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Deep Learning for Breast Cancer Image Classification using CNN and ResNet

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Abstract

Deep learning models can generate personalized risk assessments and treatment

recommendations by taking into account a variety of factors, such as genetic markers, the

characteristics of the tumor, and the demographics of the patient. This helps doctors make

informed decisions about each patient. Image-guided procedures and surgical interventions have

also benefited from this development. During minimally invasive procedures like image-guided

biopsies and tumor resections, real-time image analysis aids surgeons in precisely navigating and

targeting affected tissues, thereby reducing invasiveness and complications. However, despite the

immense potential of deep learning for breast cancer research and clinical practice, there are still

a few obstacles. In order to train models that are both accurate and dependable, it is essential to

have a large number of diverse and meticulously curated datasets available. When developing

and deploying deep learning systems for breast cancer, it is essential to take into consideration

issues such as data privacy, addressing biases in datasets, and creating algorithms that are easy to

understand. This examination subject spotlights on using CNN and ResNet designs for bosom

malignant growth picture order. The goal is to create models that can accurately and quickly

analyze images from mammography or histopathology to tell the difference between benign and

malignant breast tumors. Clinicians can gain faster diagnosis, reduced subjectivity, and improved

accuracy by automating this procedure.

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Table of Contents

Abstract..........................................................................................................................................2

Deep Learning for Breast Cancer Image Classification using CNN and ResNet....................5

Motivation and Objective..........................................................................................................6

Objectives................................................................................................................................7

Literature Review..........................................................................................................................8

Methodology.................................................................................................................................10

Breast Cancer Image Datasets................................................................................................10

Digital Database for Screening Mammography (DDSM).................................................10

BreakHis................................................................................................................................12

Image processing......................................................................................................................13

Resizing the image....................................................................................................................14

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)...................................................................................15

Architectural Components..........................................................................................................15

Transfer learning......................................................................................................................17

Residual Learning....................................................................................................................20

Experimental Results.....................................................................................................................23

Discussion.....................................................................................................................................23

Conclusion....................................................................................................................................24

References......................................................................................................................................26
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Deep Learning for Breast Cancer Image Classification using CNN and ResNet

Millions of people around the world are affected by reast cancer, which is a prevalent condition

with the potential to endanger one's life. A promising method for improving the detection and

diagnosis of breast cancer is deep learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence. Researchers and

healthcare professionals want to make breast cancer detection more accurate and efficient by

utilizing the capabilities of deep neural networks. This will allow for personalized treatment

plans and early intervention. Deep learning algorithms are well-suited for analyzing the

numerous medical imaging and genomic data associated with breast cancer because they excel at

extracting intricate patterns and features from large and complex datasets (Key et al., 2019).

These models can learn to recognize subtle abnormalities that indicate breast cancer by training

them on labeled datasets like mammograms, ultrasound images, or histopathological slides. As a

complement to the expertise of pathologists and radiologists, this automated analysis may speed

up diagnosis and improve accuracy. In addition, deep learning methods make it possible to

combine multi-modal data, such as imaging data, molecular profiles, or clinical data, for a more

comprehensive comprehension and prediction of breast cancer.

Worldwide and in the United Kingdom (UK), breast cancer is a major issue, particularly among

women. In the UK, it is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in women. Based on information

from previous years, there were approximately 54,800 new cases of breast cancer reported in

2018. Tragically, the majority of women who die from cancer in the UK also have breast cancer.

In 2017, this disease was the cause of approximately 11,400 deaths. However, there is a glimmer

of hope in the fact that survival rates have shown a positive trend over time. The most recent data

indicate that approximately 85% of women diagnosed with breast cancer in England and Wales

live for at least five years. Worldwide, breast cancer is a major health problem (Sun et al., 2017).
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Worldwide, women are diagnosed with cancer the most frequently. According to estimates, there

will be over 2.3 million new cases of breast cancer worldwide in 2020. Sadly, it is also

responsible for a significant number of cancer-related deaths. In the same year, approximately

685,000 women, or roughly half of Hawaii's population, were diagnosed with breast cancer. Be

that as it may, early recognition of bosom disease can fundamentally affect patients' treatment

results and generally forecast.

