ASME STS-1–2021

(Revision of ASME STS-1 –201 6)

Steel Stacks

A N A M E R I C A N N A T I O N A L S TA N D A R D
 ASME STS-1– 2021
(Revision of ASME STS-1 – 2016)

Steel Stacks

AN AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Two Park Avenue • New York, NY • 1 001 6 USA

 Date of Issuance: June 30, 2022

The next edition of this Standard is scheduled for publication in 2026.

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 CONTENTS

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Committee Roster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Correspondence With the STS Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Summary of Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 Mechanical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Linings and Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5 Dynamic Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6 Access and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7 Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8 Fabrication and Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9 Inspection and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Mandatory Appendix
I Structural Design — Gust Effect Factor Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Nonmandatory Appendices
A Mechanical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
B Materials for Ambient and Elevated Temperature Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
C Linings and Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
D Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
E Example Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
F Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary to SI (Metric) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Figures
6.2.6-1 Example of the General Construction of Cages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2.6-2 Minimum Ladder Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3.6-1 Ladder Dimensions, Support Spacing, and Side Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3.7-1 Length of Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3.9-1 Landing Platform Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
I-1 Topographic Factor, Kzt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
A-1 Friction Factor, f, as Related to Reynolds Number and Stack Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
A-2 External Heat Transfer Coefficient for Forced and Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A-3 Effect ofa Change in the Ambient Air-Free Stream Temperature on the External Heat Transfer
Coefficient for Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

iii
A-4 Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Air Gap Between Two Walls of a Double-Walled Metal
Chimney (Mean Temperature 200°F Through 400°F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
A-5 Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Air Gap Between Two Walls of a Double-Walled Metal
Chimney (Mean Temperature 500°F and 600°F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
A-6 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 200°F . . . . . . . . . . 50
A-7 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 300°F . . . . . . . . . . 51
A-8 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 500°F . . . . . . . . . . 52
A-9 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 1,000°F . . . . . . . . 53
A-10 Flue Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
A-11 Natural Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A-12 Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
A-13 Exit Loss and Entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
C-1 Dewpoint Versus Sulfur Trioxide Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
C-2 Sulfuric Acid Saturation Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
D-1 Normalized Response Spectrum Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
D-2 Seismic Zone Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Tables
4.4.6-1 Minimum Fabricated Plate Thickness and Maximum Stiffener Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.11.1.3-1 Cable Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.1.2-1 Representative Structural Damping Values, βs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
I-1 Terrain Exposure Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
I-2 Risk Category of Buildings and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow, and Earthquake
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
I-3 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
I-4 Force Coefficients, Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
A-1 K Factors for Breeching Entrance Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
B-1 ASTM A36 Carbon Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
B-2 ASTM A387 Grade 11 Alloy Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
B-3 ASTM A387 Grade 12 Alloy Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
B-4 ASTM A242 Type 1, A606 Type 4 (Corten A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
B-5 ASTM A588 Grade A, A709 (Corten B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
B-6 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
B-7 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
B-8 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
B-9 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 304L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
B-10 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 316L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
B-11 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 317 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
B-12 ASTM A516 Grade 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
B-13 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 309 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
B-14 ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 310 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
B-15 Other Stainless Steels, Nickel Alloys, and Titanium Used for Stacks and Chimney Liners 74
B-16 Thermal Coefficients of Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
B-17 Maximum Nonscaling Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
C-1 Suggested Suitability of Linings for Steel Stacks to Withstand Chemical and Temperature
Environments of Flue Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

iv
C-2 Suggested Stack Coating Characteristics and Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
D-1 Special Values for Maximum Ground Acceleration of 1.0 g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
D-2 Response Spectrum Scaling Ratio Versus A v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
D-3 Allowable Creep Stress of Carbon Steel at Elevated Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
D-4 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 410 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
D-5 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 304 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
D-6 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 316 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
D-7 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 317 Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
E-1.1-1 Example 1: Velocity Pressure, q z, Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
E-1.2-1 Example 2: Gust Effect Factor, Gf, Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
E-1.3-1 Stack 1 Along Wind Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
E-1.5-1 Example 5: Earthquake Response Spectrum Example Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
E-4-1 Mode Shape by Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
E-4-2 Equivalent Fatique and Static Loads by Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
F-1 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F-2 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F-3 Volume (Capacity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F-4 Kinematic Viscosity (Thermal Diffusivity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F-5 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F-6 Force/Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F-7 Pressure or Stress (Force per Area) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
F-8 Bending Moment (Torque) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
F-9 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
F-10 Mass per Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
F-11 Mass per Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
F-12 Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
F-13 Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
F-14 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
F-15 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

v
 FOREWORD

In early 1978, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers was approached by a group interested in formulating a
standard for the design, fabrication, and erection of steel stacks and their appurtenances. They felt there was a need for
such a Standard to establish a better level ofstandardization in the industry and for safeguarding the community. Because
of the particular nature of stacks and their susceptibility to failures due to wind and seismic-induced vibrations, along
with corrosion and erosion, the design process is a complex one. Additionally, recent regulations by the Environmental
Protection Agency concerning emissions have placed a strong emphasis on the mechanical design of stacks. In the last
several decades, much research has been done and many papers written on the subject. While investigation and research
continued, it was the feeling of these persons that some formal guidelines needed to be established. Therefore, in April of
1979, a group composed of stack users, researchers, designers, fabricators, and erectors convened at the United Engi-
neering Center in New York City under the auspices of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers to formulate such a
code.
With the above in mind, the group subdivided and began gathering information to formulate guidelines for mechanical
design, material selection, the use of linings and coatings, structural design, vibration considerations, access and safety,
electrical requirements, and fabrication and construction. When these were established, a section on maintenance and
inspection was added. The following is a result of their work and investigation. The initial document was approved as an
American National Standard in August 1986 and published as ASME/ANSI STS-1-1986 in May 1988.
During the next 3 yr, the committee received comments from the public at large and from its own membership
regarding the Standard’s content. Several formulas needed correction, and some of the symbols needed clarification.
Section 6.3.3 regarding Earthquake Response was also reviewed and revised to allow for static rather than dynamic
analysis in certain cases and to correlate it with ASCE STD-7-88 (formerly ANSI A58-1) . These changes were then
submitted to the general membership and approved.
In 1994, the committee was reorganized to further review and update this steel stack Standard. Emphasis was given to
the Structural Design and Vibrations chapters. Chapter 4, “Structural Design,” was rewritten to be more compatible with
the nomenclature, formulae, and symbols used in the Manual of Steel Construction — Allowable Stress Design (ASD), 9 th
Edition and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), 1 st Edition. Chapter 5, “Vibrations,” was revised to be more “user
friendly.” These and other chapters were updated to include the latest recognized applicable codes and standards.
The 2006 edition included changes and improvements to the Environmental Protection Agency regulation concerning
emissions that have created a strong emphasis on the mechanical design of steel stacks, made necessary changes found
through practical experience with the previous edition, expanded formulas as necessary, and provided both revised and
new sections for steel stack design, fabrication, and erection. It revised sections on appurtenances to meet today’s
requirements for these items. A new section provided the fundamental concepts for guyed stacks. Revisions to the
section on the physical properties of steel at elevated temperatures were made to match information available
through a comprehensive review of current technical literature. Sections on vibration included minor changes but
yielded a more workable standard. Also, a detailed example was included to provide a method for determining the
magnitude of across wind loads. One method was included to address fatigue due to vibration. Fatigue can be a significant
issue in steel stack design and needs to be considered in the design. Methods to determine across wind load and seismic
loads were provided in the nonmandatory appendices. If fatigue requires close examination, the engineer is cautioned to
review this issue with other design standards if necessary. There are several standards among them that can be helpful:
AISC, CICIND, or ASME.
This Standard is available for public review on a continuing basis. This provides an opportunity for additional public
review input from industry, academia, regulatory agencies, and the public-at-large.
ASME STS-1–2011 was approved as an American National Standard on March 11, 2011. ASME STS-1–2016 was
approved as an American National Standard on September 23, 2016. ASME STS-1–2021 was approved by ANSI as
an American National Standard on October 19, 2021.

vi
 ASME STS COMMITTEE
Steel Stacks
(The following is the roster of the Committee at the time of approval of this Standard.)

STANDARDS COMMITTEE OFFICERS

R. S. Slay, Chair
D. C. Mattes, Vice Chair
J. Cassamassino, Secretary

STANDARDS COMMITTEE PERSONNEL

S. Allen, J. T. Thorpe and Son, Inc. K. D. Scott, Affiliated Engineering Laboratories
J. Cassamassino, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers R. K. Simonetti, Consultant
J. Dorgan, Durr Universal R. S. Slay, Warren Environment, Inc.
D. C. Mattes, Hoffmann, Inc. E. K. Sommer, R and P Industrial Chimney
A. C. Olson, VAA, LLC N. Zarrabi, Associated Engineering Resources, Inc.
T. Oswald, Jr., Sauereisen Co. I. Prunier, Alternate, Warren Environment, Inc.
C. B. Reid, Industrial Environmental Systems, Inc. J. Mao, Contributing Member, GE Power
W. Rosencutter, Meca Enterprises, Inc. J. C. Sowizal, Contributing Member, Faist USA

vii
 CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE STS COMMITTEE

General. ASME Standards are developed and maintained with the intent to represent the consensus of concerned
interests. As such, users of this Standard may interact with the Committee by requesting interpretations, proposing
revisions or a case, and attending Committee meetings. Correspondence should be addressed to:

Secretary, STS Standards Committee

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Two Park Avenue
New York, NY 10016-5990
http://go.asme.org/Inquiry

Proposing Revisions. Revisions are made periodically to the Standard to incorporate changes that appear necessary
or desirable, as demonstrated by the experience gained from the application of the Standard. Approved revisions will be
published periodically.
This Standard is always open for comment, and the Committee welcomes proposals for revisions. Such proposals
should be as specific as possible, citing the paragraph number(s), the proposed wording, and a detailed description of the
reasons for the proposal, including any pertinent documentation.

Proposing a Case. Cases may be issued to provide alternative rules when justified, to permit early implementation of
an approved revision when the need is urgent, or to provide rules not covered by existing provisions. Cases are effective
immediately upon ASME approval and shall be posted on the ASME Committee web page.
Requests for Cases shall provide a Statement of Need and Background Information. The request should identify the
Standard and the paragraph, figure, or table number(s), and be written as a Question and Reply in the same format as
existing Cases. Requests for Cases should also indicate the applicable edition(s) of the Standard to which the proposed
Case applies.

Interpretations. Upon request, the STS Standards Committee will render an interpretation of any requirement of the
Standard. Interpretations can only be rendered in response to a written request sent to the Secretary ofthe STS Standards
Committee.
Requests for interpretation should preferably be submitted through the online Interpretation Submittal Form. The
form is accessible at http://go.asme.org/InterpretationRequest. Upon submittal of the form, the Inquirer will receive an
automatic e-mail confirming receipt.
If the Inquirer is unable to use the online form, he/she may mail the request to the Secretary of the STS Standards
Committee at the above address. The request for an interpretation should be clear and unambiguous. It is further rec-
ommended that the Inquirer submit his/her request in the following format:

Subject: Cite the applicable paragraph number(s) and the topic of the inquiry in one or two words.
Edition: Cite the applicable edition of the Standard for which the interpretation is being requested.
Question: Phrase the question as a request for an interpretation of a specific requirement suitable for
general understanding and use, not as a request for an approval of a proprietary design or
situation. Please provide a condensed and precise question, composed in such a way that a
“yes” or “no” reply is acceptable.
Proposed Reply(ies): Provide a proposed reply(ies) in the form of “Yes” or “No,” with explanation as needed. If
entering replies to more than one question, please number the questions and replies.
Background Information: Provide the Committee with any background information that will assist the Committee in
understanding the inquiry. The Inquirer may also include any plans or drawings that are
necessary to explain the question; however, they should not contain proprietary names or
information.

viii
 Requests that are not in the format described above may be rewritten in the appropriate format by the Committee prior
to being answered, which may inadvertently change the intent of the original request.
Moreover, ASME does not act as a consultant for specific engineering problems or for the general application or
understanding of the Standard requirements. If, based on the inquiry information submitted, it is the opinion of
the Committee that the Inquirer should seek assistance, the inquiry will be returned with the recommendation
that such assistance be obtained.
ASME procedures provide for reconsideration of any interpretation when or if additional information that might affect
an interpretation is available. Further, persons aggrieved by an interpretation may appeal to the cognizant ASME
Committee or Subcommittee. ASME does not “approve,” “certify,” “rate,” or “endorse” any item, construction, proprietary
device, or activity.

Attending Committee Meetings. The STS Standards Committee regularly holds meetings and/or telephone confer-
ences that are open to the public. Persons wishing to attend any meeting and/or telephone conference should contact the
Secretary ofthe STS Standards Committee. Future Committee meeting dates and locations can be found on the Committee
Page at http://go.asme.org/STScommittee.

ix
 INTRODUCTION

The following Standard applies to steel stacks; i.e., those stacks where the primary supporting shell is made of steel. It
applies to both single- and multiple-walled steel stacks, either of which can be lined or unlined. It also applies to steel
stacks that are guyed or to certain aspects of tower stacks. The stack may be supported on a foundation or from another
structure.
This Standard covers many facets of the design of steel stacks. It outlines the consideration that must be made for both
the mechanical and structural design. It emphasizes what consideration must be taken for wind- and seismic-induced
vibrations. It gives guidelines for the selection of material, linings, and coatings. It gives the requirements for lighting and
lightning protection based upon existing building and federal codes. It gives the requirements for climbing and access
based upon current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards. It emphasizes the important areas
regarding fabrication and construction. It outlines areas requiring maintenance and inspection following initial opera-
tion.
Although many of the topics within these guidelines may be used for all stacks, this Standard is intended to provide
design guidelines for stacks containing nonflammable gases, such as combustion exhaust gases at low internal pressures.
For stacks containing combustible gases under pressure, such as flare stacks and flammable vents, additional design
considerations must be addressed, including design for internal pressure, design for internal deflagration pressure, and
compatibility with adjoining piping design that is in accordance with piping and/or vessel design codes, such as ASME
B31.3 and Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). In addition, the materials of construction
referenced in this Standard may not be allowed for use with flammable gases under pressure per ASME B31.3 and Section
VIII of the ASME BPVC; materials suitable for pressure containment of flammable gases are listed in these codes. No
attempt is made within this Standard to define the need or the methods to be used to consider these additional design
considerations.
The information presented has been prepared in accordance with established engineering principles utilizing state-of-
the-art information. It is intended for general information. While every effort has been made to ensure its accuracy, the
information should not be relied upon for any specific application without the consultation of a competent, licensed
professional engineer to determine its suitability. It is therefore recommended that Engineering/Design drawings of the
stack bear the Professional Engineer Seal, signature, and date.
Nothing in the Standard shall be construed to alter or subvert the requirements ofany existing code or authority having
jurisdiction over the facility. Furthermore, alternate methods and materials to those herein indicated may be used,
provided that the engineer can demonstrate their suitability to all affected agencies and authorities.

x
 ASME STS-1– 2021
SUMMARY OF CHANGES

Following approval by the ASME STS Committee and ASME, and after public review, ASME STS-1–2021 was approved by
the American National Standards Institute on October 19, 2021.

Throughout this Standard, variable d has been revised to D . In addition, ASME STS-1–2021 includes the following changes
identified by a margin note, (21) .

