own ideas other hand, children who fail in school or
other settings may begin to feel inferior
and inadequate. Adult guidance that
deemphasizes mistakes and focuses on
problem solving helps focus the child on
accomplishments.
EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS AT
PRESCHOOL LEVEL
Emotions of preschool children are largely on surface.

They exhibit following characteristics:
• Laugh when adults laugh or on an odd event. It shows
expansion of humor
• Less negativism
• Commencement of phobias and fears that may prolong to age
five
• At four years intentional lying may begin
Activities for Social and Emotional
Development
I Can Help
• Difficult for children of preschool age to fully grasp emotional
concepts, especially complex emotions.
• Teacher should focus on basic emotions such as happy, sad,
angry, and hurt.
• Materials:
– Large pieces of chart paper/poster board
– Markers
Cont…
• What to do:
1. Draw a happy face on top of the chart paper and ask the child
what he sees and what it means.
2. Ask him to tell things that make him happy.
3. Ask what he can do to feel happy.
4. Draw an unhappy face and repeat the process. Also ask the child
what he can do if he sees a friend who is unhappy.
5. Draw an angry faces well as someone who is upset.
• Variation:
– Talking about emotions with a child can be made easier by using
books.
– Find out some books in Urdu language or in mother tongue,
which are written and designed for children of this age.
EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
LEARNERS AT KINDERGARTEN LEVEL
At age five children begin to control emotions and try to express

them in socially acceptable ways.
• Frequent quarrels among children but these quarrels are of
short duration.
• At six there is change in emotions and child seems to be in
emotional confusion. New kind of worries arise by joining
school.
• Anger outburst (explosion; expression of anger) may appear
• Development of conscience (sense of right and wrong) at five
starts
• At six acceptance of rules develops and often there is rigid
insistence on obeying the rules in all conditions.
Activities to Develop Emotional Skills
• Making a Train
• Group projects useful to achieve some goal
• Materials:
– Cardboard boxes
– Paint Crayons
– Markers
• What to do:
– 1. Arrange cardboard boxes for the children to make a train together.
– 2. Ask children to decorate the boxes and then put them together like a train
(or any other object that might be interesting to them).
– 3. Have limited supplies available to support children in sharing the materials
as they make the train together.
– 4. Talk about sharing while the children are building and decorating the train.
– Give praise comments or acknowledgement when children share.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS AT
ELEMENTARY LEVEL
Learners at elementary level may exhibit the following

characteristics:
• Difficulty in starting things but will continue to end
• Worries related to school performance
• Beginning of empathy sees others view point
• Sense of humor expressed in riddles, practical jokes, and
nonsense words
• Discrimination between good and bad but still immature
• Is sensitive and gets hurt easily
• Has sense of possession and takes care of possession (makes
collections)
Activities to Promote Emotional Health at
Elementary Level
• A teacher can promote social-emotional development in classroom if he is;
– Sensitive to children’s needs,
– Helps them feel secure and confident,
– Acts as a model for effective social behavior
• Tone of voice
Learning Objective: To help children recognize that how things are said can be
just as important as what is said:
Skill: Emotional communication, self-awareness: Ask the students what they
think “tone of voice” means .write down all of the ideas on board.
• Explain to the students: The tone of your voice— how you are actually saying
something—communicates what you feel.
• Often, your tone of voice can give stronger message than your words.
• Sometimes, how you say something can change the meaning of what you are
saying.
• It can even give the message that you don’t really mean what you are saying.
Activity
• Ask the children to sit in a circle. Going around the circle, ask
them to give examples of voice tone that can change the
meaning of what’s being said or communicate the wrong
feeling
• Example 1: The first child in the circle says,
– “I love ice cream” in a bored voice.
– The next child then says, “I love ice cream” as though she really
does love it.
• Example 2: The next child says,
– “I have to do so much homework!” in a happy voice.
– The next child says the same sentence in a tone he thinks
appropriate, such as unhappy or angry.
– Provide every child a chance to participate in the activity.
Unit # 6
Moral Development
Moral
Development
Moral development
is the gradual
development of an
individuals concept of
right or wrong –
conscious, religious
values, social attitudes
and certain behaviour.
Factors Affecting Moral Development
Family
Gender Age
Factors
Society
and School
Culture
Peer
Group
Importance of Moral Development
Society cannot work in a proper way in the absence of
ethical and moral principles on what is right and what is
wrong.
Impact of moral development will be reflected through
individual’s personality, behavior and attitudes.
The quality of inter personal relations depends on the
quality of manners and behaviors people act upon.
Starting
from individual level, morality spreads out to society and
is an important element for peace and unity.
Thus, teaching positive values becomes essential.
THEORIES RELATED TO MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget’s Theory
• Jean Piaget (1896–1980) focused specially on the moral
lives of children. He studied the way children play games
in order to learn about children’s beliefs about right and
wrong.
• He termed the ways as Heteronymous and Autonomous
morality.
Jean Piaget’s Theory
Heteronymous Morality
This is the first stage of moral development in Piaget’s
theory. It arises from 2 to 7 years of age. Here, justice and
rules are considered of as unchangeable things of the
world which are beyond control of people.
Autonomous Morality
This is exhibited by older children (about 10 years of age
and older). The child becomes aware that rules and laws
are created by people and that, in judging an action, one
should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the
consequences.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory?
• Kohlberg’s theory holds that
moral reasoning, which is the
basis for ethical behavior, has
six identifiable
developmental constructive
stages - each more adequate
at responding to moral
dilemmas than the last
Kohlberg’s Six Stages
Pre-Conventional Moral Development