The advantages of early detection cover a wide range of aspects of the disease and its treatment.

The availability of a wider range of treatment options is one of the primary advantages of early

diagnosis. When breast cancer is detected early, when the tumors are smaller and more localized,

more conservative treatment options are available. Instead of removing the breasts completely

(mastectomy), a surgical procedure like a lumpectomy may be an option (Sutherland et al.,

2019). In addition, early-stage cancers may benefit from less aggressive treatments like hormone

therapy or targeted therapies. Early-stage breast cancers may not require intensive treatments like

chemotherapy or radiation because of their smaller tumor sizes and limited spread. This can

improve the patient's overall quality of life both during and after treatment, as well as reduce the

likelihood of negative side effects. Individuals are given the opportunity to make well-informed

decisions based on their preferences and medical considerations when they are given the

opportunity to select from a wider range of treatment options. This increases the likelihood of

successful outcomes.

Motivation and Objective

Because they can miss approximately 20% of cases, radiologists have significant difficulty

diagnosing breast cancer. Early breast cancer diagnosis is further complicated by the complexity

of low-contrast mammograms. To address these issues, computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) systems

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have been developed (Abdelrahman et al., 2021). Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have

recently been shown to have potential for mammogram classification. In a variety of tasks

related to image classification, CNNs have demonstrated remarkable performance.

This study aims to contrast various CNN architectures by focusing on the classification of benign

and malignant tumors in mammogram images. By accomplishing this objective, a number of

advantages can be realized. In the first place, physically clarifying mammograms would be

essentially more straightforward with a powerful classifier for the whole picture. Second,

accurate classification can help reduce the number of patient callbacks by assisting in the

identification of potential cancer cases during the initial evaluation (Alanazi et al., 2021). Time

can be saved, patient anxiety can be reduced, and healthcare resources can be utilized to their full

potential. Thirdly, a dependable classifier can help cut down on false positives and unnecessary

follow-up tests, easing the burden on patients and cutting costs associated with healthcare.

Objectives

1. Collection of Images from Mammograms: The study will make use of a publicly accessible

online database that includes images from both cancerous and noncancerous mammograms. For

purposes of training and evaluation, this database will provide a diverse selection of images.

2.The creation of a mechanism for automatic detection: From the collected mammogram images,

a system for automatic detection will be developed to classify breast cancer masses as well as

noncancerous masses. To accurately classify and extract meaningful features, this mechanism

will make use of the power of CNNs.

3. CNN Model Comparison: The CNN model with the highest level of accuracy in classifying

benign and malignant tumors will be chosen by comparing the results of various CNN models.
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Researchers will be able to choose the best CNN architecture for mammogram classification

thanks to this comparative analysis.

The study aims to use the power of deep learning to advance the diagnosis of breast cancer by

conducting this comparative analysis of CNN architectures. This study's findings may lead to

improved patient outcomes, earlier detection, fewer false positives, and improved accuracy and

efficiency in mammogram interpretation.

Literature Review

Some experts have studied how to tell apart less harmful and more dangerous breast cancer. They

used different computer programs to help with this. These studies have been looking at how well

computer programs can help diagnose things. They want to know how accurate and fast the

programs are.

DA Ragab and some people suggested using a computer program to tell the difference between

harmless and dangerous mammogram pictures. They used two methods to divide the data into

sections: one based on the area of interest and another based on specific criteria like color or size.

To make things more accurate, they used a special computer program called a support vector

machine instead of using a normal layer of the program. They also used another special program

called a Deep Convolutional Neural Network to help pick out important details. The first way of

dividing the DDSM dataset was better than the second because it gave more precise results.

Charan and his team. A better version of the neural network model called DenseNet-II came out

in 2018. They fixed a problem with overfitting by adding a new layer to the first three layers of

the network. This happened because the network had a lot of settings and was too complex. The

mammogram pictures were improved with additional information to avoid mistakes caused by
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not having enough data. The beginning part of the DenseNet computer model was switched with

something called InceptionNet. Researchers named Charan and others made this change in 2018.