Page Location Change

2 1.5.2 Revised
5 2.2.1 Subparagraph (b) revised, and subpara. (f) added
5 2.2.2 First paragraph revised
5 2.2.3 Subparagraph (a)(4) added
6 2.2.6 Subparagraphs (a) and (b) revised
6 2.2.7 Subparagraphs (e)(2) and (f) revised
6 2.2.8 Revised
7 3.2 Subparagraph (b) revised
7 3.2.1 Subparagraph (f) revised
7 3.2.2 Subparagraph (c) revised
8 3.2.4.1 First paragraph revised
8 3.2.4.2 Subparagraph (a)(1) revised, and subpara. (a)(6) added
10 3.3.1 (1) Subparagraph (h) revised
(2) Subparagraph (j) added and subsequent subparagraphs
redesignated
11 3.3.2 Subparagraph (c) added and subsequent subparagraphs
redesignated
13 4.3.3.1 Revised
14 4.3.3.2 Revised in its entirety
14 4.3.3.3 Revised
14 4.3.3.4 First paragraph revised
15 4.3.5 Last paragraph revised
15 4.3.9 Added
15 4.4 (1) In para. 4.4.1, sentence below eq. (4-8) revised, and last
nomenclature added
(2) In para. 4.4.2, sentence below eq. (4-11) revised
(3) In para. 4.4.3, eq. (4-12) revised
(4) In para. 4.4.4, last sentence added
(5) In para. 4.4.5, eqs. (4-15), (4-16), and (4-17) revised
(6) In para. 4.4.5(a), nomenclature deleted
(7) Former para. 4.4.6 and Table 4.4.6-1 deleted and subsequent
paragraphs and table redesignated
18 4.6.2 Subparagraph (c) revised
18 4.8.1 Last sentence added
20 4.13 Added and subsequent paragraphs redesignated

xi
Page Location Change
21 4.14 (1) Definitions of I and q p deleted
(2) Definitions of M, P, V, w(z) , w (z) , and wD(z) revised
22 5.2.1.1 Revised
22 5.2.1.3 Equation (5-1) revised
22 5.2.2 First line of paragraph below eq. (5-6) revised
24 5.4 Definitions of V, VR, and Vzcr , and ρ revised
25 6.2.6 Definitions of fall protection , guardrail system , ladder safety
system , lower level, opening , single length of climb , and
unprotected sides and edges added
25 6.3 (1) Paragraph 6.3.1 revised
(2) Paragraph 6.3.7 added, former para. 6.3.11 deleted, and
former paras. 6.3.7 through 6.3.14 redesignated
34 8.6.1 Revised
36 9.4.2 Subparagraph (b)(2) revised
36 9.4.3 Subparagraphs (c) and (e) revised
37 9.4.4 Subparagraph (d) revised
37 9.5.3 Revised
37 10 Updated
40 Mandatory Appendix I (1) Figures I-1 through I-1c deleted
(2) Table I-2 revised in its entirety
(3) Former Table I-3 deleted and subsequent tables redesignated
(4) Table I-3 (former Table I-4) revised
45 Nonmandatory Appendix A Titles of Figures A-6 through A-9 editorially revised
74 Table B-15 Note (1) added and subsequent note renumbered
81 Nonmandatory Appendix D Column headings in Tables D-3 through D-7 editorially revised
87 Nonmandatory Appendix E Revised in its entirety

xii
 ASME STS-1–2021
STEEL STACKS
1 MECHANICAL DESIGN
1.1 Scope
Mechanical design includes sizing of the gas passage,
both in diameter and height, and the drop in gas tempera-
ture as heat is transferred through the stack wall. Methods
for calculating draft, draft losses, and heat losses are given.
Differential expansion of stack components is discussed.
Design considerations for stack appurtenances are estab-
lished.
1.2 General
The purpose of a stack is to vent process exhaust gases
to the atmosphere. The mechanical design of stacks is now
controlled in part by air pollution rules and regulations.
Heights and diameters are set by a balance between struc-
tural stability and function, while at the same time meeting
the requirements for air pollution control dispersion of
the gas e s to th e atmo s p h e re . Th e h e i gh ts o f s te e l
stacks have increased to satisfy ambient air quality,
and stack inlet gas temperatures have decreased as
more heat energy is recovered. The importance of atten-
tion to stack heat losses has therefore increased. Stack
minimum metal temperature should be held above the
acid dew point of the vented gases, if possible. Stacks
a re b e i n g d e s i gn e d wi th m a n y a p p u rte n a n c e s to
monitor the gases and make stack inspections.
1.3 Size Selection (Height, Diameter, and Shape)
1.3.1 Height. Stack height may be set by one or more
factors.
(a) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regula-
tions may set the required stack height for downwash
due to local terrain or adjacent structures or to disperse
pollutants at a minimum height above the site. Refer
proposed stack location and purposes to the proper
EPA authorities for the minimum height requirement
under controlling air pollution control regulations. See
Federal register p art I I , E PA 40 C FR, p art 5 1 , S tack
Height Regulation (July 8, 1985).
(b) The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
sets minimum height of high-temperature stacks above
building roofs and structures for fire protection and
human safety. Local codes are often more stringent
and must be followed. A minimum of 8 ft of height
above a roof surface or roof-mounted structure within
1
2 5 ft o f a stack emitting gas es ab o ve 2 0 0 °F (9 3 °C )
should be maintained.
(c) The draft requirement of the process to be vented
may establish stack height. Equations to calculate avail-
able draft are presented in subsequent paragraphs.
(d) The effective height of a stack considering plume
rise may be increased by installing a nozzle or truncated
cone at the top to increase the exit velocity of the gases.
Several plume rise equations are available, but in actual
practice, plume rise can be essentially negated by high
wind velocities, low temperatures, and site conditions.
1.3.2 Diameters. The stack diameter may be set by one
or more factors.
(a) Gas passage diameter is usually established by the
volume of process gas flowing and available draft (natural
draft minus draft losses) . Velocities in a round stack
b e twe e n 2 , 4 0 0 ft/m i n an d 3 , 6 0 0 ft/ m i n are m o s t
common. Stacks venting saturated gases sometimes
limit maximum stack velocities between 1 ,800 ft/min
and 2 ,40 0 ft/min to reduce entrained or condensed
moisture from leaving the stack exit. Tests by EPRI
give different ranges for each type of inner surface
(see EPRI Wet Stack Design Guide TR-107099-1996).
(b) Stack shell diameters may be controlled by trans-
portation shipping limitations. Caution should be taken to
ensure that mechanical performance and structural sta-
bility are maintained.
(c) S tructural s tab ility may co ntro l a s tack s hell
diameter selection, and therefore, any size selection
based on mechanical criteria must be maintained as tenta-
tive until a structural analysis can confirm its accept-
ability.
(d) Future increases in stack gas volume should be
considered as well as future changes in process gas
temperatures and gas quality in the diameter selection.
(e) E P A regulatio ns may s et s tack exit diameter
because of plume rise considerations. EPA requirements
have sometimes set stack diameters in the test zone to
provide optimum velocities for testing.
1.3.3 Shape. The s hap e o f the s tack vari es with
designers’ preferences.
(a) Stacks generally are cylindrical in shape for effi-
ciency in structural stability and economy in fabrication.
Cylindrical shapes may vary in diameter throughout the
height of the stack; however, diameter changes shall occur
at an angle not exceeding 30 deg from the vertical.
 ASME STS-1–2021

(b) Other geometrical shapes, such as octagonal, trian- Tg = average absolute temperature of gas, °R
gular, etc., must be considered special and particular V= gas velocity at inlet, ft/sec
attention given to dynamic stability as well as mechanical W= mass flow rate of gas, lb/hr
design. Unusual shapes for aesthetic appearance should be
treated both structurally and mechanically as unusual and The total of the calculated losses comprises the total
basic engineering design standards should be followed. stack draft loss.
(d) Total loss
1.4 Available Draft FL total = FLen + FL f + FLex water gage, in. (1-5)
The available draft without fan assistance equals the
natural draft minus draft losses. Consideration should be given to the possible gas
expansion or compression draft loss in large or unusually
1.4.1 Natural Draft. The approximate natural draft of a shaped entrances. Consideration should also be given to
stack is calculated from the following equation:
s tack draft lo s s es caus ed b y s tack- mo unte d s o und

DRN = 7.57 HEjjjjj

i 1 1 yzz
z
B (1-1)
attenuators, stack dampers, or stack caps.
k TA TG zz{ 30 1.4.3 Approximate Stack Draft Losses and Size. See
Nonmandatory Appendix A, Figures A-10 through A-13.
where
B = barometric pressure; mercury absolute, in. 1.5 Heat Loss (See Nonmandatory Appendix A,
DRN = stack natural draft; water gage, in. Figures A-2 Through A-9)
HE = stack height above centerline inlet, ft 1.5.1 Ambient Conditions. Since the heat loss through
TA = absolute temperature of atmosphere, °R the walls of a stack varies with ambient conditions, it is
TG = average absolute temperature of gas, °R necessary to establish the desired design criteria. The low
ambient temperature expected should be specified, as well
Differences in gas absolute density due to composition and as an average normal wind speed.
moisture have been neglected.
1.5.2 Insulation and Linings. Insulation and linings ð 21 Þ
1.4.2 Draft Losses. Stack draft losses are entrance, fric- affect total heat loss.
tion, and exit losses. Draft losses are calculated from the (a) Insulation is applied to outer surface of the stack or
following equation: between the shells of a dual wall stack. A thickness is
(a) Entrance loss selected to reduce the stack heat loss to the desired
FLen = 0.003 KdV2 (1-2) level or to provide a maximum stack exterior surface
temp erature. I ns ulatio n s ho uld b e s elected fo r the
(b) Friction loss maximum temperature to which it will be exposed. Insu-
2 lation should be held to the stack shell as recommended by
i HE yz ij W
jj 2.76 yzz ( F) ( T ) jj
i yz the insulation manufacturer for the job conditions. When
FL f = j z g jj 5 zzz jjj 5 zz (1-3)
k B { k Di { k 1 0
z
{ thicknesses over 1 1 ∕2 in. are used, two layers should be
specified so that joints can be staggered. An appropriate
(c) Exit loss outer surface weather protection should be specified for
2 external applied insulation. Metal lagging should be
j Tg yzz i
i
W
jj 2.76 yzz jj
i yz
FLex = j z jj
zz jjj zz (1-4) secured with metal bands on maximum 24-in. centers.
k B { Dt k 1 0
j
k
4 zz j
{
5 z
{ (b) Stack linings are used for either heat loss reduction,
as a protective coating, or both. To design an appropriate
where lining system, the following information is needed:
B = barometric pressure; mercury absolute, in.
(1) normal operating temperature
d = gas density, lb/ft3
(2) upset (maximum) operating temperature
Di = inside diameter(s) of stack section, ft
(3) chemical composition of flue gas
Dt = inside diameter of stack at outlet, ft
(4) operating conditions, cyclical service
F = friction factor based on Reynolds number (see
(5) flue gas velocity
Once defined, a lining system can be selected, and the
Nonmandatory Appendix A, Figure A-1)
appropriate thickness determined. Lining reinforcing and
FLen = stack entrance loss; water gage, in.
attachments to stack shell should be per lining manufac-
FLex = stack exit loss; water gage, in.
turer’s recommendation.
FLf = stack friction loss; water gage, in.
HE = stack height above centerline of inlet, ft
(c) Stack surface cladding, either internal or external,
will affect heat loss and should be considered in heat loss
K= breeching inlet angle factor (see Nonmandatory
calculations.
Appendix A, Table A-1)

2
 ASME STS-1–2021

1.5.3 Film Coefficients. Internal and external film coef- hi = internal film coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
ficients affect heat loss. h ins = insulation coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
(a) The internal stack surface film coefficient varies hl = lining coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
with gas velocity, gas temperature, stack diameter, and ho = external film coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
surface roughness. The effect of both maximum and tg = gas temperature entering minus gas tempera-
minimum gas flow velocity on film coefficients should ture leaving, °F
b e s tudied in heat los s calculations. Therefore, the th = temperature drop through the h component of
range of expected gas flow should be specified. the stack wall, °F
(b) The external stack surface film coefficient varies ts = a ve ra ge ga s te m p e ra tu re m i n u s a m b i e n t
with ambient wind speed and stack diameter. A wind temperature, °F
s p e e d o f 1 5 m p h i s s u gge s te d fo r e s ta b l i s h i n g a U = overall heat transfer coefficient
maximum heat loss unless field data can prove higher W = gas flow, lb/hr
or lower average velocities.
1.5.4 Heat Loss Calculations. Heat loss through the
1.5.5 Other Heat Loss Considerations That Affect
wall(s) of a stack can be calculated with the following
Minimum Metal Temperatures
equation: (a) When gases enter a stack above the base, consid-
eration should be given to the use of a false bottom to
Heat transferred through the stack wall
prevent gas temperatures below the dew point in the
Q = U × A × ts (1-6)
nonactive lower part of the stack. This false bottom
s h o ul d b e we l l drai ne d and o f a s h ap e to p re ve nt
Heat loss in flowing gas entering versus leaving solids buildup.
Q = W × Cp × tg (1-7) (b) Since ambient air winds will enter the top of the
stack, especially at low stack flow velocities, and hence
Combining eqs. (1-6) and (1-7) cause low exit metal temp eratures, so me provision
U × A × ts = W × Cp × tg (1-8) should be made to reduce the resulting top-of-stack corro-
sion problems. The top of the stack may be fabricated of
corrosion-resisting alloys or a truncated discharge cone
used to increase stack exit velocities.
+ tout yz
= ijjj
tin
ts zz tamb (1-9)
k 2 { 1.6 Thermal Expansion
Differential expansion between components of a stack
tg = tin tout (1-10) should be carefully studied in areas to include
(a) between external and internal shells of a dual wall
or multiflue stack
(b) at breeching openings
U × A × (t in + tout
) tamb (c) at test and instrument ports
2 (1-11) (d) at test platform, catwalk, and ladder attachment
= W × Cp × ( int tout) brackets
(e) at building braces and guide lugs
(f) at roof flashing and counterflashing
(g) at stack tops and truncated cone
1 1 1 1 1 1 (h) between stack shells and external insulation
= + + + + (1-12)
U hi ha h ins hl ho (i) at weld joints between dissimilar metals

Heat loss through the stack wall section 1.7 Appurtenances

Q/ A = U × ts (1-13) Attachments to a stack may include the following:
(a) Access doors of an appropriate size should be
Heat loss through each component of the stack wall located for access to inspect the inside bottom base of
section the stack and at other selected locations for inspection
Q / A = h × th (1-14) and maintenance.
(b) False bottoms located just below the lower stack
where inlet are recommended.
A = stack mean surface area, ft2 (c) Drains in false bottoms and/or foundations should
Cp = specific heat of gas, Btu/lb, °F be installed to direct water away from the stack base and
2
h a = airspace coefficient, Btu/hr-ft , °F anchor bolts.