 Stage 1
 Stage 2
Conventional Moral Development
 Stage 3
 Stage 4
Post-Conventional Moral Development
 Stage 5
 Stage 6
Level 1: Preconventional Morality 0-9
years
•Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type
of reasoning. At this stage, children see and obey rules in order to avoid punishment
•Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not
punished
Stage 2 – Individualism and Purpose
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible,
but only if it serves one's own interests.
Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous. Believes in equal sharing in
that everyone gets the same, regardless of need. Believes that the end justifies the
means.
Will do a favor only to get a favor
•Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does
Level 2: Conventional Reasoning / Morality 10-15 years
Stage 3 - Interpersonal Norms

This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social
expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Finds peer approval very important. Feels that intensions are as
important as deeds and expects others to accept intentions or promises
in place of deeds
Stage 4 – Social System Morality
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as
a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and
order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
Is a duty doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed.
Respects authority and obeys it without question
Level 3: Post-conventional Reasoning / Morality –
16+
Stage 5 - Community Rights versus Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and
beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society,
but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest
number of people
Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual
Stage 6 – Universal ethical Principles
It is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this
stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they
conflict with laws and rules.
Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by social
rules and customs and ready to accept the consequences for disobedience of
the social rule he/she has rejected
Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value
MORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS
Preschool years
Helpful and caring of others.
Self-interest and empathy.
Identification in right and wrong.
Identification of good and bad people
Strict equality
Reciprocity (mutuality); merit, deserving
Kindergarten
Absolutes right or wrong
Rules should never be broken.
own perspective
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development:
 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior?

 Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking
 But there is a big difference between knowing;
 ‘what we ought to do versus our actual actions’
 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider?
 Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral
development overemphasizes the concept as justice when making
moral choices.
 Other factors such as compassion, caring, and other
interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral
reasoning.
Cont…
 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western
philosophy?
 Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights
 Collectivist cultures stress the importance of society
 Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that
Kohlberg's theory does not account for.
 Kohlberg conducted this study on males
 So his theory did not include the caring perspective
 While females are more appropriate than males to
worry about interpersonal relationships
 They take responsibility for the wellbeing of others.
Unit–7
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
After the study of this unit the students shall be able to:
1. Describe what is language and how it develops?
2. Different theories regarding the development of language.
3. Explain diverse components involved in the development of
language.
4. Describe how environment effects the development of
language.
5. Explain development of language at preschool and
Kindergarten level.
6. Development of language at elementary level.
What is Language?
• Language is a communication of thoughts and

