MODERN

MATERIALS
BY
DR.M.FIAZ KHAN
Plastics
 Definition
“Plastic materials are any of a wide range of synthetic
or semi-synthetic organic solids that are moldable.
They consists of a long chain of carbon molecules”
 Properties
• They are lighter than many material of comparable
strength like metals and wood.
• Plastics do not rust they are corrosion resistant and
oxidation resistant.
• Most plastics can be produced in any color. They
can also be manufactured transparent and opaque.
• Plastics have low density than that of metals.
• Plastics are electrical insulators.
• Plastics are non magnetic in nature.
• Plastics are chemically stable and somewhat inert.
• Plastics are not brittle.
Chemistry of Plastics
They consists of a long chain of carbon molecules
 Types of Plastics

Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics

Thermoplastics:
Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not
undergo chemical change in their composition
when heated and can be molded again and
again.
Thermosetting plastics:
Thermosets can melt and take shape once;
after they have solidified they stay solid .In the
thermosetting process , a chemical reaction
occur that is irreversible.
 Thermoplastics
 Thermoplastics can be repeatedly
softened by heating and hardened by
cooling
 Thermoplastics molecules are not or
less branched.
 They are not brittle
 They can be reshaped and reused
 They are reclaimed for waste
E. G ….polyvinyl, polyethylene
Thermosetting Plastics
 Thermosetting plastics hardened
permanently after being heated once.
 Thermosetting plastics have branches
and complex structure.
 They are brittle
 They can not be reshaped
 They cannot be reclaimed
E.G ……bakelite and epoxy resin
 Advantage of Plastics
• Plastics are light in weight and can be easily molded.
• Plastics possess good shock absorption capacity.
• Plastics are corrosion resistance and chemically inert.
• Plastics possess good thermal and electrical
insulating properties.
• Plastics is very good water resistance and possess
good adhesiveness.
• Plastics is a recyclable material and it does not
decompose.
 Hazards of Plastics
• Plastic is durable means it degrades slowly. Plastics
are very long-lived products that could have service
over decade.
• Chemicals added to plastics are absorbed by human
bodies and affect human health.
• Burning plastics can result in toxic fumes.
• Pollutes air, land and water and exposes workers to
toxic chemicals, including carcinogens.
Ceramics
 Definition
“A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic
solid made up of clay that have been
shaped and then hardened by heating to
high temperatures”
 Properties
• Ceramics are hard , extremely strong and stiff.
• Ceramics are corrosion resistant and durable.
• Ceramics are refractory material with high
melting point that is used to line the inside
walls of a furnace.
• Ceramics are inert to chemical action and
generally don’t react with acids and alkalis
• Ceramics are brittle and having less elasticity.
 Applications
• Consumer usage: Ceramics have greater usage in our homes like
glassware, pottery etc
• Building and construction: Manufactures use ceramics to make
bricks, tiles, piping and other construction materials.
• Coating: Because ceramics material are more corrosion
resistance most metals are coated with ceramics.
• Automotive Industry: Ceramics are widely used in automotive
industry e.g filters, valves, spark plugs, piston rings, thermostats .
• Electronics: Computer parts like capacitors superconductors are
made up of ceramics
• Aerspace : Ceramics are used in the formation of parts of space
shuttle, rockets and space station
• Medical (Bio ceramics): Ceramics are used in medical
field especially in dental and bone filling and in bone
implants.
• Military Equipment: Structural components for ground,
air and naval vehicles of military are made from ceramics.
• Nuclear Ceramics: Nuclear ceramics materials employed
in the generation of nuclear power and the disposal of
radioactive nuclear waste.
• Optical Ceramics: Optical ceramics are polycrystalline
materials, these have various applications including
optical fibres, optical switches, Laser amplifiers and
lenses.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Electronic materials generate and control the
flow of an electrical current.
• Conductors: Allow Electric current to flow
through them
• Insulators: Do not Allow Electric current to flow
through them
• Semiconductors: Materials whose conductivity
lies in between of Conductors and
Semiconductor
• Semiconductors are materials that essentially
can be conditioned to act as good conductors,
or good insulators, or any thing in between.
• Common elements such as carbon, silicon,
and germanium are semiconductors.
• Silicon is the best and most widely used
semiconductor.
 Band Model of conduction
Conductors
Metals are conductors. There is no band gap between their valence and conduction
bands, since they overlap. There is a continuous availability of electrons in these
closely spaced orbitals.