3
 ASME STS-1–2021
(d) Test and instrument ports should be located and
sized for each specific application.
(e) Consideration should be given to providing inspec-
tion ports spaced appropriately over the height of the
stack.
(f) An access ladder and test platforms should be
selected for j ob conditions with the required size of
the test platforms in the width specified.
(g) Lighting requirements are established by Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) directives. Access plat-
forms to service lights are recommended for corrosion-
resistant construction. See sections 6 and 7.
(h) Rain caps are generally not required on full-time
active stacks. When specified, a diameter of two times
the stack diameter and a clear height ofone stack diameter
is recommended.
(i) Stack spark-arresting screens of stainless steel
material a minimum of two stack diameters high may
be specified when needed.
(j) Metal stacks require no lightning protection other
than proper grounding at the base per NFPA require-
ments. See section 7.
(k) Stack internal shutoff damp ers and stack cap
dampers demand special consideration when specified.
(l) Straightening vanes to distribute flowing gas for
effective testing should be specified as required.
(m) Splitter baffles are sometimes used when two stack
inlets enter the stack opposite each other to reduce back
pressure in the event that isolation dampers are not used.
(n) Gin pole or davit lifts are sometimes specified for
hoisting instruments to the test platform.
(o) Top-of-stack roofs for multiple flue stacks and dual
wall stacks should provide proper weather protection for
the inside surfaces, while at the same time providing for
expected differential expansion between flues and the
stack outer shell. Consideration should be given to the
effect of the buildup of ash on any flat surfaces.
(p) Noise pollution control may require acoustical
suppressing sound attenuators within the stack.
1.8 Symbols for Section 1
A = stack mean surface area, in. 2
B = barometric pressure; mercury absolute, in.
Cp = specific heat of gas, Btu/lb, °F
d = density of gas, lb/ft2
Di = inside diameter(s) of stack sections, ft
Dt = inside diameter of stack at outlet, ft
DRN = stack natural draft; water gage, in.
F = friction factor based on Reynolds number
FLen = stack entrance loss; water gage, in.
FLex = stack exit loss; water gage, in.
FLf = stack friction loss; water gage, in.
HE = stack height above centerline inlet, ft
h a = airspace coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
h i = internal film coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
h ins = insulation coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
4
hl = lining coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
h0 = external film coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 , °F
K = constant for breeching inlet angle
TA = absolute temperature of atmosphere, °R
TG = average absolute temperature of gas, °R
tg = gas temperature entering minus gas tempera-
ture leaving, °F
th = temperature drop through the h component of
the stack wall
ts = ave rage gas te m p e rature m i n u s a m b i e n t
temperature, °F
U= overall heat transfer coefficient
V= gas velocity at stack inlet, ft/sec
W= mass flow rate of gas, lb/hr
1.9 Definitions for Section 1
appurtenances: stack specialty design items apart from
shell and structural members.
cladding: thin metal overlaid over the base metal metal-
lurgically and integrally bonded to the base metal.
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency (may be Federal,
State, or local) government regulatory authority.
EPRI: Electric Power Research Institute.
false bottom: a cone or plate located j ust below the
breeching opening to prevent gases from entering the
lower section of stack.
NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.
testzone: section ofstack designed for testing. The location
of test ports in relationship to upstream and downstream
flow pattern disturbances is well documented in Federal
and State air quality rules and regulations.
truncated cone: a converging section reducing the exit
diameter located at the top of the stack.
2 MATERIALS
2.1 Scope
Material specifications are intended to cover single or
doub le wall s tacks that are free- s tanding and s elf-
supporting, guy or cable supported, or supported by struc-
tural steel braces or framework. Reference is made to the
1975 edition of Design and Construction of Steel Chimney
Liners, published by the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers.
2.2 Materials
The M aterials listed in the following sections are
suggested for use based on their ability to meet the
physical, mechanical, chemical, and environmental re-
quirements of a given application. Acceptance of a mate-
rial for a specific application must be based on service
experience or independent verification of its suitability.
 ASME STS-1–2021
ð 21 Þ 2.2.1 General Considerations
(a) Materials shall conform to the applicable require-
ments in the sections hereinafter detailed.
(b ) The co ntracto r s hall s ub mi t o ne co p y o f the
chemical-composition and mechanical-property mill
test reports for all steels used to the owner for approval
p ri o r to co n s tru cti o n un l e s s o th e rwi s e i n d i cate d .
Approval shall include confirmation that steels used
meet all requirements.
(c) When required for testing purposes, the contractor
will furnish the owner with identified scrap samples of the
shell plates.
(d) This section does not apply to linings and coatings
of stacks. See section 3.
(e) Corrosion allowances shall be considered (typically
1
∕16 in. to 1 ∕8 in.) where carbon, high-strength, low-alloy,
and alloy steels are used. Experience or the results of tests
should be used when selecting an allowance.
(f) Galvanic corrosion shall be considered.
ð 21 Þ 2.2.2 Shell and Base Plates. For more information on
this subject, see Nonmandatory Appendix B, Tables B-1
through B-1 1. Additional materials or material grades
may be applicable.
(a) Shell and base plates typically may be of one or
more of the following structural quality materials:
(1 ) carbon steels conforming to ASTM A36, ASTM
A283, or ASTM A529
(2) high-strength, low-alloy steels conforming to
ASTM A242, ASTM A572, or ASTM A588
(3) stainless steels conforming to ASTM A666
(4) s tai nles s chro mi um- ni ckel s te el cl ad p late
conforming to ASTM A2 64 and nickel-base alloy clad
steel conforming to ASTM A265 may be considered for
use as shell plate
(5) metals listed in Nonmandatory Appendix B,
Table B-9 may be used not only as sheet linings and clad-
ding but also as solid plate for shell plates
(b) Pressure vessel quality carbon steels such as ASTM
A285, ASTM A515, and ASTM A516; alloy steels such as
ASTM A387; and stainless steels such as ASTM A240 may
be substituted for structural quality materials as appro-
priate.
(c) Carbon steels such as ASTM A5 1 6, Grades 5 5
through 70 and low-alloy steels such as ASTM A5 1 7,
Grades A through T and ASTM A537 are usually specified
for service temperatures as low as −50°F (−46°C). Nickel-
containing alloy steels such as ASTM A203, Grades A and B
are usually used for service temperatures as low as −75°F
(−59°C), and ASTM Grades D, E, and F are often used for
s e rvi ce te m p e rature s o f − 1 5 0 ° F (− 1 0 1 ° C ) . N i cke l -
containing alloy steels and nickel stainless steels are
used for even lower temperatures. Suppliers of structural
quality steels will provide data on notch toughness when
specified.
5
(d) Protection against corrosion and/or oxidation may
b e re q u i re d o n i n te ri o r a n d / o r e xte ri o r s u rfa ce s
depending on the materials used and the conditions
encountered. Section 3 should be consulted and used
as appropriate.
(e) Creep rupture tensile stresses for sustained loading
and high-temperature service conditions must be consid-
ered as given in para. 4.4.8.
2.2.3 Stiffeners and Structural Braces and/or Frame- ð 21 Þ
work
(a) Stiffeners and structural braces and/or framework
typically may be of one or more of the following materials:
(1 ) carbon steels conforming to ASTM A36, ASTM
A283, or ASTM A529
(2) high-strength, low-alloy steels conforming to
ASTM A242, ASTM A572, or ASTM A588
(3) stainless steels conforming to the ASTM A240 or
ASTM A666 or nickel-containing alloys having composi-
tions similar to those of the shell plate
(4) materials from paras. 2.2.2(b) and 2.2.2(c) may
be considered
(b) Protection may be required against corrosion for
components exterior to the shell and against corrosion
and/or oxidation for components on the shell interior.
Section 3 should be consulted and used as appropriate.
2.2.4 Guy Wires, Cables, or Fittings
(a) Guy wires and cables typically may be of one or
mo re of the fo llo wing materials, and co ns ideratio n
should be given to the initial stretch of the material:
(1 ) aluminum-coated steel wire strand conforming
to ASTM A474
(2) z inc- co ated (galvaniz ed) s tee l wire s trand
conforming to ASTM A475 and ASTM A586
(3 ) z i n c - c o a te d ( ga l va n i z e d ) s te e l wi re ro p e
conforming to ASTM A603
(4) stainless steel wire strand conforming to ASTM
A368
(b) Fittings for guys and cables should comply with
manufacturers’ standards and be of aluminum-coated,
zinc-coated (galvanized), or stainless steel as appropriate.
Aluminum and zinc coating weights and stainless steel
grade sho uld match tho se of the guys o r cab les o n
which they are used.
2.2.5 Anchor Bolts, Washers, and Nuts
(a) Anchor bolts may be ofthreaded bolt and stud stock
normally used as connectors or of round stock of struc-
tural material that may be threaded. They are typically one
of the following specifications:
(1 ) carbon steel-threaded fasteners conforming to
ASTM A307
(2) carb o n s teel b o lts fo r general ap p licatio ns
conforming to ASTM A449
 ASME STS-1–2021
(3) alloy steel bolts, studs, and threaded fasteners
conforming to ASTM A354
(4) alloy steel bolts and studs with enhanced impact
properties conforming to ASTM A687
(5) carbon steel conforming to ASTM A36
(6) high-strength, low-alloy steels conforming to
ASTM F1554
(7) Alloy steel and stainless steel conforming to
ASTM A193, Grade B7
(b) Material for washers shall conform to ASTM F436
and correspond to the anchor bolt material.
(c) Material for nuts shall conform to ASTM A563 and
correspond to the anchor bolt material.
(d) Protection against corrosion may be required.
Section 3 should be consulted and used as appropriate.
(e) Double nutting or an appropriate locking device is
recommended.
ð 21 Þ 2.2.6 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts
(a ) Unless otherwise specified, carbon and high-
strength steel bolts conforming to ASTM A307, ASTM
F3125 (A325), or ASTM A449 will be used.
(b) High-strength alloy steel bolts may be required, and
these should conform to ASTM A3 54 or ASTM F3 12 5
(A490).
(c) For high-temperature applications, bolt material
should conform to ASTM A193, Grades B7, B8, or B8M
covering alloy and stainless steels. Stainless steel bolts
are also covered under ASTM F593.
(d) Unless otherwise specified, nuts should conform to
ASTM A563. Stainless/heat-resisting nuts shall be of a
mate ri al co rre s p o nding to that o f the b o l t unl e s s
galling/seizing considerations dictate otherwise.
(e) Washers shall conform to ASTM F436. Stainless/
heat-resisting washers shall be of a material corre-
sponding to that of the bolt.
(f) Pro te ctio n fro m co rro s io n may b e re quire d.
Section 3 should be consulted and used as appropriate.
ð 21 Þ 2.2.7 Appurtenances
(a) Ladders, cages, and stairs may be constructed of
one or more of the following materials:
(1 ) structural steels and stainless steels conforming
to the standards under para. 2.2.2(a)
(2) carbon steel sheet and strip conforming to ASTM
A569 and ASTM A570
(3 ) h i gh - s tre n gth , l o w- a l l o y s h e e t a n d s tri p
conforming to ASTM A606 and ASTM A607
(b) Platforms and grating may be constructed of one or
more of the following materials:
(1 ) materials under (a).
(2) stainless steels conforming to ASTM A666.
(3) aluminum conforming to ASTM B221. Reference
is made to the National Association of Architectural Metal
Manufacturers (NAAMM) manual for metal bar grating
and stair treads.
6
(c) Handrails, toe plates, etc. typically are made of one
of the following materials:
(1 ) carbon structural steel conforming to ASTM A36
or ASTM A20
(2) high-strength, low-alloy steel conforming to
ASTM A242, ASTM A588, or ASTM A618
(3) aluminum conforming to ASTM B221
(4) stainless steels conforming to ASTM A666 and
ASTM A554
(d) Access Doors and Instrument and Sampling Ports
(1 ) Access doors shall be of a material matching the
shell plates or cast iron.
(2) Instrument and sampling ports shall be ofa mate-
rial of matching or higher alloy content than the shell
plates.
(e) Stack Rain Caps
(1 ) Unless otherwise specified, stack rain caps shall
be of the same composition as the stack shell.
(2) Because of potential corrosion problems, stain-
less steel conforming to ASTM A240 or higher alloyed,
corrosion-resistant materials should be considered.
Refer to para. 3.4 on corrosion.
(f) Drain System s. A system should be provided for
collecting and routing rain and condensate from the
interio r o f the stack to a single co llection point at
grade level. The designer may consider making the
drain pipe from corrosion-resistant material such as
Type 3 04 or Type 3 1 6 stainless steel conforming to
ASTM A240 or ASTM A666, nickel alloy, or plastic.
2.2.8 Welding Electrodes ð 21 Þ
(a) AWS D1.1/D1.1M is usually specified for structural
welding of steel stacks constructed from carbon or low-
alloy steels. AWS D1.6/D1.6M should be specified for
structural welding of stainless steel stacks. As an alterna-
tive, ASME BPVC, Section IX may be specified.
(b) AWS provides electrode specifications based on the
material type and the welding process to be used. With
each specification they include the appropriate electrode
classification. Please refer to the appropriate sections of
AWS.
(c) The electrode classification provides the electrode
type, minimum tensile strength, welding position, type of
coating, the correct polarity or current to use, as well as the
type of shielding gas. There are also supplemental desig-
nato rs such as imp ro ved to ughnes s and diffus ib le
hydrogen included in some electrode classifications.
(d) Welding e lectro de s with a minimum tens ile
strength of 70 ksi are to be used for carbon steel applica-
tions in steel stack construction.
(e) For high-temperature applications, above 750°F
(400°C) , using high-strength, low-alloy steels, welding
electrodes with a minimum tensile strength of 80 ksi
are to be used.
 ASME STS-1–2021
(f) When welds are made between dissimilar metals,
the type of electrode to be used should be based on
the higher grade material being welded.
(g) As with the design ofthe stack metal, proper consid-
eration must be given to the reduction in weld metal
s trength whe n e xp o s e d to high te mp erature s . The
temperature-based strength reductions for the weld
metal should be assumed to be the same as that for
the base metal.
3 LININGS AND COATINGS
3.1 Scope
Section 3 will provide the designer with information
that will help him to determine whether or not an interior
lining and/or an exterior coating should be used on the
stack, the types of linings and coatings that may be consid-
ered, and the general chemical and thermal limitations
associated with each type. Considerations with respect
to the use of insulating linings and exterior insulation
also are presented.
ð 21 Þ 3.2 Linings
(a) Linings for the interior of steel stacks may be
requi red to p ro vide res i s tance to co rro s i ve gas e s ,
vapors, or condensates; to provide resistance to heat;
and to maintain stack surface temperatures for the
prevention of condensate corrosion.
(b) To determine whether a lining should be used, a
complete thermal analysis of the entire system from
heat source to stack inlet and to stack outlet should be
performed giving primary consideration to the stack
wall surface temperatures noting temperature changes
from the inlet point of the flue gas to the top of the
stack. A complete chemical and physical analysis of the
flue gas should also be performed to determine the pres-
ence of chemically corrosive constituents and the charac-
teristics of particulate loading.
ð 21 Þ 3.2.1 Temperature/Corrosion. The metal surface
temperatures of uninsulated, unlined steel stacks may
fall below flue gas dew points within the stack or at
the stack outlet.
The most commonly quoted stack temperature is the
flue temperature at the stack inlet. It is also the most
misleading because it is the metal surface temperature
that is of importance. Uninsulated unlined steel stacks
can have metal surface temperatures 60 % or more
below the flue temperatures at the stack inlet, whereas
stacks with external insulation often will have metal
surface temperatures that are only slightly lower than
the inlet flue gas temperature.
Critical corrosion temperatures are not absolute values
covering all situations but present focal points for more
detailed study, i.e., if stack surface temperatures fall below
acid condensation dew points, external insulation and/or
7
higher flue gas velocities could correct the situation.
E xte rnal i ns ul ati o n can b e us e d to mai ntai n s tack
surface temperature at least 5 0 °F (2 8 °C) above the
flue gas dew point. If metal temperatures are exceeded,
internal linings may be used to provide a solution.
(a) 1 20°F (49°C). This is the water dew point, the
condensation point of nitric, hydrofluoric, and sulfurous
acids.
(b) 1 45°F (63°C). This is the temperature at which
hydrochloric acid condenses. Chlorides are found in
most coals.
(c) 275°F (1 35°C). This is the sulfuric acid dew point of
No. 2 fuel oil having a 0.6% sulfur content.
(d) 320°F (1 60°C). The sulfuric acid dew point of No. 6
fuel oil having a 2% to 8% sulfur content.
(e) 400°F (204°C). The maximum theoretical acid dew
point, assuming all sulfur present was converted into
sulfur trioxide.
(f) 800°F (427°C). Temperatures above this point
induce structural changes that render nonstabilized
grades of stainless steel susceptible to intergranular
co rro sio n. The temp erature range fo r this effect is
800°F (42 7°C) to 1 ,65 0°F (899°C) . Typical chemically
stabilized stainless steels include 3 2 1 and 3 47 while
limited use of low carbon grades 3 04L and 3 1 6L may
offer some resistance to intergranular corrosion for
short periods.
3.2.2 Other Critical Temperatures ð 21 Þ
(a) 1 60°F (71 °C). It has been found that irreversible
damage takes place when skin is in contact with material
at 160°F (71°C) for 1 sec. Reversible injury occurs at 154°F
(68°C) for 1 sec, and the threshold of pain is about 140°F
(60°C) for 1-sec contact.
(b) 400°F (204°C) . Average coefficients of linear
thermal expansion for carbon, alloy, stainless steels,
a n d n i c ke l a l l o y s a r e s h o w n i n N o n m a n d a to r y
Appendix B, Table B-1. These coefficients are of interest
when welding carbon and alloy steels to stainless steels for
service at temperatures of 400°F (204°C) and above.
(c) 750°F (400°C). For carbon steel such as ASTM A36,
creep becomes a design consideration at temperatures
above 750°F (400°C). Creep is defined as the time-depen-
dent permanent deformation that occurs after the appli-
cati o n o f a l o a d to a m e ta l i n o r a b o ve th e cre e p
temperature range. ASTM A242 and ASTM A588 high-
strength, low-alloy steels may be used where steels
with oxidation resistance and creep rupture properties
superior to that of carbon steel are required. ASTM
A2 42 is the mo re res is tant o f the two and may b e
used at a temperature about 100°F higher than that of
carbon steel (850°F or 455°C). Care should be exercised
ifusing ASTM A588 at 800°F (427°C) and above because of
relatively low ductility. ASTM A387 provides additional
alternatives to ASTM A36 between 750°F (400°C) and
1,100°F (593°C).
 ASME STS-1–2021
(d) 850°F (455°C). The temperature at which creep
becomes important for alloy steels.
(e) 1 ,050°F (565°C). The temperature at which creep
becomes important for chromium-nickel austenitic stain-
less steels.
(f) 1 ,1 50°F (620°C) to 2,000°F (1 093°C). The tempera-
ture range over which the stainless steels, depending on
their alloy content, provide useful resistance to scaling.
Refer to Nonmandatory Appendix B, Table B-17 for infor-
mation on maximum temperatures for alloy and stainless
steels to avoid excessive scaling.
3 . 2 . 3 En vi ro n m en tal Severi ty Levels. S e e
Nonmandatory Appendix C, Table C-1.
(a) Chemical Environment. Constituents within the flue
gas that will affect the corrosivity of the environment and
thereby the suitability of linings include oxides of sulfur
(SO x), oxides of nitrogen (NO x), chlorides (Cl), and fluor-
ides (F).
(1 ) mild — flue surface temperatures above acid dew
points (pH = 4 to 8)
(2) moderate — flue surface temperatures below
acid dew points on an intermittent basis but normally
above the acid dew points (pH = 2 to 4)
(3) severe — flue surface temperatures below the
acid dew points for all operating cycles (pH = less than 2)
(b) Tem perature Environ men ts. Temperature levels
also contribute to the severity of the environment, partic-
ularly as they relate to the suitability of organic linings.
Temperatures that remain constant or steady may be less
of a problem than those that are cyclic.
(1 ) mild — temperatures up to, but not exceeding,
200°F (93°C)
(2) moderate — temperatures from 200°F (93°C) to
350°F (177°C)
(3) severe — temperatures greater than 3 5 0 °F
(177°C)
3.2.4 Classifications of Linings. See Nonmandatory
Appendix C, Tables C-1 and C-2.
ð 21 Þ 3.2.4.1 Organic Linings. Most acid-resistant organic
linings fail or lose their flexibility and ability to resist liquid
or vapor penetration at temperatures over 300°F (149°C).
Some manufacturers claim their products can perform up
to 5 00°F (2 60°C) . However, it is important to clarify
temperature limitations on such linings in regard to
both dry and wet flue gas conditions because the tempera-
ture limitations of an organic coating system will often
vary significantly depending on whether the flue gas is
wet or dry. The condition of the stack wall, wet or dry,
must also be taken into consideration because a wet
surface can have the same effect as wet flue gas. Often-
times, the combination of the chemical environment,
together with the temperature environment, will be
synergistic in nature and require more careful selection
ofa lining. Before choosing a particular lining, the designer
8
should contact the manufacturer to ensure the suitability
of the product for the requirements at hand.
(a) Organic Resin. Polyester, novolac phenolic epoxy,
no vo l ac e p o xy, e p o xy, vi nyl e s te r, e tc. l i ni ngs are
comprised of chemical resinous compounds based on
carbon chains or rings and also contain hydrogen with
or without oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements. The
formulations incorporate hardening agents to cure the
resins and usually fillers or reinforcement to provide
desirable physical properties. Application is in liquid
form (solution, dispersion, etc.) using spray, roller, or
trowel.
(b ) Org a n ic Ela sto m ers. Fluo ro p o lymer, natural
rubber, butyl rubber, urethane asphalt, etc. linings are
based on natural or synthetic polymers that, at room
temperature, return rapidly to their approximate initial
dimension and shape after substantial deformation by
a weak stress and subsequent release of that stress. Appli-
cation is in sheet or liquid form.
Due to the great number ofvariations offormulations by
manufacturers of organic linings, this document will not
be more specific in this regard. There are ASTM standards
that can be used to evaluate certain properties of organic
linings, and where standards do not exist or when further
information is needed regarding specific products, their
performance, and recommended usages are required, the
linings manufacturers should be contacted.
3.2.4.2 Inorganic Linings ð 21 Þ
(a) Inorganic Cementitious Concrete Monolithics. These
linings are comprised of materials other than hydrocar-
bons and their derivatives. These protective barriers are
comprised of inert mixtures of chemically inert, solid
aggregate fillers and a cementing agent. The cementing
agent may be an acid-setting agent contained in the
p o wde r and a s i l i cate b i nde r, whi ch s ub s e que ntl y
hardens by the chemical reaction between the setting
agent and the silicate binder or a high alumina cement
binder that hardens by hydration. Application is by
troweling, casting, or Guniting. Refractory installation
quality control guidelines, monolithic refractory linings
inspection and testing, and materials used shall be in
accordance with API RP 936. Included are the following:
(1 ) Acid-Resistant Concrete. These linings are based
on silicate chemical setting cements and use chemically
inert fillers. They are particularly suited for severe chem-
ical environments and mild/moderate temperature.
Lightweight versions of these concretes that are suited
for severe chemical environments and will resist tempera-
tures up to 1,600°F (871°C) are available.
(2) Acid-Alkali-Resistant Concrete. These linings are
generally based on a combined silicate, chemically resis-
tant cement, with inert aggregate fillers. They are partic-
ularly suited under moderate chemical environments and
mild/moderate temperature environments.
 ASME STS-1–2021