feelings through a system of arbitrary signals such as
voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols.
• When you know a language, you can speak and be
understood by others who know that language
• Five-year-olds already know their first language(s)
Language Development
• At nine months infants can distinguish the sound of their own
language
• By 18 months children posses a vocabulary of about 3 to
100 words
• At around 30 months children began to combine words into
two- word utterances or telegraphic speech(it consist of
mostly nouns and verbs with functioning words mostly
omitted).
• Ages 2.5 –5 the vocabulary increases tremendously.
• Vocabulary becomes more adult-like
Referential Language Development
• Children at first express only words and afterward join them
together
• At first into sentences comprising of two-word and later into
sentences comprising of three-word.
• It is a style of right time learning of language in which
children use language for the most part to label objects.
• This style is useful to young children because this way
extends their understanding of vocabulary
Expressive Language Development
• Kids first utter sounds like babbles that copy the
rhythm and beat speech of others.
• Most kids utilize a blend of these styles.
• Another commonly known style involved in language
learning is expressive style.
• In this style little children apply language to discuss
their specific emotions and requirements.
Cont….
• Language development is the process to understand
and communicate language.
• Referential language development is denoted as
labeling different objects.
• In expressive language development children discuss
their emotions and needs
Transitions in Language Development
• First transition occurs when first year ends and it proceeds in

the school year with the emergence of words into essential
vocabulary.
• Second transition happens when children change from saying
one word at once to joining words into expressions and basic
sentence about the end of school year.
• Third transition happens when kids move afar utilizing
simple sentences to express one thought to complex sentences
communicating different thoughts and the relationship
between them
Key Signs of Language Development
• Babbling and gestures: Children dynamically make sounds from birth to
onward years to attract attention. These continue till the mid of the first
year.
• Crying: Infants even cry during childbirth which can indicates trouble but
these sounds indicate many other things also.
• Cooing: Children first utter murmuring sounds which are pronounced from
backside of the throat and generally convey delight on interaction with the
care giving persons.
• Babbling: Amid center of the first year children babble, that is they deliver
series of consonants.
• Gestures: Newborn children begin utilizing motions. They may wave bye-
bye, node their head to signify "yes".
Recognizing Language Sounds
• From Birth up to Six Months of age newborn children perceive sounds

when they change, despite what language they originate.
• Show signs of language development
• First words: Between 8-12 months of age, babies frequently show their
first conception of words.
• A Child first word may be the name of individuals, well known animals,
toys, body parts, garments and family things.
• One and a Half Year Old baby can talk around fifty words.
• On the other hand near the age of almost Two Years they can have words
around 200.
• Two words utterances: Children during the age of Two and half Years
speak two word expressions.
• To go on expression with just two words, the kids depend very much on
motion, manner and the background.
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
The Learning Perspective

• This point of view contends that children copy what they see
and hear. Kids learn from punishment.
The Nativist Perspective
• Nativist perspective views that people are naturally inclined
to learn language.
The Inter-actionist Perspective
• Interactionists are of the view that we learn language through
our interaction with others
• Views language development in social context
Phoneme
• A phoneme is a basic unit of phonology.
• It is the smallest unit of sound
• May cause a change of meaning within a language.
• It doesn't have meaning by itself.
• Phonemes match up to the sounds of the alphabet
• Not always a connection between a letter and a phoneme
– For example, the word “hat” has three phonemes:
– 1- /h/ 2- /a/ 3- /t/
• The word "shape," has five letters but only three phonemes:
• 1- /sh/ 2- /long-a/ 3- /p/
• English language has around 45 different phonemes
• Phonemes associated to letters or combinations of letters
• A phoneme can have a specific pronunciation in one word and a different
pronunciation in another word
Phonology
• Study of sound patterns and their meanings, both within and