Insulators
In insulators, the band gap between the valence band the the conduction band is so
large that electrons cannot make the energy jump from the valence band to the
conduction band.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a small energy gap between the valence band and the
conduction band. Electrons can make the jump up to the conduction band, but not with
the same ease as they do in conductors.
 C o n d u c tio n b a n d

E le c tr o n
C o n d u c tio n b a n d
E n e rg y

E n e rg y

E n e rg y
Band gap C o n d u c tio n b a n d
Band gap

V a le n c e b a n d V a le n c e b a n d V a le n c e b a n d
In s u la to r S e m ic o n d u c to r C o n d c u to r
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors are mainly two types
1. Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors
Semiconductors that are free of doping impurities are called
intrinsic semiconductors.
2.Extrinsic (Impure) Semiconductors
Semiconductors formed after adding impurities are called
extrinsic semiconductors.
Note: Doping is a process of adding a certain amount of
specific impurities called dopants to a pure semiconductor to
increase its electricity conductivity
 Classification of Semiconductor Materials
• The silicon doped with extra electrons is called
an “N type” semiconductor. “N” is for
negative, which is the charge of an electron.
• Silicon doped with material missing electrons
that produce locations called holes is called “P
type” semiconductor. “P” is for positive,
which is the charge of a hole.
 Semiconductor Uses
• Since semiconductor itself is not sold in stores as
electrical appliances it is used in many electric
appliances.
• Temperature sensors used in air conditioners are made
with semiconductors.
• CPUs that operate personal computers are also made
with semiconductors.
• Many digital consumer products such as mobile phones,
digital cameras, televisions etc also use semiconductors.
PESTICIDES
Pesticides
• Pesticides are chemical compounds that are
used to kill pests, including insects, rodents,
fungi and unwanted plants (weeds).
• Pesticides are used in public health to kill
vectors of disease, such as mosquitoes, and
in agriculture to kill pests that damage crops.
• Over 1000 different pesticides are used
around the world.

(WHO, 2020)
Used of Pesticides
 Forests to control insects and under-story vegetation.
 Landscapes, parks, and recreational areas to control
weeds, insects, and disease pests.
 Rights-of-way along railroads and under electric wires
to control vegetation.
 Houses, schools, and commercial and office buildings
to insects, rodents, and fungi.
 Pesticide Classification
Pesticides are commonly classified several ways:

• Chemical class – Increasingly diverse

• Target Organism
• Mode of Action
• Application timing or usage
Pesticide
‘cide = to kill

Types of
Pesticides

Insecticides Herbicides Fungicides Rodenticides

 Pesticides Classified by Target

Term Target Term Target

1. Algaecide Algea 2. Avicide Birds
3. Bactericide Bacteria 4. Fungicide Fungi
5. Herbicide Plants(weeds) 6. Insecticide Insects
7. Miticide Mites 8. Molluscicide Molluscs
9. Nematicide Nematodes 10. Plant Crop Plants
Growth Reg
11. Rodenticide Rodents 12. Piscicide Fish
Mode of Action Examples
• Broad Spectrum- Kills broad range of pests, usually refers to
insecticides, fungicides, and bactericides
• Contact poison- Kills by contacting pest
• Nonselective- Kills broad range of pests and/or crop plants,
usually used in reference to herbicides
• Nerve poison- Interferes with nervous system function
• Protectants- Protects crop if applied before pathogens infect
the crop
• Repellents- Repels pest from crop or interferes with pest’s
ability to locate crop
• Stomach poison- Kills after ingestion by an animal
 Benefits of Pesticides
• Inexpensive
• Greater control confidence
• Effective and rapid
• Therapeutic
• Low cost of production (e.g less labor cost)
 Protect Sensitive Areas
• School, playgrounds, park,
hospitals
• Wildlife refuges, bee hives
• Yards, gardens, crop fields
• Indoors: homes, offices, stores
clinics, restaurants, factories,
animal facilities
 Hazards of pesticides
• Pesticides can kill beneficial insects.
• Pesticides can enter in our food when
applied.
• Ground water contamination.
• Poisoning hazards to human due to excessive
exposure to chemical
• Pesticides and human health.
• Environmental Pollution
PESTICIDES IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND
WATER
 Solution to Pesticides
• Our food become toxic when we use pesticides in crops.
Solution to this is to avoid pesticide
• Use of Certified Seeds
• Proper sowing of crops ( Suppress the weeds )
• We should grow our food organically and in natural way.
• Pesticides should be better tested by agencies before
application.
• Keep away from children and should take care before
application in parks and schools etc.
• Workers should protect themselves before using
pesticides
 Classification of Nutrients:
Macro Nutrients
Macro nutrients are the element requires in large quantities.
Micro Nutrients
The micro nutrients are required very small amount in plant
growth , e.g. Boron, Copper, Iron, Chloride, Manganese and zinc.

Macro nutrients is further divided into two groups

Primary Macro nutrients:
The primary nutrients are Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium ,
these are important and larger amount and need for plant growth.
Secondary Macro nutrients:
The secondary nutrients are Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur, and
are required lesser as compared to primary nutrients.
Types of Fertilizers on the basis of nutrients supplied:
1.Nitrogenous Fertilizers
Urea
Ammonium sulphate
Calcium ammonium nitrate

Nitrogen Importance
It is very important for early stage of the development of leave and stem
of the plant also the green color of leave due to nitrogen.