(3) Refractory Concrete. These linings are typically temperature environments where insulation quality is
based on high alumina, hydraulically setting cement desirable.
binders, using inert refractory-type aggregate fillers.
They are suitable for mild chemical environments and
3.2. 4.3 Metallic Linin gs an d Cladd ing . S e e
Nonmandatory Appendix C, Table C-1. Metallic linings
severe temperature environments.
and cladding should be considered for use whenever resis-
(4) Insulating Concrete for Temperatures to 1 ,650°F
tance to corrosion and/or elevated temperature is a
(899°C). Typical formulations include expanded clay, slag,
concern. High-performance metals and alloys including
or fuel ash, combined with a high alumina hydraulic
stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and titanium are
cement binder; a calcined diatomite aggregate filler
available for use as linings or as cladding on carbon-
and high alumina cement; and a perlite or vermiculite
steel plate. Usually, the metallic linings are 1 ∕1 6 in. (1.6
aggregate filler combined with a high alumina cement
mm) thick, although thickness of 1 ∕8 in. (3 .2 mm) also
binder. They are suited for application where temperature
are used. C ladding thickness can range from 5 % to
is the main environmental condition to be addressed.
50% of the total plate thickness, but for light gage, 1 ∕4
(5) In su la tin g Co n crete fo r Tem p era tu res u p to
in. (6.4 mm) carbon steel, the preferred thickness is
2,200°F (1 204°C). Linings are based on high-temperature 1
∕1 6 in. (1 .6 mm) or 2 5 % of the total plate thickness.
insulating aggregate fillers using a high alumina hydraulic
M e ta l l i c l i n i n gs a re a p p l i e d to th e s u b s tra te a n d
setting cement binder. They are particularly suited where
welded together by the overlap joint method as described
the temperature environment and insulation characteris-
in NACE Standard Recommended Practice RP02 92-98.
tics of the lining are important.
M e tal cl addi ng i s ap p l i e d to carb o n s te e l p late b y
(6) Geopolymer Concretes. These linings are a rela-
either the hot, sandwich-rolling process or the explosive
tively new class of cementitious linings based on envir-
bonding process. The roll-bonded, clad-plate product with
onmentally friendly (Green Technology) combinations
the cladding metallurgically bonded to the carbon steel is
of pozzolans, industrial waste by-products (e.g., fly ash
available from the mill. Clad plate may be installed as
or slag) , and aluminosilicates that will provide a wide
described in NACE Standard Recommended Practice
range of both chemical resistance and temperature resis-
RP0199-99.
tance up to 2 ,1 00°F (1 1 00°C) . The high strength and
When selecting stainless steels and nickel alloys for
density of geopolymers also provide excellent abrasion
corrosive applications, a brief description of the effects
resistance.
of some of the alloying elements may be helpful. Chro-
(b) Inorganic Masonry. These linings are comprised of
mium (Cr) is most important from the standpoint of devel-
nonmetallic, chemically inert masonry units, such as brick
oping the passive or protective film that forms on the
or foamed, closed, cellular glass block, bonded together
surface of the alloy in air or oxidizing environments.
with a mortar having adequate adhesion to the units,
Nickel (Ni) is important in that it helps to expand the
and possessing suitable chemical and thermal resistance
passivity limits of the alloy, thereby contributing to
for the anticipated exposure. Included are the following:
improved corrosion resistance. It also is responsible
(1 ) Foam ed, Closed, Cellular Glass Block. Linings
for the maintenance of the desirable austenitic micro-
constructed of this unit are highly insulative. Borosili-
structure, which provides good ductility, fabricability,
cate-type glass compositions are most suited for with-
and weldability. Molybdenum (Mo) is the most important
s tan di n g s e ve re ch e m i cal an d te m p e rature
element for providing pitting and crevice corrosion resis-
environments as defined by this Standard.
tance, and nitrogen (N) and tungsten (W) are helpful in
(2) Firebrick. Linings of brick having appropriate
this regard. Nitrogen also increases the strength of the
alumina content to be chemically and physically stable
alloy and helps to maintain the austenitic microstructure.
at high temperatures, and installed with a suitable refrac-
ASTM G48 offers standard test methods for evaluating
tory mortar, may be used to temperatures of 2 ,2 00°F
pitting and crevice corrosion resistance in chloride envi-
(1 204°C).
ronments.
(3 ) A c i d- R e s i s ta n t B ri c k. T h e s e l i n i n g s a r e
The most important element for increasing oxidation
constructed of chemically resistant bricks, which are
(co rro s io n) res is tance o f s teels at temp eratures o f
no rmally laid in chemical- res is tant mo rtar fo r us e
1,000°F (538°C) and above is chromium. Other elements
where there are severe chemical and thermal environ-
such as silicon (Si) , aluminum (Al) , and the rare earth
ments. The acid-resisting brick should be specified in
elements such as cerium (Ce) also increase oxidation
accordance with either ASTM C279 or ASTM C980.
resistance, particularly when added to alloys containing
(4) Insulatin g Firebrick Lin in gs. These linings are
chromium.
co mp ri s e d o f l i gh twe i gh t, p o ro us re fracto ry b rick
To avoid intergranular corrosion in certain acidic en-
h avi ng much l o we r the rmal co nducti vi ty and heat
vironments, intergranular carbide precipitation (ICP)
storage capacity than firebrick and installed with high-
resulting from welding must be prevented. ICP can be
temperature refractory mortars and used in very high-
prevented by the use of low-carbon (L) grades (less

9
 ASME STS-1–2021

than 0.03 C) or the addition of stabilizing elements such as gloss, is economical, and is easy to recoat. However, it
titanium (Ti) and columbium (Cb). is very limited in its usage.
(c) Phenolic Coating System. This system is excellent in
3.3 Coatings moderate/severe chemical corrosive atmospheres and
exhibits good weathering resistance. It shows excellent
(a) The terms paint and coating are sometimes difficult
resistance in very humid environments.
to differentiate. The term coating is a more generic clas-
(d) Vinyl Coatings. These coatings are normally used in
sification that includes paint. While the primary function
severe chemical environments and not usually used as
of a coating is to provide protection, a paint may have the
stack coatings because they are expensive. However,
additional function of color along with protection. The
these coatings do exhibit excellent resistance to weath-
color pro perties of a p aint may be more imp ortant
ering and provide a good degree of flexibility.
than the protective properties. I n this Standard, the
(e) One-Coat Shop Painting for Structural Steel. This
word coating will also mean paint.
type of coating is not for protecting steel exposed to
Stacks that are constructed of carbon steel may require
weathering for greater than a 6-month period, even in
coatings to protect the steel from corrosion by the atmo-
n o rm a l ru ra l o r m i l d i n d u s tri a l e n vi ro n m e n ts o r
spheres to which it is exposed, to provide an aesthetically
marine exposures.
pleasing structure, and to be in accordance with under-
(f) Coal-Tar Epoxy Coating. This coating is used exten-
writer codes and government regulations pertaining to
sively in marine and chemical environments. These coat-
aviation safety. Some low-alloy steels, such as ASTM
ings have a tendency to embrittle during early years of
A2 42 and ASTM A5 88, exhibit superior atmospheric
exposure and, hence, require relatively rigid substrate
co rro s i o n res is tance to carb o n s teels and may no t
to show good performance. They are less expensive
require an exterior coating depending on the corrosivity
than the two-component epoxies, are normally black in
of the atmosphere. Stacks that are constructed of stainless
color, and require an SSPC-PC5 surface preparation.
steel or higher alloys should be resistant to atmospheric
(g) Zinc-Rich Painting Systems (Inorganic). This coating
corrosion.
provides excellent protection to the steel from weathering
(b) Since a stack is subj ected to outdoor exposure,
and is suited for high humidity and marine atmospheres. It
careful consideration for sunlight and weathering must
is not particularly suited for acid resistance. However,
be given, together with an awareness of discoloration,
when it is top coated, it provides good resistance to expo-
fading, brittleness, etc.
s ure to ch e mi cal fum e s . I t re qui re s an S S P C -S P 1 0
(c) In assessing the corrosive effects of the environ-
minimum surface preparation with a surface profile of
ment, careful consideration should be given to the top
1 mil to 2 mil to obtain total adhesion.
portion of the stack where washdown may create a
(h) Epoxy Coating System. These coatings provide good
more severe condition.
resistance to industrial fumes and marine atmosphere
(d) The type of coating required will depend upon the
exposures. These coatings exhibit hardness, excellent
color, pigmentation, maximum temperature reached by
toughness and some degree of flexibility and will range
the steel skin, and the duration ofthe higher temperatures.
from high solids content to 100% solids content. Although
(e) The majority of heat-resistant coatings use heat-
they tend to chalk quickly under weathering, they retain
resistant pigments, either inorganic or metallic.
excellent chemical resistance.
(f) In coating steel stacks, water-based paints or emul-
(i) Novolac Epoxy System. This coating provides excel-
sions have not shown good performance and tend to
lent resistance to industrial fumes and marine atmosphere
exhibit bleeding.
exposures. These coatings exhibit good flexibility, hard-
ð 21 Þ 3.3.1 Classification of Coatings. See Nonmandatory ness, and toughness and are of 1 00% solids content.
Appendix C, Table C-2. They have a higher temperature resistance than an
(a) Oil-Based Coating System. Such a coating system is epoxy system and better chemical resistance.
s u i ta b l e fo r p ro vi d i n g e xc e l l e n t p ro te c ti o n wh e n (j) Two-Component Vinyl Ester and Polyester Systems.
subjected to outside rural weather conditions but only These styrene-based systems provide a wider range of
protects against very mild industrial fumes and mild chemical resistance and higher temperature resistance
marine environments. This coating system is not recom- than epoxies and Novolak epoxies; however, they are
mended for corrosive environments. It tends to exhibit moisture sensitive during application and curing and
very slow drying characteristics in curing and embrittles tend to be rigid when cured. The styrene odors associated
and yellows with aging. with these systems can also be problematic to workers
(b) Alkyd Coating System. This type of coating shows involved in the application and to other workers in the
excellent resistance to weathering in rural environments. general area. Similar to ep oxies, these systems will
It shows poor acid chemical resistance and only fair chalk under weathering while retaining their chemical
performance in marine salt environments. This system resistance.
is easy to ap p ly, exhib its go o d co lo r retentio n and