across languages
• Systematic organization of sounds
• Possible speech sounds that we could all transcribe
• A relatively small number of these sounds is used
contrastively in a language
• Study of verbal communication structure within the
language is known as the phonology
• It is the theoretical aspect of language
• The smallest unit of sound to formulate the language is called
the phoneme
Morphology
• The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of:
– Morph means shape, form
– Ology Means the study of something
• Morphemes include base words, like. “Cat” “Cow”
• It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words,
such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.
– Example
– affixes like Un- Un-planned, Un-seen, Un-pleasant
• In Linguistics, Morphology is the study of words
– How they are formed
– their relationship to other words in the same language
Syntax
• In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and
processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given
language
• Usually including word order
• Its study allows us to understand the rules about how
language works.
• A set of rules for constructing full sentences out of words
and phrases
• For example, the English sentences the Ahmad ate the
apple and the apple ate the Ahmad do not have the same
meaning, even though they contain the exact same words.
Semantics
• Semantics is the study of meaning.
– What is meaning?
– How is meaning created in language?
– How do people understand language and why do we
understand it like we do?
• One of the main reasons we use language is to pass
meaning from one person to another
• Semantics deals with it
• It refers to the ways in which a language conveys
meaning
• Semantics moves beyond the literal meaning of
words in language and is culture dependent.
Pragmatics
• It is the study of human actions, thoughts and linguistic signs
in real situations.
• Pragmatics refers to the ways the members of a community
use the language.
• The way they speak to their parents is not the same way they
speak with our fellow children.
• The conversational style in our day to day conversation is
much more different from the language of a book.
• Pragmatics deals with knowing the difference between the
two styles and when to use which style.
Summary
• Phoneme is the basic unit of language and is concerned with
the sounds of alphabets.
• Phonology deals with the sounds in a language.
• Morphology is related to the vocabulary building.
• Syntax deals with the structure of sentence and the sequence of
words in it.
• Semantics studies meanings in a language.
• Pragmatics studies human actions and their explanation by
signs in language.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON
LANGUAGE
• Language development is an ever changing process.
• It is fairly a procedure that is always advancing.
• The rate of these developments is affected by the environment
which plays an essential part in the Language development of a kid.
• Language researchers see the similar attitude in teenager’s language
acquisition everywhere throughout the world.
• Different perspectives exist that explain the effects of environment
on language development.
• Skinner believes that language is gained in the same manner as
behavior.
• Another perspective sees inheritance as vital in influencing language
development.
• Some view that children learn language through cognitive skills but
some others attach social context to it.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AT PRESCHOOL AND
KINDERGARTEN LEVEL
From Receptive • Language learning begins since childbirth.
birth Language • They pay attention to the verbal communication
• They wake up by loud noise and feel still due to the noise.
Expressive
Language • Children formulate sounds which realize that they are
encountering agony or joy.
0-3 Receptive • At this stage, children form out how to swing to others when
mont Language they talk.
hs of • The children smiles when listens to the voice.
age • They will quiet at the noise of it on the off chance that they
are weeping.
Expressive • When an important individual comes in the vision, the child

Language smiles at.
• The children repeat the identical sound a lot and “coo and
goo” when they are satisfied.
4 to 6 Receptive • At this stage, the children act in response to "no".
months Language • The children likewise are receptive to ups and downs in
tone of voice except to the sounds other than speech.
Expressive • Murmuring sounds happen when we play with the

Language children.
• They produce sounds when they are involved merrily in
activities.
• The children babble at this stage and the children seems to
be talking.
7-12 Receptive • The children at this time clearly listens when we spoke to
month Language him.
• The child looks at the face when we call him by his name.
• Children realize the names of familiar objects (Mamma,
Feeder, Glass).
Expressive • The child utilizes speech or different sounds keeping in

Language mind the end goal to stand out enough to be noticed.
• child's first words (most likely not talked unmistakably)
have appeared! ("Baba", "Cato", "Bye Bye", " Ta Ta)
Cont…
1-2 Receptive • Children focal point is pictures in the book when we
years Language call their names, and they can indicate body parts
when they are asked (ear, neck, hand).
Expressive • The child is builds up new words as time goes on.

Language • They can ask two-word questions like "Whose papa?"
"What's cat?"
2-3 Receptive • At this point little child will comprehend two stage
years Language summons ("Get your socks and place them in the
crate") and comprehend differentiating ideas or
implications like hot/cool, stop/go, in/on and decent.
Expressive • The baby may inquire, or attract the attention for