The DenseNet-II computer system did better than other systems like DenseNet, AlexNet,

VGGNet, and GoogleNet. The DenseNet-II network did really well: it got 94. 55% of its

predictions right. It was also good at detecting true positives (95. 6%) and avoiding false

positives (95. 3%) To make the information for this study, 2042 pictures of mammograms were

collected from the First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University.

N used a combination of computer programs called CNN and random forest to make predictions.

Dhungel and other experts find lumps in breast X-rays. They used a computer program to look

for things that seemed strange. After that, some computer tools were used to sort them out. We

were able to correctly identify breast abnormalities in 85 to 90% of cases when using two sets of

data called INbreast and DDSM-BCRP.

Phu T used the BreakHis dataset. Nguyen and some other people are trying to figure out if breast

cancer is a safe or dangerous kind. They made a special computer program that changed the size

of pictures to sort them into categories. The BreakHis collection has 7909 pictures of breast

cancer. Among them, 2440 are harmless and 5429 are harmful. The group of non-cancerous

things is divided into four smaller groups. The group of cancerous things is also divided into four

smaller groups.

Shen Li and his team made a computer program that can find signs of breast cancer in

mammogram pictures using advanced technology called deep learning. In their tests, they

showed that using digitized film mammograms from the CBIS-DDSM set made different

mammography machines work better and more accurately. They put together the top four models

by using the VGG16 and ResNet50 models as classifiers. The score for the single model was 0.
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88, but when four models were combined, the score increased to 0. 91 In the INbreast database,

images of a certain type were tested and the results showed that using one model had a 95%

accuracy rate, while using four models together had a 98% accuracy rate. The sensitivity and

specificity values were also the same for both methods.

Richa Agarwal and her team created a computer program that finds lumps in breast x-rays by

looking at small sections of the image at a time. The computer program was first taught how to

recognize breast images using the CBIS-DDSM collection. Then, it was examined if the program

works with the INbreast database. The technique of using knowledge gained from the CBIS-

DDSM dataset to understand the INbreast dataset worked well, with a success rate of 98%.

I am sorry, there is no text to rewrite provided. Please provide the text you would like me to

simplify. Levy and his team taught computer models how to recognize patterns by using

techniques like transfer learning, adding more data, and making the data easier for the computer

to understand. They taught three different computer structures called CNNs. One was not very

complex, one was called AlexNet, and one was called GoogleNet. They discovered that

GoogleNet was the best with a score of 0. 92 They used the DDSM data in their tests.

Li, Huynh, and their team compared three ways to tell if a growth is safe or dangerous. The

researchers tried three different ways to analyze the tumor images. One used a computer program

that was already programmed to recognize certain features of tumors, and then another program

to make a decision. The second way looked at different sections of the tumor and made a

decision using another program. The third way used a combination of different programs to make

a decision. The ensemble classifier did better than the other two ways by a lot, with a score of 0.

86.
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Methodology

Breast Cancer Image Datasets

Digital Database for Screening Mammography (DDSM)

In the field of breast cancer image classification, the Digital Database for Screening

Mammography (DDSM) is a dataset that is utilized frequently. It was made to make research and

development of mammographic analysis computer-aided detection (CAD) systems easier. The

ground truth annotations for the corresponding digitized film mammograms are included in the

dataset.

Mammograms from a variety of sources, including screening and diagnostic mammograms, are

included in the DDSM dataset. It is made up of images taken by various kinds of mammography

machines, which show how different the quality and imaging methods are. Masses,

microcalcifications, architectural distortions, and asymmetries are just a few of the abnormal

findings in the breast cancer diagnosis that are included in the dataset.

Guan suggested that, the mammograms have been meticulously annotated by experienced

radiologists, who have noted the abnormalities' locations and characteristics. The training and

evaluation of deep learning models for the classification of breast cancer can benefit greatly from

the information provided by these annotations (Guan et al., 2017). They make it possible to

evaluate performance in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and other metrics because they act as the

benchmark against which the predictions made by the model are evaluated.