10
 ASME STS-1–2021
(k) No vo la c Ph en o lic Ep o xy System . This co ating
provides excellent resistance to industrial fumes and
marine atmosphere exposures. These coatings exhibit
flexibility, hardness, and excellent toughness and are of
100% solids content. They have a higher temperature
resistance than novolac epoxy systems and better chem-
ical resistance.
(l) Chlorinated Rubber. This coating is similar to a vinyl
and provides a good tough film, which has good abrasion
resistance and possesses excellent weathering character-
istics. It also shows excellent resistance to mineral acids
and marine environments in salt water. It is normally
limited to 160°F (71°C) performance temperature.
(m) Silicones. Silicones provide excellent heat resis-
tance and may be used up to 1 ,2 0 0 °F (649 °C) . They
h ave s up e ri o r e xte ri o r we ath e ri ng; mi ni mum fi l m
erosion, as shown by chalking resistance; gloss retention;
and color retention. They show good resistance to mild
chemical exposure. The properties depend upon the
amount of silicone resin present and the type of modified
agent us ed. Pure s ilico ne, to gether with aluminum
pigment, provides an excellent durable coating resistant
to high temperature and is also expensive.
(n ) Two - Co m p o n e n t Ure th a n e Sys te m . A two -
component, catalyzed, cured aliphatic urethane provides
a hard, tough, and abrasion-resistant coating, which
shows excellent weathering characteristics and gloss
retention. It also possesses good chemical resistance to
mild acids and alkalis and shows excellent adhesion to
s te e l . H o we ve r, d uri ng ap p l i cati o n , i t te nd s to b e
moisture-sensitive, yet, upon curing, it exhibits excellent
resistance to humidity, marine environments, and mild
corrosive environments.
(o) Acrylics. These coatings show excellent color and
gloss retention for outdoor application. However, they are
very limited in their chemical res is tance. They are
economical and provide satisfactory performance in
rural enviro nments, where there are no thing more
than very mild fume conditions. They do not exhibit prop-
erties as good as vinyl or chlorinated rubbers with respect
to chemical resistance.
ð 21 Þ 3.3.2 Important Coating Considerations
(a) environment (rural, industrial, and marine)
(b) exposure to temperature
(c) chemical exposure
(d) weathering
(e) aesthetic color retention
(f) durability
(g) surface preparation
(h) cost
(i) coating manufacturer’s recommendation
3.3.3 Curing Methods
(a) air oxidation (alkyds and epoxy)
11
(b) solvent evaporation (vinyls, chlorinated rubber,
coal-tar, and acrylics)
(c) chemical reaction (epoxies, polyurethanes, vinyl
esters, and inorganic zincs)
(d) heat cure (silicones and high-bake phenolics)
3.3.4 Primer
(a) The primer is the most critical element in most
coating systems because it is responsible for preserving
the metallic state of the substrate, and it must anchor the
total coating system to the steel. Surface preparation is
very important.
(b) In general, the more severe the environment, or the
longer the requirement for protection, the greater the
co ati ng dry- fi l m th ickne s s wi l l b e . C are s ho ul d b e
ta ke n , h o we ve r, i n th e a p p l i c a ti o n o f h i gh - b u i l d
systems to thin-walled structures and other dimension-
ally unstable substrates. Thick films, particularly those of
rigid thermal sets, are less able to provide the necessary
flexib ility to s ub s trate mo vements (exp ans io n and
contraction) than are thin films and can easily undergo
adhesive and cohesive failure leading to subsequent
disbondment.
(c) It is to be noted that temperatures are to refer to the
exterior steel surfaces and not to the flue gas temperatures
within the stacks.
(d) For external steel surface temperatures between
450°F (232°C) and 900°F (482°C), two coats of aluminum
pigmented, silicone resin-based coatings have been
shown to provide excellent performance.
(e) For external steel surface temperatures between
450°F (232°C) and 900°F (482°C), a zinc primer, followed
by a top-finished coat of a modified silicone, has shown
excellent performance.
(f) All coatings should be applied in strict accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions, observing minimum
application temperatures, catalyst, type, addition rates
and thinners, and the amounts allowed.
3.3.5 Design Considerations
(a) Edges.
(b) Deep, square corners.
(c) Discontinuous areas (bolt heads, corners, etc.).
(d) Weld and weld spatter.
(e) Skip welds.
(f) Back-to-back angles.
(g) Effective separation of faces of dissimilar metals.
(h) Separation materials of suitable shape and thick-
ness (gaskets, butyl tape, etc.).
(i) Structural materials, guy wires, cables, fittings,
bolts, nuts, washers, ladders, cages, grating, and other
accessories may be protected from atmospheric corrosion
by the use of hot-dip galvanized coatings. These should be
applied in accordance with ASTM A153 and should involve
the appropriate coating weight, Classes A, B, and C, which
are in order of increasing zinc coating weight.
 ASME STS-1–2021
(j) Hot-dip galvanized coatings should not be used on
material in contact with unpainted A242 or A588 steel.
(k) Because of potential corrosion problems with stack
rain-caps, stainless steels conforming to ASTM A240 or
higher alloy, corrosion-resistant materials should be
considered in their construction.
(l) Galvanizing of such items as hand rails, ladders, and
other items of suitable size and shape affords long-term
protection in nonaggressive atmospheric environments.
(m) Silicone coatings have been well known for some
time for their good color and gloss retention when
exposed to exterior weathering. Unmodified silicones
are expensive and must cure at 400°F to 500°F (204°C
to 260°C). Air-drying properties, lower cost, and hardness
in adhesion are obtained by copolymerizing silicones with
organic polymers. The copolymers show practically no
film erosion and, therefore, are very slow to chalk.
(n) Inorganic zinc-pigmented coatings, when properly
applied to blast-cleaned surfaces, show good resistance to
atmospheric exposure.
3.3.6 Variations of Formulations. Due to the great
number of variations of formulations by coating manufac-
turers, this Standard will not be more specific in this
regard. When standards do not exist or when further infor-
mation is needed regarding specific products, their perfor-
m a n c e , a n d r e c o m m e n d e d u s a g e s , th e c o a t i n g
manufacturers should be contacted.
3.4 Corrosion
3.4.1 Attack Due to Sulfur Oxides [From the Model
Code on Steel Chimneys (CICIND)]
(a) The most common form of internal chemical attack
is due to acids formed by the condensation of sulfur oxides
in the flue gas. Sulfur is found in all solid and liquid fuels to
varying degrees and can also be found in gaseous fuels.
During the combustion process, nearly all sulfur in the fuel
is oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), which is absorbed by
condensing water vapor to form sulfurous acid.
(b) A small quantity of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is oxidized
to sulfur trioxide (SO 3 ). The quantity depends in a complex
manner upon the sulfur content of the fuel, the amount of
excess air available during combustion, temperature in
the combustion chamber, and the presence of catalysts
such as iron oxides. This small concentration of SO 3
(usually measured in parts per million) gives rise to
most of the acid corrosion problems encountered in chim-
neys. This is because on condensation, the SO 3 ions
combine with water vapor to form sulfuric acid, whose
concentration can be as high as 85%.
(c) Condensation of these acids takes place when the
temperature ofthe flue gas falls below their acid dew point
or when the flue gas comes into contact with a surface at or
below the relevant acid dew point temperature.
12
(d) The acid dew point temperature of sulfuric acid
depends upon the concentration of SO 3 in the flue gas.
Provided the temperature of the surfaces with which
the flue gas can come into contact is maintained at
least 50°F (28°C) , above the acid dew point estimated
in Nonmandatory Appendix C, Figure C-1 , there is no
danger of acid corrosion due to this cause. An adiabatic
saturation curve showing sulfuric acid concentrations for
various temperatures and operating conditions together
with suggested material is shown in Nonmandatory
Appendix C, Figure C-2.
(e) The acid dew point of sulfurous acid is about 120°F
(49°C), a little above the water dew point. If the fuel is
contaminated, other acids, such as hydrochloric and
nitric acids, can be expected to condense in the same
temperature range. Thus, even if fuel and combustion
processes are chosen to minimize production of SO 3 ,
or if flue gases are scrubbed to remove most of the
SO 3 and SO 2 , severe corrosion can be expected if the
te mp e ratures o f the flue gas , o r the s urfaces wi th
which it can come into contact, fall below 149°F (65°C)
o r the acid dew p o int temp erature relevant to the
reduced SO 3 concentration, if this is higher. Again, a
safety margin of 50°F (28°C) above the acid dew point
is determined from Nonmandatory Appendix C, Figures
C-1 and C-2.
3. 4. 2 Attack Du e to Ch lori n e, Ch lori d es, an d
Fluorides
(a) Chlorides and fluorides may be found in all solid
fuels, including refuse, and in many liquid fuels. Upon
combustion, chlorides and fluorides are transformed
i nto fre e ch l o ri d e an d fl uo ri d e i o ns , re s p e cti ve l y,
which, on contact with water vapor, are transformed
into hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. The highest
condensation temperature at which hydrochloric acid
has b een fo und is 1 40 °F (6 0 ° C ) . The co ndens atio n
temperature for hydrofluoric acid can be even lower.
Thus, when any flue surface falls below this acid dew
p o i nt, very s eri o us co rro s i o n wi ll o ccur. This de w
point is close to that of the water and sulfurous acid
dew points. Therefore, even very small amounts of chlor-
ides and fluorides, if allowed to concentrate such as under
deposits, can cause serious corrosion problems. For
examp le, chloride levels under dep o s its have b een
found to be as high as 100,000 ppm, necessitating the
use of the most corrosion-resistant materials.
(b) Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and free
chlorine in flue gases also become corrosive in their
vapor stage. Stainless steels are attacked at temperatures
above 600°F (316°C) . Fluoride vapors are corrosive to
stainless steels at temperatures above 480°F (249°C).
3.4.3 Limited Acid Corrosion Exposure. Limited expo-
sure to acid corrosion conditions can be permitted in
stacks, which, for most of the time, are safe from chemical
 ASME STS-1–2021
attack, provided the flue gas does not contain halogens
(chlorine, chlorides, fluorides, etc.).
3.4.4 Critical Corrosion Factors
(a) air leaks
(b) fin cooling of flanges, spoilers, or other attachments
(c) cooling through support points
(d) downdraft effects at top of the chimney
(1 ) Presence of chlorides or fluorides in the flue gas
condensate can radically increase corrosion rates.
(2) Regardless of temperatures, corrosion can occur
if halogen concentrations exceed the following limits:
(-a) hydrogen fluoride: 0.025% by weight (300
mg/m3 at 20°C and 1 bar pressure)
(-b) elementary chlorine: 0.1% by weight (1 300
mg/m3 at 20°C and 1 bar pressure)
(-c) hydrogen chloride: 0.1 % by weight (1 3 00
mg/m3 at 20°C and 1 bar pressure)
3.5 Insulation, Jacketing, and Strapping
3.5.1 Insulation
(a) Insulation may be required on the stack exterior
and/or interior or between the walls of a dual wall stack.
(b) Insulating linings are covered in para. 3.2.4.2.
(c) There are numerous ASTM standards covering
the rmal i ns ul ating mate ri als and the i r p ro p e rti e s .
These standards should be consulted and used in conjunc-
tion with the manufacturers’ recommendations to meet
the application requirements.
3.5.2 Jacketing and Strapping
(a) Jacketing may be of a material selected from one of
the following ASTM Specifications:
(1 ) aluminum-coated steel conforming to ASTM
A463
(2) galvanized steel conforming to ASTM A527
(3) stainless steel conforming to ASTM A666
(4) aluminum conforming to ASTM B209
(b) Strapping may be of the same material as the jack-
eting, but stainless steel is usually preferred.
4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.1 Scope
Section 4 includes currently acceptable methods for
establishing structural configuration of steel stacks and
stack elements to resist all external and internal loads
imposed by the geography and topography of the site
and by operating conditions.
4.2 General
4.2.1 Limitations. The design recommendations made
in this Standard are applicable primarily to circular steel
stacks.
13
4.2.2 Location. The stack design and construction shall
be appropriate to the specific site, with particular consid-
eration to local wind and seismic conditions, aircraft
traffic, operating conditions, and local laws.
4.2.3 Drawings and Computations. Design drawings
of the stack and all appurtenances shall be prepared
showing all elements and details necessary for satisfac-
tory fabrication and erection of the stack. Computations
shall be prepared and submitted. All means of connection
ofmaterial shall be specifically detailed with proper differ-
entiation between shop and field connections.
4.3 Applied Loading
4.3.1 Dead Load. The dead load shall consist of the
weight of steel stack, coatings, internal liner, insulation,
cladding, and all permanent accessories such as ladders,
platforms, and gas-sampling equipment. For dead load,
the full plate thickness shall be used. The corroded
p late area shall be used for stress calculations. For
stacks possessing refractory lining, the applied weight
of the refractory material shall be used to calculate
dead load stresses.
4.3.2 Live Load. The minimum live load of 50 psf shall
be included for platforms and walkways. This load need
not be considered for wind or earthquake combinations.
Consideration shall be given for accumulated ash loads,
and moisture in the case of wet gases, on the stack
walls and floors. False bottom plates shall be designed
for a minimum live load of 150 psf.
4.3.3 Wind Load. The wind load shall be calculated in
accordance with procedures outlined in this section. It is
the designer’s responsibility to calculate any applicable
wind load not specified in this section, including all
external attachments. The design shall also consider
wind lo ads due to interference effects as s tated in
para. 4.3.3.8.
4.3.3.1 Design Wind Force. The design load distribu- ð 21 Þ
tion is given by
w( z) = w ( z) + wD( z) (4-1)
where
CfqzD
w ( z) = (4-2)
1 2(1 + 6.8 Iz )
and
3 zM0
wD( z) = [Gf(1 + 6.8 Iz ) 1 ] (4-3)
h3
The velocity pressure, q z, shall be calculated by
qz = 0.00256 V 2KztKz (4-4)
 ASME STS-1–2021
where the basic wind speed, V, is based on a 3-sec gust
velocity and is selected in accordance with the provisions
of ASCE 7 and paras. 4.3.3.2 through 4.3.3.5, the Risk Cate-
gory set forth in Mandatory Appendix I, Table I-2, and the
velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz, is given in
Mandatory Appendix I, Table I-3 in accordance with
the provisions of paras. 4.3.3.6 and 4.3.3.8. The provisions
of para. 4.3.3.6 shall be used to determine Kzt where ap-
plicable, but Kzt shall be not less than 1.0. The numerical
coefficient 0.00256 shall be used, except where sufficient
climatic data are available to j ustify the selection of a
different value of this factor for a specific design applica-
tion. Values for the force coefficient, Cf, can be found in
Mandatory Appendix I, Table I-4. Interference effects
on the force coefficient, Cf, described in para. 4.3 .3 .8
shall be considered.
ð 21 Þ 4.3.3.2 Determination of Basic Wind Speed. The
basic wind speed, V, used in calculating the velocity pres-
sure in eq. (4-4), is based on ultimate strength load con-
ditions. Refer to Mandatory Appendix I, Table I-2 to
determine the Risk Category of the stack structure.
The basic wind speed can be found in ASCE 7 based
on the applicable Risk Category. The ultimate wind
speed mean recurrence intervals are as follows:
(a) Risk Category I: 300 yr
(b) Risk Category II: 700 yr
(c) Risk Category III: 1,700 yr
(d) Risk Category IV: 3,000 yr
ð 21 Þ 4.3.3.3 Special Wind Regions. The basic wind speed
shall be increased where records or experience indicate
that the wind speeds are higher. Mountainous terrain,
gorges, and special regions shown in ASCE 7 shall be exam-
ined for unusual wind conditions. The authority having
j urisdiction shall, if necessary, adjust the values given
in ASC E 7 to account for higher lo cal wind s p eeds.
Such adjustment shall be based on meteorological infor-
mation and an estimate of the basic wind speed obtained
in accordance with the provisions of para. 4.3.3.4.
4. 3. 3. 4 Estim ation of Basic Win d Speed s From
ð 21 Þ Regional Climatic Data. Regional climatic data shall
only be used in lieu of the basic wind speeds given in
ASCE 7 when the following applies:
(a) approved extreme-value statistical-analysis proce-
dures have been employed in reducing the data
(b) the length of record, sampling error, averaging
time, anemometer height, data quality, and terrain expo-
sure have been taken into account
4.3.3.5 Exposure Categories. An exposure category
that adequately reflects the characteristics of ground
surface irregularities shall be determined for the site
at which the building or structure is to be constructed.
Account shall be taken of variations in ground surface
roughness that arises from natural topography and vege-
tation, as well as from constructed features. The exposure
14
in which a specific building or other structure is sited shall
be assessed as being one of the following categories:
(a) Exposure B. This includes urban and suburban
areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous
clo sely s paced structures having the size of single-
family dwellings or larger. Use of this exposure category
shall be limited to those areas for which terrain represen-
tative of Exposure B prevails in the upwind direction for a
distance of at least 1,500 ft or 10 times the height of the
building or other structure, whichever is greater.
(b) Exposure C. This includes open terrain with scat-
tered obstructions having heights generally less than 30 ft.
This category includes flat, open country and grasslands.
(c) Exposure D. This includes flat, unobstructed areas
exposed to wind flowing over open water for a distance of
at least 1 mi. This exposure shall apply only to those steel
stacks exposed to the wind coming from over the water.
Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline a distance of
1,500 ft or 10 times the height of the stack, whichever is
greater.
4.3.3.6 Wind Speed Over Hills and Escarpments. The
provisions of this paragraph shall apply to isolated hills or
escarpments located in Exposure B, C, or D where the
upwind terrain is free of such topographic features for
a distance equal to 50 HH or 1 mi, whichever is smaller,
as measured from the point at which HH is determined.
Wind speed-up over isolated hills and escarpments that
constitute abrupt changes in the general topography shall
be considered for steel stacks sited on the upper half of
hills and ridges o r near the edges o f es carp ments ,
illus trated in M andato ry Ap p endix I , Figure I - 1 b y
using factor Kzt
Kzt = (1 + K1 K2 K3) 2 (4-6)
where K1 , K2 , and K3 are given in Mandatory Appendix I,
Figure I -1 . The effect of wind speed-up shall be not
required to be considered when HH/ L h < 0.2 or when
HH < 15 ft for Exposure D, 30 ft for Exposure C, or <60
ft for all other exposures.
4.3.3.7 Gust Effect Factor. The gust effect factor, Gf,
for main wind force-resisting systems of steel stacks shall
be calculated in accordance with the equations shown in
Mandatory Appendix I.
4.3.3.8 Force Coefficient Interference Effect. For
grouped or clustered stacks having a center-to-center
dis tance o f 3 diameters o r les s , an increas e in the
fo rce co e ffi ci e nt val ue o f 2 0 % i s s ugge s te d i n th e
absence of model wind tunnel testing or existing full-
scale data.
4.3.4 Seismic Load. Lateral seismic forces shall be
considered in accordance with the guidelines described
in this section. The procedure provided shall be followed
in the U.S. as a minimum requirement. It has been found
that, due to the low mass of steel stacks, those only in high
 ASME STS-1–2021

seismic areas or containing high mass distribution are
governed by seismic loads.
ð 21 Þ 4.3.5 Earthquake Response. The steel stack response
to earthquakes can be determined using the response
spectrum method by using a horizontal response spec-
trum based upon a maximum ground acceleration of
1 .0 g with a damping value of 0.05, which is scaled to
the s p ecific s i te. The value of the accele rati o n, A v ,
related to the effective peak velocity, shall be determined
using in Nonmandatory Appendix D, Table D-2 or the
4.3.7 Construction Loads. Consideration shall be given
in the design for applied construction loads in combina-
tion with wind and seismic loads that may reasonably be
expected to occur during construction.
4.3.8 Other Loads. Where ap p licab le, additio nal
lo adi ng, s uch as e xp ans i o n j o i nt th rus ts , p re s s ure
loads, impact, transportation, or other loads unique to
the specific case, shall be considered in the design.
4.3.9 Load Factors. The following load factors shall be ð 21 Þ

applied to the dead, wind, seismic, and thermal loads for

published value for the location. Using the value of A v,
use in the allowable stress calculations in para. 4.4.
th e r e s p o n s e s p e c tr u m s c a l i n g r a ti o i s fo u n d i n
Nonmandatory Appendix D, Table D-2. Linear interpola- Load Type Load Factor
tion may be used in between published values of A v. The Dead 1.0 (use 0.6 when resisting uplift)
modal moment, shear, and deflection response of each
Wind 0.6
mode is scaled with the scaling ratio for the specific
Seismic 0.7
frequency o f each mode. M o dal resp o nses fo r each
Thermal 1.0
mode are then added using the SRSS method (taking
the square root of the sum of the squares of modal
moment, shear deflection responses) . I n lieu of the As per para. 4.3.2, live load need not be considered in
response spectrum method, a static equivalent method combination with wind or seismic.
may be used.
The mathematical model of the steel stack used in the
4.4 Allowable Stresses ð 21 Þ

analysis shall be sufficiently detailed to represent the steel
stack, liner or coating, lateral support and foundation
property, and support conditions. A minimum of ten
elements and five modes of vibration should be used.
An example of the mathematical calculation of modal
properties and response spectrum earthquake response
is shown in Nonmandatory Appendix E.
4.3.6 Thermal Loads. Nonuniform distribution of flue
gas across the steel stack or steel stack liner may cause
differential temperatures. Unless the temperature distri-
bution is uniform or linearly varying across the stack/liner
diameter, thermal stresses will be induced in both longi-
tudinal and circumferential directions. In addition, longi-
tudinal bending stresses and shear stresses will be
produced if the stack shell or liner that is subj ected to
nonuniform temperatures along its height is restrained
from lateral movements. The thermal stresses should
be considered in applicable stack and liner designs.
F o r s tacks to b e s ub j e cte d to h i gh - te m p e ratu re
(>500°F) and/or fast plant startup or shutdown, such
as cyclic operation of combustion turbine, design consid-
eration should be given to minimize the nonuniform
thermal differentials that may exist between shell and stif-
feners or other structural elements. Localized thermal
stresses induced in the inner plates and stiffeners can
be substantial and must be considered in the design.
The following equations for determining allowable
stresses are applicable for circular stacks and liners
provided that eq. (4-7) is satisfied:
1 0 Fy
t (4-7)
D E
An increase in allowable shell stresses due to wind or
seismic loads shall be not allowed.
All other steel members shall comply with the require-
ments of the American Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) specification for the design, fabrication, and erec-
tion of structural steel for buildings, AISC Manual of Steel
Construction, with the exception that an increase in allow-
able shell stresses due to wind or seismic loads shall not be
allowed. For stacks and liners meeting the requirements of
eq. (4-7), the following four load cases must be satisfied.
4.4.1 Case 1, Longitudinal Compression. The longitu-
dinal compressive stress in cylindrical stacks and liners
(P/ A ) shall not exceed the allowable limit, Scl.
P
Scl (4-8)
A
where P is factored and
EtY
Scl = (4-9)
4D (F.S.)

15
 ASME STS-1–2021

when 4.4.3 Case 3, Circumferential Stress. The circumfer-

2.8 Fy ential stress, fc, in the shell due to external wind pressure,
t
q z, between stiffeners spaced at distance, ls, shall be deter-
D E
mined using
or 0.6 qz D
f
c
= (4-12)
Fy(1 0.3 Ks) Y 288 t
Scl = (4-10)
(F.S.) The circumferential stress shall be less than the allowable
stress, Scc, calculated as
when
1 .5
2.8 Fy 1 0 Fy t
<
t 1 .30 EK ( D)
E D E Scc = (4-13)
i ls yz
(F.S.) jjj zz
and kD{

Y= 1 when
when t 2.8 Fy
0
D E
, K= 1
Le
60
r when
and Fy t Fy
<
2. 8 10

Fy E D E
,

50 ksi
FyD Et
and K= Et
+
1 . 68 0 . 46 5
0. 0 23 2

FyD
21 ,600
Y=
L 2 where
1 8,000 + ( e) Cf = 1.0
r
q z = external wind pressure on stack shell at elevation
when under consideration, psf
Le
> 60 4.4.4 Case 4, Combined Longitudinal and Circumfer-
r
ential Compressive Stress. The combined longitudinal
and and circumferential compressive stress in cylindrical
stacks and liners may be determined using the following
Fy 50 ksi
equation:
P MD
( A) + 2 Isection i fc yz
2
(4-14)
i F
10 y t yzz
2 + jjjjj zz
zz 1 .0
jj
jj
Sbl S
k cc {
Ks = jj E D zzzzz
jj
jj 7.2Fy zz
zz where P and M are factored
jj z
k E {
4.4.5 Circumferential Compression In Stiffeners. The
F.S. = Factor of Safety = 1.5. size of stiffeners shall satisfy the following three require-
During construction 1.33 may be used. ments:
(a) The stiffener and plate section shall have a moment
4.4.2 Case 2, Longitudinal Compression and Bending of inertia equal to or greater than that determined by the
Combination. The combined longitudinal compressive following equation:
and bending stress in cylindrical stacks and liners shall
3
not exceed the allowable stress, Sbl. 0.6 q zlsD (F.S.) (4-15)
Is +p
P
+ MD
3,456 E
Sbl (4-11)
A 2 Isection
(b) The stiffener and plate section shall have an area
where Sbl = ( Scl) is given in para. 4.4.1, eqs. (4-9) and equal to or greater than that determined by the following
(4-10), and P and M are factored. equation:

NOTE: Y = 1 for compression due to bending.