Language something by identification it ("Apple") or by its traits
("Red!").
Cont…
3-4 Receptive • The child understands simple questions like
years Language "Whose?", "When?" and "Why?”
• They can listen to us when we call them and
even from out of room.
• The child discusses happenings, campaigns
Expressive and interesting encounters around him with his
Language friends and mates
4-5 Receptive • At this stage, children are being able to value
years Language different stories.
• They can answer crucial questions related to
them.
Expressive • Children talk easily in a quite easy to listen
Language manner. They can develop long and clear-cut
sentences ("We went to the hotel and ate fish
which was delicious; it was a great fun for all
of us").
LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT AT
ELEMENTARY LEVEL
Vocabulary and Grammar
• They turn out to be conscious of the procedures and perceptions connected
with words and they turn out to be more logical in their way to deal with
words.
• This logical methodology is clear if youngsters are requested the first thing
that rings a bell when they heard a word.
• They figure out how to utilize language in a more associated manner.
• They can deliver relating sentences to each other and creating portrayals,
characterizing stories that hang together and bode well.
• They must have the capacity to depict things orally before they can be
relied upon to destroy those composed assignments.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AT
ELEMENTARY LEVEL
Meta-linguistic awareness
• Awareness that language has the potential more
prominent than that of straightforward images.
• Awareness that words are distinct from their
referents (meaning lie in our mind and not in the
names, i.e. Mishell is Mishell and Danyal is
Danyal).
• Awareness that language has a structure that can
be controlled (understanding that language is
impressionable:
• Things can be changed and composed in a wide
range of courses (for instance, if something is
composed in a linguistically erroneous manner,
you can transform it).
Unit # 8
Human Learning &
Classroom Teaching
Objectives
• At the end of the unit, trainee students

will be able to:
1. Describe experiments that led to the
theories of Associative Learning and
cognitive learning.
2. Differentiate between the associative and
the cognitive learning theories.
3. Describe how teachers can use learning
theories to help students learn complex
skills.
4. Relate the importance of conditioning in
learning.
Meaning and Nature of Learning
• According to Munn,
“Learning is more or less permanent incremental modification of
behaviour which results from activity, special, training or observation.”
• According to Gates,
“Learning is medication of behaviour through experience.”
• Kingsley and Garrey emphasize that,
“The act of adjustment of environment is the process of learning.”
According to them,
“learning is a process by which an organism adopts a
situation to modify its behaviour in order to overcome
obstacles”
Cont…
• Thus, the Process of Learning includes the following:
a. Acquisition of new experiences
b. Retention of old experiences in the form of impressions or skills
c. Development and modification of experience
d. Synthesis and organization of the old and the new experiences,
resulting in novel pattern called learning.
• A very comprehensive definition is given by Crow and Crow as under:
– Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, habits and attitudes.
– It involves new ways of doing things
– It operates in an individuals’ attempt to overcome obstacles or to
adjust to new situations.”
Cont…
The following points will help us to understand the
Nature of Learning as Modification Behaviour.
– Learning versus Maturation
– Permanence of Learning
– Changes in behaviour may take place in the desirable
direction or in the undesirable direction.
– Learning can be both incidental and intentional
– Learning involves both overt and covert processes.
– Learning results from reinforced practice. Practice makes
a man perfect.
– Learning is both a process and a product.
General Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is Adjustment
2. Learning is Growth
3. Learning is Organizing Experience
4. Learning is Purposeful
5. Learning is Active
6. Learning is intelligent and Creative
7. Learning Affects the Conduct of Learners
8. Learning is the Product of the Environment
Laws of Learning
Fundamental laws of learning are:

1.Law of Readiness
i. Emphasizes the importance of readiness to learn
ii. “A person feels ready to learn or to act, he learns or acts, more
effectively and with greater satisfaction than when not ready”.
iii. Learner must be mentally prepared to learn
iv. Emphasizes the importance of motivation in learning
v. Learner must be brought in the proper frame of mind, and his
curiosity must be increased for bringing about effective learning
Cont...
2. Law of Exercise
i. Implies that learning takes place by
exercising, i.e.
ii. By doing or by actively participating in
the performance.
iii. That is why this law is also called ‘Law
of Use’ and ‘Law of Disuse’.
3. Law of Effect
i. Implies that if efforts are accompanied
by a feeling of achievement, then
inspired to learn, and therefore effective
learning takes place.
Cont...
• Law of Recency
– We remember these things better, which are comparatively
recent.
– This emphasizes the importance of revision.
– The students should revise occasionally so that the things are
again refreshed in their mind.
– Revision should be done after short intervals and also just
before the examination.
– Without revision a student is apt to forget even the best
assimilated matter.
• Law of Intensity of Stimulus
– The stronger the stimulus, the greater the learning.
– A student, who is more serious and enthusiastic about his
studies, will make greater progress and achievement.
– The function of the teache is to provide greater stimulus to
the students.
– Periodic tests and examinations are great stimulants.
Learning as Modification of Behaviour
• Learning does not only the acquisition of knowledge or skill