2. Phosphatic Fertilzers
Superphosphate
Triple superphosphate
Diammonium phosphate
Monoammonium phosphate
Phosphate Importance
Stimulate the early growth of plant and increase the resistance for
disease
 3. Potassic Fertilizers
Sulphate of potash
Muriate of potash

Potassium Importance
It requires for the formation of sugar and fibers materials of plant,
also it provide the resistance against the disease.

Environmental Hazards of Fertilizers:

•Nutrients Pollution
•Groundwater Pollution
•Soil Acidity
•Health Hazards
 Antibiotics
Histor y & Introduction
• First antibiotic pencillin was discovered by Alexender Flemming in
1928
• He was growing becterias in a petridish and he noticed that suddenly
becterias started to disappear observing petridish under microscope
he realised that it was due to a fungi called pencillium notatum
So antibiotics are the compounds/substances/chemicals to either
kill or inhibit microorgnisms .
• Antibiotics are specifically meant to work against becteria which
means that they don’t effect other cells of body
• Antibiotics don’t work against viruses as viruses are subcellullar
particles i.e they comprise only of protiens and DNA which means
that they don’t have proper cellular structure
Classification of antibiotics:
Major classes are:
1. Bectericidal Antibiotics
‘’cidal means to kill’’ so bectericidals kill
becteria
2. Becteriostatic Antibiotics
‘’static’’ means to stop so becteriostatic stop
the growth of becteria
 Antibiotics can also be classified as
Narrow spectrum
Broad spectrum
• Narrow: Effective against gram positive
bacteria only
• Broad: Effective against gram positive and few
gram negative bacteria
 Classifiction based on mechanism
1.Cell wall synthesis inhibitors:
• Pencillins ex.pencillin v,pencillin g etc
• Cephalosporins ex. 1st ,2nd ,3rd ,4th generation cephalosporins
2. Protien synthesis inhibitors :
• Macrolides (Erythromycin )
• Tetracyclines (Doxycycline )
• Floroquinolones (Ciprofloxacillin)
• Sulphonamides (Cotrimoxazole)
• Aminoglycosides (Gentamycin)
 Mechanism of action
• By inhibiting cell wall synthesis (Pencillins)
• By inhibiting protein synthesis (Tetracyclines)
Antibiotics Resistance
• lack of responsiveness in bacteria towards them
• It arises due to alternation in structure of
bacteria
• Plasmids carry genes for resistance
 Side effects
Every antibiotic has its specific side effects but major
side effects are:
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhoea
• Toxicity
• Allergic reactions, rashes etc
• Gastrointestinal upsets
 Precautions
• No self medication
• Completing the course of antibiotic to avoid
resistance
• Low potency to high potency
• Care should be taken and patient should be
monitored for allergic reactions
 VACCINES

What is Immunity?
• It’s the capacity of body to respond to foreign invasions
• In short defence mechanism of body

Types
• Active immunity. In this type of immunity body defends
itself when it comes in contact with microbes
• Passive immunity. Its borrowed immunity Vaccination
is based on passive immunity
Mechanism of immune response
• When a microbe enter the body it triggers body’s defence
mechanism which responds to it by producing specific
protienaceous substances in response to it called antibody
which attack it and defend body
• Body further remember the foreign particle for future
• So when in future same microbe enters the body ,body
recognize it and already present antibodies destroy it
vaccines are Biological preparations that provides immunity
against specific disease
• 1. First discovered by Edward jenner who noticed that milk
men getting cow pox from cows were immune to small pox
• 2. Later Louis Pastuer worked over it
 Composition of vaccines
• Vaccines are composed of attenuated (weakened)
microorgnisms, toxoids, surface proteins etc that
trigger antibody production
• Inactivated: containing microbes that are inactivated
by heat or radiation
• Attenuated:contains weakened microbes like viruses
etc grown under conditions to disable their virulence
(Tb vaccine)
• Toxoids: inactivated toxins (Tetnus vaccine)
• Subunit: contains small protein units e (Hepatitis B
vaccine)
 Purpose
• Prevent disease prophylactically i.e stopping it
before occurring
• Disease eradication
• Protection from deadly diseases like TB,
hepatitis etc
 List of childhood vaccination
• Polio
• Pneumonia
• Tetnus
• Whopping cough
• Diptheria
• Chicken pox
• Mumps
 Limitations of Vaccines
• Vaccination is not effective in individuals
whose immunity is compromised
• Vaccines may have allergic responses in some
individuals
• Vaccines are relatively safe but not reliable
completely