16

0.6 q zlsD
As + p
288 Sccs
Circumferential compression in the stiffeners shall not
exceed
i EI yzz ijjj y
1 zz ij 1 yz
Sccs = jjjj zz jj
2 j
zz j
zz j zz
k D { k A s + p { k F.S. {
in which I is the moment of inertia of the stiffener and a
band of shell plate. The band of shell plate shall not exceed
the 8 × t projection beyond the stiffener.
(c) The stiffener and plate section shall have a section
modulus equal to or greater than that determined by the
following equation:
2
0.6 q z D ls(F.S.)
Ss + p
1,830 Fy
where
q z = external wind pressure
4.4.6 Minimum Fabricated Plate Thickness and
Maximum Stiffener Spacing. Table 4.4.6-1 shows the
minimum plate thickness to be used in the fabrication
of steel stacks and liners and maximum stiffener spacing.
4.4.7 Creep Rupture Tensile Stress. For sustained
loading and high-temperature service above 75 0 °F,
depending on the steel chemistry, the creep-rupture
strength of the steel becomes a significant factor in deter-
mining the allowable design tension stress.
(a) Because of their nature, allowable creep stresses
a re o n l y u s e d to l i m i t te n s i o n s tre s s e s o r te n s i l e
bending stresses from loading combinations that will
b e s us tai ne d at e l e vate d te mp e rature s . C re e p and
creep-rupture are very dependent on the exact chemistry
of the steel. Some carbon steels, such as ASTM A36, are
very susceptible to creep and creep rupture, while others
are almost creep resistant. The exact chemical composi-
tion ofthe steel is necessary to quantify its creep and creep
rupture properties.
(b) The creep design life should be selected based on
the expected service life and conditions. Design for creep is
typically based on creep and rupture properties corre-
s p o nding to a cree p life o f 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 hr. Thi s cree p
design life is the duration presented in ASME BPVC,
Section II. A shorter or longer creep design life may be
appropriate depending on the expected service life of
the stack.
(c) The maximum allowable creep tensile design stress,
as taken from ASME BPVC, Section I, should not exceed the
lowest of the following two values:
(1 ) the average stress to produce a creep rate of 1%
within 100,000 hr with a factor of safety of 1
(2) the average stress to cause creep rupture after
100,000 hr with a factor of safety of 1.5
ASME STS-1–2021
(d) Selected allowable creep tensile design stresses for
(4-16)
various steels used in ductwork and steel stacks are
presented for reference (see Nonmandatory Appendix
D ) fro m th e Am e ri c a n S o c i e ty o f C i vi l E n gi n e e rs
(ASCE) 1995 publication, The Structural Design of Air
and Gas Ducts for Power Stations and Industrial Boiler
Applications, Section 3 . The values presented in this
b o o k are i ntended to b e us ed o nl y as a re fere nce.
Creep rupture allowable tensile design stress used in
stack design should be obtained from test data reflecting
the precise chemical composition of the steel to be used in
the stack fabrication.
4.5 Deflections
4.5.1 Lateral Deflection. The maximum deflection
shall be calculated and the foundation rotation or move-
(4-17)
ment shall be considered in evaluating deflection. The
resulting additional stresses caused by P-Delta effect,
and other secondary effects shall be considered for
stacks with lateral deflections greater than 1 2 in. per
1 00 ft of height. The calculated maximum deflection
shall also be considered in evaluating the required clear-
ance for the equipment and structures near the stack.
4.5.2 Dual Wall or Multiflue Stacks. The forces due to
contact between liners and the shell of dual wall or multi-
flue steel stacks due to any velocity wind-up to the design
velocity shall be considered at all elevations of the shell
and liners. Once the deflected outer shell makes contact to
the plumbed liners due to wind load, both the outer shell
and liners deflect together as a combined section. The
outer stack shall be designed to carry all the stresses
without any help from liners. However, the liners shall
be designed to carry the stresses caused by lateral deflec-
tion.
4.5.3 Attachments and/or Contact Points. The design
and detailing ofattachments and/or contact points to shell
and/or liner shall take into account vertical movements
and lateral deflections. The lack ofproper detailing can put
unplanned loads and stresses in the system.
Table 4.4.6-1
Minimum Fabricated Plate Thickness
and Maximum Stiffener Spacing
Inside
Diameter, D, Minimum Fabricated Maximum Stiffener
ft Plate Thickness, in. Spacing, ft [Note (1)]
D ≤ 3.5 0.125 5D
3.5 < D ≤ 8.5 0.1875 3D
8.5 < D ≤ 18.0 0.1875 2D
D > 18.0 0.25 1 1 ∕2 D
NOTE: (1) Equal to or greater if the requirements of paras. 4.3.7 and
4.4.5 are satisfied.
17
 ASME STS-1–2021
4.6 Structural Shell Discontinuities
4.6.1 Discontinuities. Openings in the shell shall be
designed to maintain the minimum factors of safety speci-
fied for the loading conditions.
(a) The top and bottom of the breeching opening shall
be adequately reinforced to transfer the discontinuities of
shell stress back to the full circumference of the shell.
(b) The s ides o f b reeching o p enings s hall act as
columns or tension members to withstand the end reac-
tions of the assumed horizontal girders above and below
the opening. The strength of a plane cut through the
opening at any elevation shall be adequate to withstand
all applied loads on the section.
(c) The breeching opening reinforcement may serve as
a means of connecting the breeching to the liner or shell.
The applicable corrosion allowance shall be applied to the
reinforcement if exposed to the flue gas.
ð 21 Þ 4.6.2 Flanged Shell Connections. Generally welded
s tack s p lice co nnectio ns are p referred o ver b o lted
splice connections as they provide continuity between
stack sections. If bolted shell connections are used the
designer should consider the following recommendations:
(a) Bolts are to be designed for both the tension caused
by bending moment plus any additional prying force
caused by bolt eccentricity and flexure in the connection.
(b) It is recommended that bolt spacing not exceed 6 in.
on-center. The designer may consider closer spacing to
minimize flange thickness and reduce the risk for leaks.
(c) All bolts shall be tightened in accordance with AISC
standards via one of the methods described in para. 8.6.1.
(d) To prevent exhaust gasses from leaking between
the flange connection the splice should receive an internal
seal weld or be caulked with a suitable grade sealant
suitable for both exhaust temperature and flue gas compo-
sition.
(e) Flange fabrication tolerances of adjoining sections
are such that both the inner and outer surfaces are in
contact once the connection is complete for the full
circumference of the splice.
(f) Bolts shall be inspected during all routine stack
inspections.
4.7 Base
The base ring and anchor bolts shall be designed to
transfer the steel stack shear, compression, and tensile
forces to the supporting structure or foundation in accor-
dance with proven design methods. No strength increase
will be permitted for wind or seismic loads.
4.8 Anchor Bolts
ð 21 Þ 4.8.1 Anchor Bolt Tension. Anchor bolts shall be
designed to transfer all tension and shear forces to the
foundation unless other methods are incorporated to
accomplish this purpose. The maximum anchor bolt
18
tension, Fb , may be determined from the following relation
for circular sections sufficiently away from discontinu-
ities:
4Mb P
Fb = (4-18)
NDbc N
where P and M are factored.
4.8.2 Anchor Bolt Material. All anchor bolt material
shall conform to section 2.
4.8.3 Anchor Bolt Loading. Anchor bolt capacities for
tension and/or shear shall not exceed those given for size
of bolt and material indicated in AISC, latest edition. No
load increase in bolts will be permitted for wind or seismic
loading.
4.8.4 Load Transfers Between Anchor Bolts and
Shell. Trans fer o f lo ads b etween ancho r b o lts and
shell shall accommodate all loads and eccentricities. An
increase in allowable shell stresses due to wind o r
seismic loads shall not be allowed.
4.9 False Bottom
False bottom shall be designed to resist all anticipated
loads that can be applied. These loads include pressure,
live load (see para. 4.3 .2 ) , and personnel load. False
b o tto ms can b e e i th e r s l o p e d o r co ni cal i n s hap e .
Slop ed fals e b o ttoms shall have a slo p e of no t les s
than 5 deg. Sloped false bottoms can be designed as
diaphragms or stiffened with beams underneath the
false bottom. The Designer is cautioned to ensure that
diaphragms or conical false bottoms be designed with
a properly sized compression ring to resist the loads
at the false bottom to stack j unction. The Designer is
cautioned to include corrosion allowance in accordance
with the process gas that is flowing in the stack. Failures
can occur in false bottoms due to heavy ash buildup and
subsequent corrosion.
4.10 Foundation
The foundation shall transfer all moment and shear
loads (static and dynamic) to the supporting soil or
piles. Concrete and steel reinforcement design shall
comply with ACI 318 and ACI 301. A qualified geotechnical
engineer shall review soil boring and pile capacity test
results. The combined dead load ofthe stack, plus the foun-
dation weight times the distance from the center of the
weight to the toe shall be at least 1.5 times the design
moment.
4.11 Guyed Stacks
In a guyed stack, externally applied loads (wind, seismic
forces, etc.) are carried by the stack shell as well as by guys
in tension. The term “guy wire” refers to wire rope or
 ASME STS-1–2021

Cable Selection Criteria
Cable Type Lateral Deflection
Structural bridge strand Due to high stiffness,
offers good resistance to
lateral movement
Wire rope Relatively high flexibility
leads to larger
deflection
Table 4.11.1.3-1
Thermal Expansion
Due to high stiffness, thermal
expansion introduces large
stresses into the cables,
stack, and foundation
Flexibility is more forgiving for
thermal expansion, offering
less stress in cables, stack,
and foundation
Construction
Requires guy fittings for both
ends to be installed in shop.
Consequently, length adjustment
in the field is limited
to turnbuckle allowance.
Flexibility allows cable to be
supplied longer than
required and field adjusted

structural bridge strand. Sometimes it is also referred to as
a “stay.”
4.11.1 Guy Wire. In design and selection of guy wires,
the factors as stated in paras. 4.11.1.1 through 4.11.1.5
should be considered.
4.11.1.1 Guy Wire Spacing and Position. Guy wires
are to be equally spaced in plan. A stack may be guyed
at one or more levels through its height. A minimum
of three cables (at 120 deg from each other around the
circumference) is recommended at each level. An angle
of 45 deg to 60 deg between the guy and horizontal
axis of the stack is typical.
4.11.1.2 Guy Wire Anchorage. Guy cables shall be
attached to a fixed and stable structure or foundation
often referred to as a dead man. Each set of guy wire
anchors should be at the same relative elevation above
ground.
4.11.1.3 Guy Wire Material. Guy wires shall be galva-
nized or protected from corrosion by other suitable
means, such as plastic coating or using stainless steel
cable strands. The fittings required in the assembly of
guy wires shall be galvanized. See Table 4.11.1.3-1 for
cable s election criteria, and refer to p ara. 2 . 2 . 4 fo r
more details.
4.11.1.4 Guy Wire Pretensioning/Site Tensioning.
Guyed stacks move laterally due to wind. With adequate
initial tension in the guys (pretensioning), this movement
is reduced. The pretension force as well as the procedure
for pretensioning shall be established by the designer. To
avoid stretching of the cables during construction, which
may alter the design condition, use ofprestretched cable is
recommended. In the case of hot stacks (over 400°F), the
pretension is usually less so that the cable is more
forgiving as the stack grows. However, the lateral deflec-
tion of the stack will increase due to this reduction in
p retensio n. C onsequently, the guyed stack must be
analyzed in both hot and cold conditions. A turnbuckle
or take-up, typically provided at the guy- wire-to-dead-
man connection, allows adj ustment to the cable to set
the pretension. The effect of temperature causing differ-
ential thermal expansion in stack and guys shall be consid-
ered. The effect of ice on guys shall also be considered.
Refer to ASCE 7, Section 10.0 for additional information.
The breaking strength (B.S.) of the cables should be based
on a minimum factor of safety of 3. The efficiency of the
fittings shall also be considered. For detailed information,
such as material, size, and strength, refer to the cable
manufacturer.
4.11.1.5 Guy Wire Inspection and Maintenance. The
guy wires should be inspected frequently. This may
comprise visual inspection of the cable or electromagnetic
measurement, which estimates the lost metal thickness.
For inspection frequency, refer to para. 9.4.1. The preten-
sion of the cables should also be periodically checked and
verified. It is recommended that the guy wires be lubri-
cated and tension verified every 5 yr.
4.11.2 Analysis of Guy Wire Stacks. After height and
stability considerations, the guy wire levels as well as the
number and angle of the guy wires shall be established by
the designer. Analysis of a multilevel guy wire stack is very
complex due to many variable support conditions. There-
fo re, times aving co mp uter mo deling fo r s tructural
analysis is essential. In computer modeling, the following
parameters must be considered:
(a) nonlinear cable effects
(b) wind/seismic loads in different directions
(c) thermal expansion of the stack
(d) vortex shedding of guyed stacks
4.11.3 Guy Wire Attachment to Stack. Commercial-
rated capacity of the cable shall be used for design of
guy wire attachment assembly, including the lug. The
stack shell shall be reinforced at the attachment level
by using continuous ring and stiffeners as needed.
4.12 Braced and Tower-Supported Stacks
In addition to freestanding stacks on typical ground-
based foundation or guyed stacks, a stack may also be
supported vertically or laterally at different elevations
d u e to s tr u c tu r a l r e a s o n s s u r r o u n d i n g p h ys i c a l
constraints and even safety reasons. Understanding
advantage s and s tructural characteri s ti cs o f s tack

19
 ASME STS-1–2021
support options are prerequisites for analysis and design
of braced or tower-supported stacks.
4.12.1 Types of Supports. There are two types of stack
supports: vertical and lateral or braced. Vertical supports
may be above ground. Examples of this kind of support
would be a stack supported on a steel frame within a struc-
tural tower or a stack supported on a floor or on top of a
building. Considerations for stacks supported on other
structures are discussed in para. 4.12.3.2. Examples of
a laterally supported stack would be a stack braced
against a building or by a structural tower. A stack
may be braced at more than one location. Design consid-
erations for this type of stack are discussed in para.
4.12.3.1. It is very important that any catwalk connecting
any building to a stack be of a sliding connection type,
where it does not permit any horizontal load transfer
between the stack and connecting structure. Otherwise,
redistribution of forces and stresses shall be considered
in modeling and analysis of the stack. Refer to para. 4.12.3
for further discussion on analysis.
4.12.2 Advantages of Vertically Supported and
Braced Stacks. Stacks supported above ground usually
have the option of receiving exhaust duct attachment
from below, as well as from the sides. A braced stack
will require a smaller foundation as compared with a
free-standing stack with the same height, since some
of the wind load will be transferred to the adj acent
bracing structure. D ue to the same lo ad transfer, a
braced stack also has fewer shell stresses as compared
with a free-standing stack, therefore requiring thinner
shell or smaller diameter. For multiplatform and tall
stacks, sometimes access to the platform can be provided
by catwalks from the adj acent building rather than a
ladder from ground level. I n the case of the tower-
supported stacks, the tower also has the advantage of
providing an easy and safe framework for staircases
and test platforms.
4.12.3 Analysis. The stack should be analyzed based on
a model considering rigidity of the supporting structure
and co nne cting co mp o nent b etwe en the s tack and
supporting structure. Stiffeners are required around
the perimeter of the stack to resist the local stresses
due to wind or seismic reaction at bracing level.
4.12.3.1 Stacks Supported by Other Structures.
Stacks may be laterally supported by other structures,
such as towers and buildings. No credit for shielding
provided by the bracing building shall be considered
when computing design wind. The bracing assembly
should allow vertical movement due to thermal expan-
sion. Stacks may also be vertically supported by other
structures. For proper analysis, structural interaction
between the stack and its supporting structure should
be considered.
20
4.12.3.2 Stacks Supported on Top of Other Struc-
tures. Sometimes short and light stacks are supported
on top of equipment directly below them. In this case,
special attention shall be given to ensure proper base
attachment and load transfer to the supporting equip-
ment. When possible, the designer may consider place-
ment of an independent structural frame to support
the stack and using an expansion joint under the stack
to co nnect the stack to the equip ment witho ut any
load transfer between them. Where feasible, a stack
may also be supported on a building roof or supported
o n a flo o r p enetrati ng, and b raced at, the ro o f. I n
either case, the base support condition shall be evaluated.
4.13 Stacks with Refractory-Concrete Lining ð 21 Þ
In stacks subject to high operation temperatures, refrac-
tory-concrete lining is often used as a protective barrier
for the shell plate and all internal components exposed to
high heat. Chemical compositions, classifications, and
characteristics of different types of linings are described
in section 3 and Nonmandatory Appendix C, Tables C-1
an d C - 2 . S tru ctu ral e ffe cts o f re fra cto ry- co n cre te
linings shall be considered in the design of steel stacks.
4.13.1 Maintenance and Inspection Considerations.
Brick and castable are two general types of concrete
refractory used in steel stacks. For inspection ofrefractory
linings, see para. 9.4.3(c).
4.13.2 Structural Considerations. Although refrac-
tory-concrete lining is heavy and thick compared to
the stack shell plates, the strength of the refractory-
concrete shall not be considered in the design of the
shell plate.
4.13.2.1 Dead Load. The we ight o f re fracto ry-
concrete lining is generally much greater than stack
shell plates. The additional weight shall be considered
in the design of shell plates and the stack structural
components.
4.13.2.2 P-Delta Effect. Stresses due to P-Delta effect
shall be added to the stresses calculated for wind or
seismic loads since P-Delta loads are much greater in
refractory-concrete lined stacks than unlined stacks.
4. 13. 2. 3 Freq u en cy. Al th o u gh th e s tre ngth o f
refracto ry- co ncrete lining is no t co ns idered in the
design of stack shell plates, it will affect the natural
frequency and therefore, the structural character of the
stack.
4.13.2.4 Seismic. Seismic force on any structure is a
function of its mass. Therefore, the heavy weight of
refractory-concrete lining can substantially increase
the seismic forces on the stack and its components.
See para. 4.3.4 for additional seismic considerations.
 ASME STS-1–2021