• It includes acquiring of attitudes, values, likes dislikes, and a
many other habits.
• A number of psychologists have defined learning as ‘change
or modification of behavior.’
• Learning is the process by which an organism,
– As a result of its interaction with a situation,
– Acquires a new mode of behavior,
– Which tends to persist
– Affect the general behavioral pattern of the organism to some degree
Cont…
• According to G.A Kimble,

– “Learning refers to a more or less permanent
change in behaviour which occurs as a result
of practice.”
• Learning stands for relatively permanent
change or modification of behaviour.
• Learning is the result of reinforced practice.
Basis of Behaviour
• An individual tries to modify his behaviour to meet his internal

and external needs.
• Needs and requirements therefore are the basic causes of
learning.
• These needs can also be classified in the following way:
(1) Basic Needs food, shelter, sex, etc.
(2) Psychological Needs satisfaction of urges and desires, pleasures and
happiness.
(3) Normative Needs, attainment of aims and objectives, observing norms
and values, acting according to the standards set by adults and society.
Conditions of Learning
• Motivation
– Motivation means interest, teacher must create interest of
the students in learning.
• Clarity of Presentation
– The subject matter must be presented clearly before the
students, so that they understand it properly.
• Providing Direct Experiences
– Personal observation is must for successful learning
• Level of Intelligence
– Learning depends upon the level of intelligence of the
learners
Cont…
• Academic Atmosphere
– A very important and significant condition of learning is the provision
of academic and intellectual type of atmosphere for the learners.
• Effective Methods of Teaching
– Better and effective methods of teaching are essential for learning.
• Reinforcement
– Reinforcement is a procedure of associating pleasant or unpleasant
experiences objects or events with the responses, made by the learner.
• Practice
– There is a great truth in the dictum that ‘Practice makes a man perfect’.
Imitation in Learning
• The most common general innate tendency of the child is imitation.
• It involves copying others, it implies “doing as others do’.
• Imitation is cognitive in nature.
• Suggestion two has been described as unconscious imitation, but the
important thing in imitation is that it is action oriented.
• All actions are borrowed.
• We generally imitate those who are elder to us or whom we held in esteem
this is particularly true of children.
• They like to copy their teachers and parents.
• It is manifested in their dress and talk.
• There is no logically conceived ground in imitation.
• It is a unconscious process but can be easily, noticed by others.
Type of Imitation
• Drever has mentioned two types of imitation i.e.
– Deliberate Imitation and Unconscious Imitation
• In Deliberate Imitation, a person imitates
deliberately.
• Put on hair-styles of famous film stars; imitate their
modes of action deliberately.
• In Unconscious Imitation one imitates others
unconsciously.
• Children generally imitate others unconsciously.
It is defined as learning process in which a new
response becomes associate with a particular
stimulus.
It is of two types;
1) Classical conditioning
2) Trial and error learning
Associationism
• Two events can become associated

with each other
• When think of one event,
automatically recall the other.
• Aristotle proposed for an
association,
“Two events must be similar to or
opposite to each other”
• The whole thought process reflects
the concepts of association of ideas.
Conditioning
• Conditioning is a behavioral process