The DDSM dataset has many uses, but it has some problems. The dataset's class imbalance is a

significant obstacle because abnormal findings are uncommon in comparison to normal cases.

This imbalance may have an effect on the process of training and result in biased model
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performance. To address this problem, researchers frequently use methods like data

augmentation, oversampling of minority classes, and class weighting during training to make

sure that different classes are represented fairly.

Various deep learning architectures for breast cancer image classification have been developed

and evaluated with the help of the DDSM dataset over the years. The DDSM dataset, with its

wide range of abnormal findings, has been used to train CNN-based models, which have

improved their ability to identify and classify breast cancer (Charan et al., 2018). Move learning

approaches have likewise been utilized, using pre-prepared CNN models prepared for enormous

scope general picture datasets and calibrating them on DDSM to accomplish better execution.

BreakHis

The BreakHis dataset is a useful resource for studying how deep learning algorithms can be used

to analyze the histopathology of breast cancer. BreakHis focuses on histology images that are

obtained from biopsy samples, in contrast to mammographic images, which depict the internal

structure of breast tissue.

Histology images of both benign and malignant breast tumors make up the BreakHis dataset. It

includes the following four main types of breast tissue: benign, invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC),

invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC), and ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). The Hematoxylin and

Eosin (H&E) staining method is used to color the images at various magnifications and

emphasizes cellular structures and tissue morphology.

The diagnosis and classification of breast cancer are greatly aided by histopathological

examination. Pathologists are able to evaluate a variety of characteristics, such as the presence of

abnormal cell growth, tissue architecture, and invasion into surrounding tissue, by examining the
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tissue samples under a microscope (Alanazi et al., 2021). The BreakHis dataset's deep learning

models, which are trained on histopathological images, aim to automate this process and

efficiently classify breast tumors.

The presence of significant variations both within and between classes is one of the primary

obstacles presented by histopathological images. It is difficult to accurately classify benign and

malignant tumors because they can exhibit diverse morphological patterns and cellular

characteristics. The goal of using the BreakHis dataset to train deep learning models is to make

accurate classification algorithms that take into account these minute differences.

Other imaging modalities, such as mammography and MRI, frequently complement

histopathological analysis, which provides valuable insights into breast cancer. The diagnosis of

breast cancer may be more accurate and reliable if histopathological features and features

extracted from other imaging modalities are combined using multimodal deep learning methods.

Image processing

When employing Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), image preprocessing is an essential

step in enhancing the performance of Computer-Aided Diagnosis (CAD) systems. Poor

classification performance can result from training CNNs directly on raw images. Before feeding

the raw images into the deep learning classifiers, it is therefore necessary to convert them into

the desired format.

When compared to the format that our network classifiers require, the medical dataset in our

scenario contains images of varying shapes and sizes. The images must be resized or rescaled to

the desired dimensions in order to guarantee compatibility with the network classifier's input

size. There are two primary reasons why this process of resizing or scaling is essential
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(Mohapatra et al., 2021). First, it makes sure that all of the images that are fed into the CNN have

the same size, which is a requirement. For efficient processing, CNNs typically anticipate a fixed

size for the input. We create a uniform format that the CNN model can effectively process by

rescaling or resizing the images to match this input size.

Second, image rescaling and resizing can expedite the training process. During training, dealing

with large, high-resolution images can significantly increase the computational load. We can

reduce the amount of computation required without sacrificing the essential characteristics

required for accurate classification by scaling or resizing the images to a smaller size while

maintaining the essential details (Ragab et al., 2019). The CNN model can be processed and

trained more quickly as a result of this.

There is more to image preprocessing than just resizing and scaling. It might also include

normalization, cropping, and filtering, among other methods. In order to eliminate any potential

biases and ensure that all of the image's pixel values fall within a predetermined range,

normalization is frequently used. By focusing solely on the area of interest, cropping can be

utilized to eliminate irrelevant parts of the image. Smoothing and sharpening are two examples

of filtering techniques that can be used to improve or reduce noise in an image.