ð 21 Þ 4.14 Symbols and Definitions for Section 4 ls = spacing between circumferential stif-
A = cross-sectional area of stack plate, in. 2
feners, determined as the sum of half of
A s+ p = area of stack stiffener and plate section, the distance to adj acent stiffeners on
in. 2 either side of the stiffener under consid-
Av = effective peak velocity-related accelera- eration, in.
tion M = factored moment in stack at elevation
B = stack diameter (used only in Mandatory under consideration due to wind or earth-
Appendix I), ft quake loads, lbf-in.
B.S. = breaking strength Mb = moment at the base of the stack due to
b = coefficient given in Mandatory Appendix I, wind or earthquake loads, lbf-in.
Table I-1 M0 = moment at the base of the stack due to
c = coefficient given in Mandatory Appendix I, W (z) loading, lbf-ft
Table I-1 N = number of anchor bolts
Cf = fo rce co e ffici ent gi ve n in M andato ry N1 = coefficient used to calculate the resonant
Appendix I, Table I-4 response factor
D = diameter o f s tack at elevatio n under P = factored dead load of stack above eleva-
consideration, in. tion under consideration, lb
Dbc = diameter of anchor bolt circle, in. Q = background response factor
E = m o d u l u s o f e l a s ti c i ty a t m e a n s h e l l qz = external wind pressure on stack shell at
temperature, psi elevation under consideration, psf
Fb = anchor bolt tension force, lbf R = resonant response factor
F.S. = factor of safety R B, R h , R d = re s o n a n c e re s p o n s e fa c to rs u s e d i n
Fy = yield strength at mean shell temperature, Mandatory Appendix I
psi Rn = v a l u e o b t a i n e d fr o m e q u a t i o n i n
fc = circumferential stress in the shell due to Mandatory Appendix I
external wind pressure, psi r = weighted mean radius of gyration for
Gf = gust effect factor elevation under consideration, in.
HH = height of hill o r es carp ment given in Sbl = a l l o wa b l e co m b i n e d l o n gi tu d i n al
Mandatory Appendix I, Figure I-1, ft compressive and bending stress, psi
h = height of stack, ft Scc = allowable circumferential compressive
Isection = moment of inertia of stack section, in. 4 stress in shell, psi
Is+ p = moment of inertia of stack stiffener and Sccs = allowable circumferential compressive
plate section, in. 4 s tres s in stiffeners and b and o f s hell
Iz = intensity of turbulence at height z plate, psi
K = circumferential stress coeffecient Scl = allowable longitudinal compressive stress
Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient in shell, psi
evaluated at height z Ss+ p = section modulus of stack stiffener and
Kzt = topographic factor for along wind pres- plate section, in. 3
sure calculation t = stack shell or liner wall thickness, in.
K1 , K2 , K3 = to p o gra p h i c m u l ti p l i e rs gi ve n i n V = basic wind speed corresponding to a 3-sec
Mandatory Appendix I, Figure I-1 gust speed at 33 ft above ground in expo-
Le = two times the overall stack height for sure category C, mph
cantilever stacks or two times cantilever Vz = mean hourly wind speed, ft/sec
portion or height for guided stacks for w(z) = total along-wind unfactored load on stack
stresses in that cantilevered section or per unit height, lbf/ft
the distance between lateral supports, w (z) = mean alo ng- wind unfacto red load o n
fo r s tre s s e s i n th e s e cti o n b e twe e n stack per unit length, lbf/ft
lateral supports, in. wD(z) = fluctuating along-wind load on stack per
Lh = distance upwind of hill crest or escarp- unit height, lbf/ft
ment in Mandatory Appendix I, Figure Y = coefficient used to calculate longitudinal
I -1 to where the difference in ground compressive stress
elevatio n is half the height o f hill o r z = elevation under consideration, ft
escarpment, ft z = equivalent height of stack, ft
Lz = integral length scale of turbulence at the = coefficients given in Mandatory Appendix
equivalent height, ft I, Table I-1
β = total damping value

21
 ASME STS-1–2021

= coefficients given in Mandatory Appendix
I, Table I-1
η = coefficient used to calculate the resonant
response factor
5 DYNAMIC WIND LOADS
5.1 Scope
Section 5 considers the dynamic wind load effects on
steel stacks. Since steel stacks are lightweight, flexible
structures with low inherent structural damping, the
formation, although the last may, in fact, reduce the
damping.
For wind loads, the structural damping values, βs, shown
in Table 5.2.1.2-1 have been observed for steel stacks.
D amp i ng val ue s o th e r th an th o s e s h o wn i n T ab l e
5.2.1.2-1 may be used for support conditions that have
inherently large damping or use the damping methods
of para. 5 .3 .2 , when j ustified by results of testing or
an al ys i s . C o n s i d e rati o n s h o ul d b e gi ve n to s tacks
supported on steel frames.
5. 2. 1. 3 Aerod yn am i c Dam pi n g . Ae ro d yn a m i c ð 21 Þ

dynamic effects of wind shall be considered in the design. damping shall also be considered. The aerodynamic
damping value, βa , is calculated as follows:
5.2 Dynamic Responses (a) For along wind response

5.2.1 Dynamic Characteristics. The dynamic charac- Cf D Vz

a = 4 m n 1.6
(5-1)
teristics of natural frequencies, corresponding mode
s hap e s , and d amp i ng s h al l b e co ns i d e re d i n wi nd
a1
loading. All modes of vibration that could occur based (b) For a crosswind motion response, the effects of the
upon the wind loads considered in the design shall be aerodynamic damping are included in the procedures
investigated. described in Nonmandatory Appendix E.
ð 21 Þ 5.2.1.1 Frequencies. Stack frequencies and corre- The total damping shall be as follows:
sponding mode shapes are a function of the stack config- = s
+ a
(5-2)
uration, distribution of self-weight and added dead load,
and the vertical and lateral support conditions. The 5.2.2 Wind Responses ð 21 Þ

frequencies and mode shapes shall be calculated using

(a) Vortex Shedding. Across wind loads for plumb or
a suitable mathematical modeling method.
nearly plumb (less than ±10% diameter variation over the
5. 2. 1. 2 Math em atical Mod elin g . Ap p ro p ri a te top one-third) stacks, the mean hourly speed at five-sixth
detailed calculation methods shall be used for dynamic height above ground, Vzcr (ft/sec), shall be used for eval-
analysis ofmore complex configurations. These configura- uating the critical vortex shedding velocity. The value of
tions include, but are not limited to stacks with variable Vzcr shall be calculated as follows:
diameters and thickness, stacks with inner liners, guyed or
z
laterally supported stacks, derrick-supported stacks,
Vzcr = b ijjj cr yzzz 22 VR (5-3)
multiple-flue stacks, or stacks with flexible foundations. k 33 { 15
The finite element analysis techniques shall be used in
these cases. However, for simple stack configurations, The critical wind speed for vortex shedding (ft/sec) for
s i mp le r mo de ls can b e us ed if j us ti ficati o n can b e any mode of vibration is given by
provided. Vc = n1D / S (5-4)
(a) For steel stacks supported on rock or firm soil and/
or supported on end-bearing piles, a fixed-base modeling (1 ) Vortex shedding loads shall be calculated for all
approach is acceptable. For steel stacks supported on modes of vibration where Vc < Vzcr . The procedure in
buildings, the interaction effects of the building shall Nonmandatory Appendix E may be used. Fatigue analysis
be included. For steel stacks supported with shallow foun- must be considered. The vortex shedding loads need not
dations on soil or friction piles, appropriate methods of be combined with long wind loads.
analysis shall be used to account for interaction effects. (2) Vortex shedding loads shall be calculated for all
Parametric studies may be necessary to account for modes of vibration where Vzcr < Vc < 1 .2Vzcr . The proce-
the uncertainty of soil properties.
dure in Nonmandatory Appendix E may be used. The
Consideration should be given in the design to the
corrosion or erosion of the stack or liner, which could ij Vzcr yz 2
resulting loads may be reduced by the factor jj z .
affect the frequency. j
k Vc zz{
(b) Damping. Steel stacks have relatively low inherent Fatigue analysis need not be considered.
structural damping. Additional damping may be gained (3) If Vc > 1 .2Vz , then response vortex shedding can
from the inclusion of a brick or refractory lining, founda- cr
be ignored.
tion system, or aerodynamic methods that disrupt vortex

22

Table 5.2.1.2-1
Representative Structural Damping Values, βs
Damping Value
Support Type Welded Rigid Support Elastic Support
Stack [Note (1)] [Note (2)]
Unlined 0.002 0.004
Lined [Note (3)] 0.003 0.006
NOTES:
(1) Foundations on bedrock, end-bearing piles, or other rigid base
support conditions.
(2) For foundations with friction piles or mat foundations on soil or
other elastic base support conditions.
(3) Lining must consist of a minimum 2-in.-thick, nominally 100 pcf
density liner material for stack to be considered lined for the use
of this table.
For variable diameter stacks, a range of critical speeds
must be considered. The procedure in Nonmandatory
Appendix E may be used for variable diameter stacks.
(b) Ovalling. The intermediate application of vortex
forces on the stack could cause ovalling resonance. The
lined stack is more resistant to ovalling because the
lining co ntrib utes to a high natural frequency and
increased damping for the elastic ring; therefore, ovalling
need not be considered for lined stacks. The unlined stack
possesses very little damping to restrict ovalling and may
experience excessive stresses and deflections at the
critical ovalling wind velocity. For unlined steel stacks,
the ovalling natural frequency is calculated as follows:
680 t
f =
o
D
2 5.3.1.1 Helical Strakes. A three-start set of curved-
and the critical wind velocity for ovalling is
f D
co = o
2S
If the vco is less than Vz / 1 .6 , the unlined stack should be
reinforced with ring stiffeners meeting the requirements
of Table 4.4.6-1. The required minimum section modulus
of stiffener, Ss (in. 3 ), with respect to the neutral axis of its
cross section parallel to the longitudinal axis ofthe stack is
Ss = (2.52 × 1 0 3) ( co) 2 D 2ls/ a
where σa shall be 0.6 Fy
In the area where helical strakes are attached to the
s tack, ri n g s ti ffe n e rs m a y b e o m i tte d i f i t c an b e
proven that the helical strakes provide adequate stiffness.
(c) Interference Effects. A stack downwind of another
stack may experience larger vortex shedding loads than an
unobstructed stack. When the distance between stacks, A ,
divided by the diameter, D̅, of the obstructed stack is less
than 15, the Strouhal number, S, shall be determined from
eq. (5-8). The resulting increase in vortex shedding velo-
ASME STS-1–2021
city and resulting loads shall be considered. This increase
may result in increasing the critical velocity beyond the
design consideration value of 1 .2Vzcr for wind directions
near the line of the stacks.
(1 ) For A / D 15
1 ji A y
S = 0.1 6 + jj 3 zzz (5-8)
300 k D {
(2) For A/ D > 15
S = 0.20
(3) For all stacks that are identical and have center-
to-center distances of less than three mean diameters, or
for stacks that are not identical, interference effects shall
be established by reference to model test or other studies
of similar arrangements.
5.3 Prevention of Excessive Vibrations
Many methods have been used to prevent excessive
vibrations in stack designs. It is not the purpose of this
Standard to determine the exact method to be used in
th e d e s i gn o f s ta c ks b u t ra th e r to i n d i c a te s o m e
metho ds that have b ee n s ucce s s full y us ed. O ne o r
more of the following methods have been shown to
prevent or diminish resonant vibrations: aerodynamic,
damping, and stiffening methods.
5.3.1 Aerodynamic Methods. Aerodynamic methods
disrupt the formation of vortices on the sides of the
stack and limit the source of vibration.
(5-5)
plate helical strakes 120 deg apart on the stack circum-
ference may be attached to the outer surface of the stack
with the strake plate approximately perpendicular to the
(5-6)
stack surface at all points. The pitch of the helix should be
five times the aerodynamic diameter, and the strake
should project one-tenth diameter from the aerodynamic
diameter. Strakes of adequate structural thickness should
be provided on the top one-third of the stack height. Each
strake is to be aerodynamically continuous except at spe-
cific locations where cuts may be necessary to clear ring
stiffeners o r other attachments. The maximum gap
(5-7)
allo wed b etween the s tack shell and helical strake
shall be equal to 0.1 × strake width. The presence of
strakes significantly increases the drag forces, and a
drag force coefficient of 1 .4 used in conj unction with
the outside diameter (including insulation and lagging)
of the stack is recommended. Segments of flat vertical
strakes at helical locations are not acceptable methods
for disrupting vortices.
5.3.1.2 Shrouds. Stability against lateral vibration
can also be achieved by mounting a perforated cylindrical
shroud that covers the upper 30% of the stack length. The
gap between shroud and stack should be 6% to 12% of the
23
 ASME STS-1–2021
stack diameter, and the perforations should be circular
holes measuring 5 % to 7% of the stack diameter on
the side and should comprise a minimum of 3 0 % of
the shroud surface area. Values stated are minimums
and may be modified if proven by testing.
5.3.2 Damping Methods. The second category consists
of attachments and auxiliary structures that absorb
dynamic energy from the moving stack.
5.3.2.1 Mass Damper. The mass damper represents a
secondary mass-spring system attached to the top of the
stack. The mass ratio of the secondary system to the
equivalent mass of a stack at the attachment location
is normally not more than 5%. This method has demon-
strated the capability to provide a damping value of up to
approximately 0.05.
5.3.2.2 Preformed Fabric Pads. The co ntro l o f
damping in a stack is obtained by installing a preformed
fabric pad at the base of the stack. The placement of the
fabric pads shall be such as to ensure that all stress paths
between the stack and its support are through segments of
the fab ric p ads . This will require the additio n o f a
preformed fabric pad (washer) and steel backing plate
beneath each anchor bolt nut. This method has been
demonstrated to provide a damping value up to approxi-
mately 0.03.
5.3.2.3 Other Devices. Other devices such as hanging
chains or impact damping between the lining and the shell
(of dual wall or multiflue stacks) , have been proven to
increase damping in a stack system during vibration.
The damping values provided shall be documented by
design or testing.
5.3.3 Stiffness Methods. The response to vortex shed-
ding can be significantly affected by changing the critical
diameter, stack height, mass distribution, or adding lateral
supports or guy wires to the stack system. Changes to
these factors can be used to increase the critical velocity
beyond 1 .2Vzcr or lower the critical velocity to an accept-
able level.
ð 21 Þ 5.4 Symbols and Definitions for Section 5
A = horizontal distance between stacks centerlines,
ft
b = coefficient given in Mandatory Appendix I, Table
I-1
Cf = force coefficient given in Mandatory Appendix I,
Table I-4
D = diameter of stack at elevation under considera-
tion, ft
D = mean diameter for the segment z1 to z2 or for
stacks ±10% variation over the top one-third
the value o f D is the average o ver the to p
one-third, ft
f0 = ovalling natural frequency of the stack, Hz
24
ls = spacing between circumferential stiffeners,
determined as the sum of half the distance to
adjacent stiffeners on either side of the stiffener
under consideration, ft
m a = mass per unit length of upper one-third of stack,
lb-ft
n 1 = natural frequency for mode being considered, Hz
S = Strouhal number, usually used as 0.2 for single
stacks and may vary due to Reynolds numbers
and multiple stacks
Ss = minimum section modulus of stack stiffeners,
in. 3
t = stack shell or liner wall thickness, in.
V = basic wind speed corresponding to a 3-sec gust
speed at 33 ft above ground in exposure category
C, mph
Vc = critical wind speed for vortex shedding, ft/sec
VR = service level basic wind speed, mph = V/ 1 .6
Vz = mean hourly wind speed, ft/sec
V = mean hourly wind speed at z , ft/sec
zcr cr
vco = ovalling critical wind velocity, ft/sec
zcr = elevation equal to five-sixth stack height, ft
= coefficients given in Mandatory Appendix I,
Table I-1
β = total damping value
βa = aerodynamic damping value
βs = structural damping value
π = pi (3.141593)
ρ = density of air, lbm/ft3
σa = allowable tensile stress in stack stiffener, psi
6 ACCESS AND SAFETY
6.1 Scope
Section 6 applies to the design and construction of
permanently installed equipment commonly used for
accessing steel stacks. Equipment used in the construc-
tion, inspection, and demolition of steel stacks is not
included.
6.2 General
6.2.1 Purpose. The access safety option of this Stan-
dard has the purpose ofprotecting persons by establishing
minimum standards for the design, installation, and main-
tenance of equipment used to provide access to steel
stacks.
6.2.2 Limitations. Access to a steel stack shall be
provided and used only when required for inspection,
testing, and maintenance. Access shall not be provided
when p ro hi b i ted b y go ve rnment regul atio ns , l o cal
laws, or ordinances.
6.2.3 Maintenance of Equipment. All equipment used
in providing access to steel stacks shall be maintained in a
serviceable condition at all times. Inspection of ladders,
 ASME STS-1–2021
platforms, and other equipment used to access steel stacks
shall be made on a regular basis, preferably once each
year.
6.2.4 Welding. All welding shall be in accordance with
AWS D1.1/D1.1M or ASME BPVC, Section IX.
6.2.5 OSHA. Ladders, platforms, and other equipment
used to access steel stacks must conform to the OSHA Stan-
dard (29 CFR 1910).
ð 21 Þ 6.2.6 Definitions
cage (also known as cage guard or basket guard): a barrier
that is an enclosure mounted on the siderails of the fixed
ladder or fastened to the structure to enclose the climbing
space of the ladder (see Figure 6.2.6-1).
climbing protection device: a vertical support system other
than a cage, used in conjunction with a ladder, which will
limit a person’s fall from a ladder without having to
continuously manipulate the device.
fall protection :any equipment, device, or system that
prevents a person from falling from an elevation or miti-
gates the effect of such a fall.
grab bar:an individual handhold placed adjacent to, or as
an extension above, a ladder for the purpose of providing
safe access/egress for a user of the ladder.
guardrail system: a barrier erected along an unprotected
or exposed side, edge, or other area of a walking-working
surface to prevent employees from falling to a lower level.
ladder: a device incorporated or employing steps
or rungs
on which a person may step ascending or descending and
siderails or grab bars for holding.
ladder safety system: an assembly of components whose
function is to arrest the fall of a user, including the carrier
an d i ts as s o ci a te a ttac h m e n t e l e m e n ts (b rac ke ts ,
fasteners, etc.) , safety sleeve, full body harness and
connectors, wherein the carrier is permanently attached
to the climbing face of the ladder or immediately adjacent
to the structure. A cage is not a ladder safety device.
a ladder that requires a person accessing
ladder, side step:
or egressing to or from the ladder to step sideways.
ladder, step through: a ladder that requires a person acces-
sing or egressing at the top to step between the siderails.
ladder support: a device for attaching a ladder to a struc-
ture, building, or equipment.
landing or rest platform: a surface that is used when trans-
ferring from one section of a ladder to another or for
resting.
length of climb: the total vertical distance a person could
climb in traveling between the extreme points of access/
egress for a fixed ladder, whether the ladder is of an
unbroken length or consists of multiple sections. This
total vertical distance is determined by including all
spaces between all ladder steps or rungs and all other
25
vertical intervening spaces between the extreme points
of access/egress.
lower level: a surface or area to which a person could fall.
Such surfaces or areas include, but are not limited to,
ground levels, floors, roofs, equipment, and similar
surfaces and structures, or portions thereof. The lower
level shall be of sufficient size and strength such that a
person cannot fall beyond this surface.
opening: a gap or open space in a wall, walking-working
surface, or similar surface that is at least 30 in. high and at
least 18 in. wide, through which a person can fall to a lower
level.
pitch :the included angle between the horizontal and
ladder, which is measured on the opposite (back) side
of the ladder from the climbing side (see Figure 6.2.6-2).
platform: a surface that is used for working, standing, or
transferring from one ladder section to another.
serviceable:capable of performing its intended function
within its design parameters.
the side members of fixed ladder joined at inter-
siderail:
vals by either rungs or steps.
single length of climb:the vertical distance travelled on a
ladder from a lower level to the top ofa landing or platform
in which the person must exit the ladder.
toeboard: a barrier erected along the exposed edge of a
platform to prevent obj ects from falling, which could
create hazards to persons below.
unprotected sides and edges: any side or edge of a walking-
working surface (except an entrance and other points of
access) where there is no wall, or guardrail system to
protect a person from falling to a lower level.
well: a walled enclosure around a fixed ladder, which
provides the person climbing the ladder with protection
similar to a cage.
6.3 Fixed Ladders ð 21 Þ
6.3.1 Application. This section applies to new fixed
ladders, permanently attached to the stack or structure,
on new or existing steel stacks. Ladders used for steel
stack access must conform to ANSI A14.3.
6.3.2 Materials of Construction. Refer to section 2 of
this Standard for materials of construction.
6.3.3 Live Loads
(a) Live Loads Imposed by Persons
(1 ) The minimum design live load shall be two loads
of 250 lb each concentrated between any two consecutive
ladder supports. Each step or rung in the ladder shall be
designed for a single concentrated live load of 2 50 lb
minimum.
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure 6.2.6-1
Example of the General Construction of Cages