whereby a response becomes more
frequent or more predictable in a given
environment as a result of reinforcement.
• Reinforcement typically being a stimulus
or reward for a desired response.
• Conditioning is considered the
fundamental form of learning
• It is the development of earliest response
patterns in new born infants.
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is a
learning process in which
 A previously neutral
stimulus
 Becomes associated with
another stimulus
 Through repeated pairing
with that stimulus
Extinction and Recovery
Extinction
• It takes place when the reinforcement for a particular
response is withdrawn.
• If the US is subsequently omitted, the CR will gradually
diminish, ( as illustrated by previous figure).
• As after about ten trials or so there is no salivation in
response to the bell, if it is not followed by food.
Spontaneous Recovery
• When the experimenter allows the dog to rest for a certain
period, and then only rings bell again, the salivation
response reappears.
• The recovered CR is weaker than it was after acquisition.
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Connectionism Theory by E. L.
Thorndike
• E. L. Thorndike was inspired by the writings of Charles
Darwin.
• Thorndike concluded that animals, unlike humans, do not
learn by developing some insight rather, they learn through
trial-and-error.
• In a typical experiment, a hungry cat is placed in a cage
whose door is held fast by a simple latch, and a piece of fish
is placed just outside the cage.
• Initially, the cat tries to reach the food by extending its paws
through the bars. When this fails, the cat moves about the
cage, engaging in a variety of behaviors.
Cont…
• At some point it accidentally hits the latch, frees itself, and eats the
fish. Over a number of trials, the cat eliminates many of its
irrelevant behaviors, and eventually it opens the latch and frees itself
as soon as it is placed in the cage.
• The cat has learned to open the latch to obtain food.
• It may sound as if the cat is acting intelligently, but Thorndike
argued that there is little ‘intelligence’ operating here.
• The cat’s performance improves gradually over a series of trials.
• The cat appears to be engaging in trial-and-error learning, and when
a reward immediately follows one of those behaviors, the learning
of the action is strengthened.
• Thorndike referred to this strengthening as the law of effect.
Edwin Guthrie: Behaviourist
Associationist
• Guthrie became a professor 1928, began to develop his

learning theory along with Stevenson Smith
• He is a Behaviorist, studying the science of the
observable
• Contends, “ a combination of stimuli which has
accompanied a movement, will on its recurrence tend to
be followed by that movement
• Began to work with and develop introversion,
extroversion, purpose, mechanism, fusion, and non-
musical intervals
Cont…
• Influenced by Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Principle of “all or none” learning
– Individual forgets a previous response to a stimulus, because a
new behavior is found to be more beneficial
– Inhibition system only allows one response to occur to a specific
stimulus
– Studied Cat’s in a box, and researched stereotypical behaviour
• Believed disorder behavior was due to responses competing
to occur to a particular stimulus, thus causing confusion
• One Trial Learning: some new skills can be acquired after
doing it only once
Cont…
• Benefits of behavior are quickly recognized, and the behavior is shown
again in the presence of the stimuli.
• No need for repeated practice
• Reinforcement simply changed the condition
• Edwin Guthrie’s Theory has been a major influence on Psychology
Today.
• His Principles of Learning-Contiguity have helped explain some of the
more complex and unexplained aspects of Pavlov’s classical
conditioning
• Guthrie’s Theory is comparatively short and to the point compared to
other theorist
• However he has greatly benefited the field of Psychology by expanding
on existing concepts and developing new ones
Cognitive Theories of Learning
• Cognition includes one’s ideas, beliefs, thoughts and
images.
• We use cognition to understand or remember something.
• Cognition is a term used to describe all of our mental
processes such as perceptions, memory and judgment.
• Cognitive approaches to learning emphasize changes that
occur within an organism’s system of cognition.
• Its mental representation involves the acquisition of
knowledge or understanding.
• Cognitivists focus most of their attention on studying how
people think.
• In cognitive theories, thinking plays the central role.
Wolfgang Kohler: Learning by
Insight
• The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler
• He describes experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks
as tools to solve problems.
Insight Learning
• In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not
reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organization (of
material. Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.
• Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the characteristics of objects
under consideration.
• His theory suggested that learning could occur when an individual perceives the
relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes these elements and
comes to a greater understanding or insight.
• Learning could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review,
training, or investigation necessary.
60
Max Wertheinmer: Gestalt
Psychology
• The term Gestalt, means “form” or “configuration.”
• Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to
behaviorism.
• It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the
dynamic nature of visual perception.
• Learners were not passive, but rather active.
• Learners do not just collect information as is but they actively
process and restructure data in order to understand it.
• Factors like past experiences, needs, attitudes and one’s
present situation can affect their perception.
62
OBJECTIVES
• 1. Elaborate the meaning and nature of individual differences.
• 2. Bifurcate the areas of individual differences.
• 3. Identify the causes of individual differences.
• 4. Provide remedial measures for individual differences through general
educational provisions and special educational provisions.
• 5. Take care of slow learners and finally be able to measure individual
difference through various evaluation tests and techniques.
Cont…
NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
• The findings of modern psychological tests and measurements have adequately
demonstrated that individual cannot fall into distinct categories in respect of any physical
or mental trait.
• On the other hands all measures of individual, whether they be physical, mental,
emotional show that they tend to distribute themselves according to the law of the normal
probability curve.
• The normal curve is bell shaped and bilaterally symmetrical on each side of its central
tendency the mean.
• Just as many persons are above the average as are below it
• Starting with the lowest score there is a gradually increasing number of persons making
each next higher score gradually decreases until the highest score is reached.
Areas of Individual Differences
Educational Provisions
• Whatever may be the causes, children differ in their learning abilities.
• It is the duty and responsibility of any school system to provide for
these differences.
• Every child is helped to rise at the height of his own abilities
• The following are a few of the important steps that a school might take
up in this direction
• General Provisions
• Special Provisions
General Provisions
• Every Individual’s ability should be assessed as
accurately as possible.
• Identification of special talents
• Educational provisions must be continuous
• Adequate facilities and materials are needed
• Competent school staff is needed
• Individualization is necessary
• Need of Adult Education
Special Provisions
• Provisions For the Gifted / Talented Children
• Educating the Gifted Children
• Provisions for the Slow Learners
• Identifying the Slow-Learner
• Periodic Medical Examination
• Learning Handicaps in exceptional Children
• Placement with a Teacher
• Avoid Competition
• Remedial Teaching
• Non-Promotion
• A Disadvantaged Child
MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
• Measurement is the assignment of a number to an object or event
according to rule.
• This may represent something physical or a vocational aptitude test
and receive your score in medical or engineering aptitude test.
• In order to draw meaningful comparison, measurement, must be
meaningful.
• In order to have meaning, all measurements must satisfy two basic
criteria:
• Reliability
• Validity
Test of General Intelligence
• Tests of Aptitude
• These tests measure the possibilities of success in future performance.
• Measures the following abilities.
(i) Verbal Reasoning
(ii) Numerical Ability
(iii) Abstract Reasoning
(iv) Space Relations
(v) Mechanical Reasoning
(vi) Clerical Speed and Accuracy
(vii) Language Usage
Cont…
• Interest Inventories
• Interest inventories that can be used to measure differences among
individuals in their interest.
• Test of Personality
• Used to measure personality structure and adjustment, and
difficulties of individuals.
Cont…
Competence-Based Tests
• Multiple-Choice Tests or Essays
• Computer Assisted Testing (CAT)
• The Portfolio Approach
• Grade Equivalent Scores
Curriculum Testing
• Virtually any curriculum that is more than five years old requires a
thorough evaluation
• This is most obvious in field such as science but should be done in all
areas.
• This type of testing shown answers the following:
• (a) To what degree have the curriculum’s goals been reached?
• (b) Is the curriculum content appropriate in view of the mission’s objectives.
• (c) Has the instruction been truly based on the curriculum.
• (d) Has the assessment measured the taught curriculum or planned.