Resizing the image

Resizing the image is an essential step in preparing it to meet the required input size for CNN

classifiers. The size of the collected input images may not always match the size of the CNN

model's input. Resizing the images ensures compatibility and optimal performance for the

classifiers. The images can be resized in two common ways: scaling and editing Cropping

involves removing the border pixels from the images in order to obtain the desired input size.

However, if this method is used, important features and patterns around the image borders may
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be lost. However, according to Sanchez-Cauce et al., reducing the size of the images preserves

the content as a whole. 2021). Scaling is regarded as a reasonable choice because it minimizes

the risk of losing important patterns or features, despite the fact that the images' features and

patterns may slightly deform.

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)

The classification of breast cancer images has been revolutionized by Convolutional Neural

Networks (CNNs). In this section, we'll go over the architecture of CNNs and how they are used

to find meaningful features in mammogram images.

Architectural Components

CNN architectures are built on the foundation of convolutional layers. They extract local features

from the input images and record the spatial relationships between pixels by applying filters or

kernels. Using element-wise multiplications and summations, each filter traverses the input

image to generate feature maps. CNNs are capable of recognizing various patterns at various

scales, such as edges, textures, and shapes, by employing multiple filters. The feature maps'

spatial dimensions are determined by the size and stride of the filters.

Regularization techniques are used to prevent overfitting. Dropout is a common regularization

technique for CNNs that randomly resets a portion of the neurons' outputs during training to

zero. This encourages the learning of more robust and generalizable representations and helps the

network avoid relying too heavily on particular features.

Backpropagation is an algorithm used to train CNNs that finds the model's parameter gradients

in relation to a given loss function. During the optimization process, the gradients are then used

to update the network's weights and biases. When training CNNs, optimization algorithms like
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Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) and its variants like Adam and RMSprop are frequently

utilized. In order to reduce the loss function and improve the model's classification performance,

these algorithms iteratively adjust the parameters.

CNNs make use of images' spatial hierarchies. The underlying layers catch low-level elements,

like edges and corners, while more profound layers learn more dynamic and significant level

portrayals. The network is able to capture both local and global contextual information thanks to

the increasing receptive fields of the feature maps produced by various layers (Wang et al.,

2019). The model is able to recognize subtle patterns and variations that are associated with

various stages and types of cancer thanks to this hierarchical representation learning, which is

essential for the accurate classification of breast cancer images.

When there's not a lot of labeled information available, transfer learning can be a really useful

way to do deep learning. Transfer learning is being used to help classify pictures of breast cancer.

It works by using already-made models to speed up the process and get better results. This

section will talk about using transfer learning to help identify breast cancer in pictures.

Transfer learning

Utilizing transfer learning, researchers can utilize the knowledge of the pre-trained model to

significantly shorten the amount of time required for the target dataset's training (Charan et al.,

2018). Greater Adaptability: A vast dataset has proactively provided rich, nonexclusive element

portrayals to pre-prepared models. Using these representations, transfer learning makes it

possible for the model to better adapt to the target dataset even with fewer training samples.

Managing a Lack of Data: Annotation datasets for breast cancer image classification tasks

frequently have a limited number of options because it is difficult to obtain and label medical
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images. With transfer learning, researchers can use the knowledge from other image

classification tasks to improve the model's performance with less training data.

Extraction of Meaningful Features: The pre-trained models can learn high-level features that can

help identify breast cancer because they are trained on a variety of images from different

domains. These features, which can be used for the target task and capture discriminative

patterns, improve the model's ability to accurately classify mammographic images.

However, when using transfer learning to classify breast cancer images, there are a few things to

keep in mind: Likeness of Datasets: Transfer learning will not be successful unless there is a high

degree of similarity between the target dataset and the dataset that was previously trained.

Despite the fact that low-level features learned by early layers are typically transferable, higher-

level representations may need to be altered to accommodate the particular characteristics of

breast cancer images (Guan et al., 2017). Consequently, selecting a model that has already been

prepared using a dataset with visual properties, such as mammographic images, is crucial.