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HUMAN

 Itis process of function and physical maturation of an

.  Physical development is defined as the

Cognitive  Cognitive development is defined as the

 Social-emotional development is defined as

Stage Age period Characteristics

Early 2 to 6 years • Self-sufficient

Stage Age period Characteristics

Middle childhood / 6 to 11 years • Increased responsibility

 Interpersonal relationships are critical for a child' learning and

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It is important that children are brought up in a safe,

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 Refersto a process which brings progressive

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 Body system decides the interest, attitude and the

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• Physical development means the progress of a child's control over his

• Human body consists of numerous

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• From birth to about age 1 or 2 years, children grow rapidly.

• After this time, growth slows.

• A sharp increase in growth is again observed in early adolescence (10 to 14

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• Fine motor skills are smaller actions.

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• Children need to move

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• Pre and Elementary school children show increased

• They can still fall easily.

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Online Workshop for B.Ed.

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Intelligence Characteristics Related activities

• Both Gardner and Sternberg emphasize the abilities to

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A number of standardized tests have been used to

• Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that

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• Focus on Dyadic Interactions (e.g., child being taught by a parent how to

• Social world mediates children's cognitive development.

• People's thinking differs dramatically between cultures because different

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• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Distance Between Actual and Potential Knowledge

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• A variety of experiences affect the development of

cognition among children.

• Preschool and Kindergarten

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The rapid changes during the early years of school.

• A number of activities and strategies may help the elementary