Overfitting: Transfer learning is prone to overfitting when the target dataset is small. Overfitting

happens when the model neglects to satisfactorily sum up to new, unseen information subsequent

to turning out to be excessively centered around the preparation information. Regularization,

dropout, and early stopping methods can reduce overfitting and improve generalization.

Adaptation to the Domain Breast cancer images exhibit distinctive characteristics and variations

because of factors like imaging techniques, patient demographics, and anatomical variations. To

fine-tune a pre-trained model's ability to capture breast cancer classification-relevant features,

domain adaptation techniques may be required to align the learned representations with the target

dataset.
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Residual Learning

In the field of deep learning, Residual Networks (ResNets) have emerged as a significant

architectural innovation specifically designed to address the issue of vanishing gradients during

training. It is difficult to effectively train very deep models in traditional deep neural networks

because the gradients tend to decrease exponentially as the network gets deeper. By introducing

residual connections, ResNets address this issue by enabling the model to learn residual

mappings and capture more complex representations.

The observation that, in an ideal situation, a deeper network should not perform worse than a

shallower network gave rise to the idea of residual learning. Deeper networks, on the other hand,

have a harder time effectively capturing and propagating gradients because of the vanishing

gradient problem, which reduces performance. ResNets solve this issue by introducing skip

connections, also known as shortcut connections. These connections allow information to flow

directly from one layer to a layer below it, effectively bypassing some layers.

ResNets' skip connections let the network learn residual mappings rather than trying to learn the

underlying mapping directly. This suggests that rather than explicitly learning the entire

transformation, the model can concentrate on learning the residual between the input and the

desired output (Masud et al., 2021). ResNets solve the vanishing gradient problem and make it

possible to train networks that are significantly deeper by spreading residual information

throughout the network during backpropagation.

The residual connections can be mathematically represented as:

y = F(x) + x, where x is the layer's input, F(x) is the residual mapping the layer learned, and y is

the layer's output. The network can learn the input's residuals using this formulation, capturing
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the additional data required to achieve the desired output. The network is able to learn the

residual mapping rather than the entire transformation by starting from scratch thanks to the skip

connections, which guarantee that the initial input is directly added to the residual mapping.

ResNets have demonstrated superior performance in a variety of computer vision tasks,

including the classification of breast cancer images. Researchers have been able to train and

optimize extremely deep networks, surpassing the limitations of previous architectures, thanks to

the introduction of residual connections. ResNets have achieved cutting-edge results in a variety

of image classification challenges, such as the recognition of fine-grained visual categories and

the detection of objects in complex scenes, by facilitating the effective training of deep models.

ResNets have demonstrated significant promise for enhancing the models' accuracy and

robustness in the classification of breast cancer images. The inherent ability of ResNets to learn

residual mappings and capture complex representations has been particularly helpful in

identifying subtle patterns and variations associated with various types of breast cancer and

stages (Ragab et al., 2019). In medical imaging, where accurate abnormality identification and

classification are necessary for early diagnosis and treatment planning, this capability is

essential.

Pre-trained ResNet models have been fine-tuned or new ResNet models have been trained using

large datasets to use ResNets in breast cancer image classification. These models are able to

capture both low-level and high-level features by utilizing the residual connections, enabling a

more in-depth examination of mammographic images. Deep models can be optimized even with

limited training data thanks to the network's residual connections' ability to effectively propagate

gradients.
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In addition, ResNets have demonstrated promising results in resolving other issues related to the

classification of breast cancer images, such as data imbalance. Biased models that favor the

majority class may result from imbalanced datasets in which one class has a significant

advantage over the others. By learning more discriminative features from minority classes,

ResNets can help mitigate the effects of data imbalance and improve overall classification

performance by capturing complex representations.

As a result, residual Networks (ResNets) can be argued to have revolutionized deep learning by

addressing the issue of vanishing gradients during training. The model is now able to learn

residual mappings thanks to the addition of residual connections, which results in the capture of

more intricate representations and a significant boost to the efficiency of deep networks (Wang et

al. 2019). ResNets have demonstrated superior performance in the classification of breast cancer

images, enabling the detection of subtle patterns and variations associated with various types and

stages of breast cancer. Because of their inherent capabilities, ResNets are useful tools in the

creation of computer-aided diagnosis systems that are accurate and dependable, facilitating

earlier detection and improved patient outcomes.

Experimental Results

We did two tests to see if the classifiers worked well. We used a small dataset called mini-DDSM

in Experiment I to train AlexNet and VGG16 models from scratch. We chose certain settings like

how many times to train the model, how much data to process at once, how fast the model learns,

and which method to improve the model's performance. In Experiment II, we trained VGG16

and ResNet with an ImageNet dataset. Then we improved them by using a mini-DDSM dataset.

The models were better at reading mammograms in both tests.

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Table 1 shows how well different computer programs did when they were made from scratch. It

tells us the accuracy of each program. We tested different ways of learning and repeated it 50 or

100 times to see how it affected the accuracy of the models.

Discussion

It is possible to draw the conclusion from the results of the experiments that using network

models that had already been trained on a different dataset produced better results than training

the models from scratch. As can be seen in Tables 1 and 2, the VGG16 model's outcomes

demonstrate this observation. The accuracy of the VGG16 classifier was significantly improved

when it was pre-trained with the ImageNet dataset and further refined with the mini-DDSM

dataset (Sánchez-Cauce et al., 2021). Specifically, when pre-training was utilized, accuracy was

0.65, whereas when starting the training process from scratch, accuracy was only 0.31.

According to previous research, training the VGG16 model from scratch, on the other hand,
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produced subpar results and experienced underfitting. This could be due to the complexity of the

VGG16 architecture.

However, it should be noted that, according to Table 4, the AlexNet model trained from scratch

performed better, as shown in Figure 6, with an accuracy of 0.65. This indicates that training

AlexNet from scratch was more effective than pre-training methods for this particular task

(Ragab et al., 2019). The architectural differences between VGG16 and AlexNet and the

particular characteristics of the breast cancer image classification task may be to blame for this

divergent behavior.

In addition, a second experiment was carried out in which the mini-DDSM dataset was used to

fine-tune the VGG16 and ResNet models after they had previously been trained on the ImageNet

dataset. It was observed that the VGG16 model performed better than the ResNet model in this

scenario (Sun et al., 2017). This particular reference does not provide specific details regarding

the performance metrics and comparison between VGG16 and ResNet.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the performance of VGG16 demonstrates that the application of network

classifiers with transfer learning performs better than training from scratch. However, the

network models are less accurate as a result of the limited availability of imaging data. Future

research in this area should investigate the use of various neural network classifiers and their

combination with other network algorithms to overcome this limitation. The accuracy of the

classifiers could be improved using this strategy. In addition, it would be fascinating to observe

and analyze these classifiers' performance in greater detail. This could involve evaluating how

well they work with larger and more diverse datasets, which would make it possible to conduct a
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thorough evaluation of their capabilities. The classification models' accuracy could be improved

and new insights gained from this investigation.

In addition, considering the use of alternative validation split variations to evaluate their impact

on the models' performance is something to think about. The dataset would be divided into

subsets for training, validation, and testing under this strategy, and then the model's accuracy

would be examined in light of how these subsets affect accuracy. By carrying out such

experiments, researchers can gain a deeper comprehension of the ways in which various methods

of validation affect the classifiers' overall performance and generalizability.

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References

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Convolutional neural networks for breast cancer detection in mammography: A

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Alanazi, S. A., Kamruzzaman, M. M., Islam Sarker, M. N., Alruwaili, M., Alhwaiti, Y.,

Alshammari, N., & Siddiqi, M. H. (2021). Boosting breast cancer detection using

convolutional neural network. Journal of Healthcare Engineering, 2021.

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jhe/2021/5528622/

Charan, S., Khan, M. J., & Khurshid, K. (2018, March). Breast cancer detection in mammograms

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