1 8 in. min. 2 × ¼ i n . h ori zon tal ban ds

1 5 in. min.
1 ½ × ¼ in.
20 i n . m ax.
verti cal bars
27 i n . m i n .
30 i n . m ax. 27 i n . m i n .
3 ft, 6 i n . m i n .

3 ft, 6 i n . m i n .
30 i n . m ax.

Wel d ( typi cal )

48 i n . m ax.
Ladder
24 ft m ax.

24 ft m ax.

4 i n . fl are 4 i n . fl are

48 i n . m ax.
8 ft m ax.

8 ft m ax.
7 ft m i n .

7 ft m i n .

31 i n . m i n . 31 i n . m i n .
34 i n . m ax. 34 i n . m ax.

Access Through Access Laterally Example of Cage

Ladder From Ladder Elevation

26
 ASME STS-1–2021
Figure 6.2.6-2
Minimum Ladder Clearances
30 in. min.
Floor, platform, roof,
or other obstructions
1 2 in. max.
7 in. to of rungs
Pitch
90 deg max.
Normal Clearance
(2) The number and position of additional concen-
trated live load units of 250 lb each, determined from
anticipated usage of the ladder, shall be considered in
the design.
(b) Other Live Loads. The following live load shall be
considered in the design, where applicable:
(1 ) ice on parts of the ladder and appurtenances
(2) maximum anticipated wind or seismic loading on
all parts of the ladder
(3) anticipated impact loads resulting from the use of
climbing protection devices
(c) Live Load Con cen tration . All live loads shall be
considered to be concentrated at a point or points that
wi l l c a u s e th e m a xi m u m s tre s s i n th e s tru c tu ra l
member being considered.
6. 3. 4 Dead Load s. The weight o f the ladder and
attached appurtenances shall be considered simulta-
neously with the live loads in the design of siderails,
supports, and fastenings.
6.3.5 Pitch. The pitch of a fixed ladder shall never
exceed 90 deg nor be less than 75 deg from the horizontal.
The pitch shall be not such that a person’s position is below
the ladder when climbing. (See definition of pitch in
para. 6.2.6 and Figure 6.2.6-2.)
27
24 in. min.
60 deg
¹⁄1 6 in. min.
32 in. min.
Reduced Clearance
Deflector Plate for
Head Hazards
6.3.6 Clearances. The distance from the centerline of
the rungs to the nearest permanent object on the climbing
side of the ladder shall be not less than 36 in. for a pitch of
75 deg and 30 in. (see Figure 6.2.6-2).
(a) The distance from the centerline of the rungs to the
nearest permanent object on the opposite (back) side shall
be not less than 7 in. (see Figure 6.2.6-2).
(b) A clear side-to-side width of at least 15 in. shall be
provided each way from the centerline of the ladder in the
cl i m b i n g s p a ce , e xce p t wh e n ca ge s a re u s e d (s e e
Figure 6.3.6-1).
(c) The distance from the centerline of a grab bar to the
nearest permanent object in the back of the grab bar shall
be not less than 4 in. The grab bars shall not protrude on
the climbing side beyond the rungs of the ladder that they
serve.
6. 3. 7 Cag ed Lad d ers an d Lad d er Safety System
Len g th of Clim b. A des cri p tio n o f the p ermis s ib le
length of climb is p rovided b elow fo r the different
ladder configurations presented in Figure 6.3.7-1.
(a) A cage or ladder safety system is not required where
the length of climb is 24 ft or less above a ground level,
floor, or roof. See Figure 6.3.7-1, illustration (a).
(b) A cage or ladder safety system shall be provided
where the length of climb is less than 2 4 ft, but the
top of the ladder is at a distance greater than 2 4 ft
above a ground level, floor, or roof. See Figure 6.3.7-1,
illustration (b).
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure 6.3.6-1
Ladder Dimensions, Support Spacing, and Side Clearances

1 2 i n . m ax. cen ters,

al l ru n g s 3 ft, 6 i n .
min.

1 6 i n . cl ear wi dth
between si de rai l s
1 5 in. min.

1 0 ft, 0 i n . n om i n al
m ax. spaci n g of 1 5 in. min.
su pports 20 i n . m ax.

1 5 in.

M i n . cl earan ce to
an y perm an en t
obstru cti on for
l adder wi th ou t
cage or wel l
7 in. min.
1 2 i n . m ax.

Support Spacing, Ladder Side Clearances

Dimensions, and Side Clearances for Side-Step Ladders

(c) A ladder safety system shall be provided where a
single length of climb is greater than 24 ft. See Figure
6.3.7-1, illustration (c).
(d) Multiple sections of ladders having all single length
of climbs not exceeding 24 ft shall be provided with a cage
or ladder safety system. See Figure 6.3.7-1, illustration (d).
Refer to paras. 6.3.8(c) and 6.3.11(h) for landing require-
ments when caged ladders are used.
(e) Multiple sections of ladders having at least one
single length of climb exceeding 24 ft shall be provided
with a ladder safety system in place of a cage. The
ladder safety system shall be provided throughout the
length of climb. See Figure 6.3.7-1, illustration (d).
(f) Ladders equipped with a ladder safety system shall
have rest platforms at maximum intervals of 150 ft. See
Figure 6.3.7-1, illustration (e).
(g) When a ladder safety system is combined with a
cage, the maximum single length o f climb shall not
exceed 50 ft.
6.3.8 Landing (Rest) Platforms. The requirements for
landing (rest) platforms are provided below.
(a) Landing platforms shall be provided at intervals
such that the maximum single length of climb provided
in para. 6.3.7 is not exceeded.
(b ) T h e to tal d e p th o f p l atfo rm s h al l p ro vi d e a
minimum space of 30 in. from the ladder on the climbing
side. The width of the platform shall be not less than 30 in.
(c) To prevent falls, landing platforms for caged ladders
shall use additional guarding on railings adjacent to the
side of the ladder and within 4 ft from the center line of the
rung, unless otherwise protected. The descending ladder
and swing gate placed at the ladder opening shall be offset
in such a manner that it is not reasonably possible for a
person to fall past the platform.
(d) The grati ng and s tructural requirements fo r
landing platforms shall be the same as work platforms
(see para. 6.4).
6.3.9 Access/Egress. The siderails ofstep-through and
side-step fixed ladders shall extend at least 42 in. above
the roof, parapet, or landing platform, preferably being
gooseneck, unless other convenient and secure handholds
(grab bars) are fixed at such places.

28
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure 6.3.7-1
Length of Climb

Cage or ladder Ladder safety

24 ft or less
safety system system required
required

Greater than 24 ft

Greater than 24 ft
Cage or ladder
safety system
24 ft or less

not required

Ground level,
Ground level, Ground level, floor, roof, or
floor or roof floor or roof lower level

( a ) Si n g l e Len g th of Cl i m b 24 ft ( b) Len g th of Cl i m b 24 ft or Less ( c) Si n g l e Len g th of Cl i m b G rea ter

or Less Wi th E l eva ted Access Th a n 24 ft

Landing (rest) platform

(typical)

1 50 ft max.

Offset landing platform

(typical)
24 ft or less

Ladder safety
system required
24 ft or less

Guardrail as
required
1 50 ft max.

Cage or ladder
safety system Ladder safety
24 ft or less

required system required

Ground level,
floor or roof Ground level,
floor or roof
( d) M u l ti -secti on La dder 24 ft M a x.

Si n g l e Len g th of Cl i m b [ N ote ( 1 ) ] ? ( e) Tota l Len g th of Cl i m b G rea ter Th a n 24 ft

NOTE: (1) Should any single length of climb exceed 24 ft, a ladder safety system is required for the full height in place of cage.

29
 ASME STS-1–2021
(a) For step- through ladders, the rungs shall be
omitted from this extension. For step-through ladders,
the step - acro ss distance from the centerline o f the
rung to the nearest edge of the structure, building, or
equipment shall be not less than 7 in. or more than 12
in. If the normal step-across distance exceeds 12 in., a
landing platform shall be provided to reduce the distance
to between 7 in. and 12 in. For these step-through ladders,
the same rung spacing used on the ladder shall be used
from the landing platform to the first rung below the
landing (see Figure 6.3.9-1).
(b) For side-step or offset fixed ladder sections at land-
ings, the siderails and rungs shall be carried to the next
regular rung b eyo nd o r ab o ve the 42 in. minimum
mentioned ab ove. Side- step ladders at the p oint o f
access/egress to a platform shall have a step-across
distance of 15 in. minimum and 20 in. maximum from
the centerline of the ladder. For side-step landings, the
platform shall be located at the same level as one of
the rungs.
6.3.10 Ladder Safety System. The design require-
ments and other considerations when using a ladder
safety system are provided below.
(a) A ladder safety system can be used as a fall protec-
tion on ladders without the use of a cage barrier. All
components of the ladder safety system shall meet the
requirements of ANSI ACS A1 4.3. Any system used on
a steel stack shall meet the design and testing require-
ments of this Standard.
(b) The installation of a ladder safety system shall be
per the manufacturer’s installation guidelines.
(c) Individuals using ladder safety systems shall be
p ro te cte d fro m fal l h az ards duri ng th e p ro ce s s o f
connecting and disconnecting (transitioning) from the
ladder safety system. A suitable anchor point accessible
from the ladder shall be used to connect the fall protection
system when transitioning.
(d) Special consideration shall be given to increased
possibility of corrosion at the top of stacks resulting
from exposure to stack exhaust gases.
6.3.11 Caged Ladders. The requirements for a caged
ladder are provided below.
(a) The top of the cage shall be a minimum of 3 ft 6 in.
above the top of the landing unless other acceptable
protection is provided.
(b) Cages shall extend down the ladder to a point not
less than 7 ft or more than 8 ft above the base of the ladder
with the bottom flared not less than 4 in.
(c) Cages shall not extend less than 27 in. or more than
30 in. from the centerline of the rungs of the ladder. Cages
shall be not less than 27 in. wide. The inside shall be clear
of projections. Vertical bars shall be located at maximum
spacing of 40 deg around the circumference of the cage.
This will give a maximum spacing of approximately 9 1 ∕2 in.
30
center-to-center of the vertical bars. There shall be seven
vertical bars located inside the hoops.
(d) Hoop bars shall be 2 in. × 1 ∕4 in. minimum with a
maximum spacing of 4 ft on centers.
(e) Vertical bars shall be 1 1 ∕2 in. × 3 ∕1 6 in. minimum.
Vertical bars shall be welded or bolted together and to
the hoops with bolt heads countersunk on the inside.
(f) Where a caged ladder is located in such a way that it
could be ascended on the uncased side, a sheet steel baffle
shall be erected extending from the ground or floor level to
a height ofat least 8 ft to prevent access to the uncased side
of the ladder.
(g) When a caged ladder system is combined with a
ladder safety device, the cage cannot interfere with the
person or the operation of the ladder safety system. A
larger cage system may be required.
(h) When a cage is used, each section of ladder shall be
horizontally offset from the adjacent sections with suffi-
cient clearances. A landing platform shall be provided for
safe access/egress with appropriate clearances to protect
the user.
6.3.12 Siderails. The siderails shall be of flat bar stock
and not be less than 2 1 ∕2 in. × 3 ∕8 in. Ifsiderails ofother cross
sections are desired, they shall be at least equal in strength
to the above-sized steel bar. For additional load concen-
trations, attachment of ladder safety systems, or for
spacing of supports that exceeds the maximum spacing
recommended, the maximum size of siderails shall be
increased in accordance with recognized design practices.
6.3.13 Rungs. Rungs shall be not less than ¾ in. in
diameter. For ladders exposed to unusually corrosive
atmospheres, rungs shall be of at least 1 in. diameter
solid bars. Spacing of rungs shall not exceed 1 2 in.
c e n te r - to - c e n te r a n d s h a l l b e s p a c e d u n i fo r m l y
througho ut the length of the ladder. For additional
lo ad co ncentratio ns or attachment of ladder safety
systems , and for clear widths exceeding 1 6 in., the
minimum size (cross section) of steps and rungs shall
be increased in accordance with recognized design prac-
tices. Rungs shall be inserted through holes in the siderails
and shall be welded completely around the circumference
of the rung to the outside of the siderails.
6.3.14 Ladder Supports. Ladder supports shall be of
steel at least equivalent to the siderails in strength.
Ladder s up p o rts may b e b olted o r welded. Ladder
supports shall be not more than 1 0 ft apart based on
the size of the siderail recommended. For additional
l o a d c o n c e n tra ti o n s , a tta ch m e n t o f l a d d e r s a fe ty
systems, or for variations in size (cross section) of side-
rails, the spacing of supports shall be adjusted in accor-
dance with recognized design practices. Anchorage of
ladders must account for the thermal growth of the stack.
 Figure 6.3.9-1
Landing Platform Dimensions

24 in. min., 30 in. max.

(except 36 in. allowed with
ladder safety device)
42 in. min.

Intermediate band
Top of rung flush with
top of floor or platform

ASME STS-1–2021
31

Floor or platform line

Bolted or welded
connection(s)
as required
1 2 in. O.C. max.

1 6 in. min. clear 7 in. min., 1 2 in. max. step

Rungs

Elevation Side View

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) All weld connections are to be ground smooth.
(b) Thermal expansion and lateral movement should be considered for all connections.
 ASME STS-1–2021

6.4 Work Platforms
6.4.1 Where Required. Wo rk p l atfo rms s h al l b e
p ro vide d whe rever duti es require an e mp lo ye e to
work at elevations above grade or building floors adjacent
to the stack.
6.4.2 Strength Requirements. Work platforms shall be
designed to support the expected loads, including the
possible attachment of gin poles, davits, and suspended
inspection and maintenance scaffolding.
6.4.3 Surfaces. The flooring should be of the grating
type. The space in the grating bars should be such that any
one opening is not greater than will permit a ball 1 in. in
diameter to pass through. The grating should be of suffi-
cient strength to withstand a live floor loading of100 lb-ft2
over the entire platform area. The minimum size of the
platform should be the same as the size for landing plat-
forms, as indicated in para. 6.3.7.
6.4.4 Railings. Railings shall be used on all work plat-
forms and shall be of steel construction (see para. 6.3.2). A
standard railing shall consist of top rail, intermediate rail,
and posts and shall have a vertical height of 42 in. nominal
from upper surface of top rail throughout the length of the
railing. The intermediate railing shall be approximately
h a l fwa y b e twe e n th e to p ra i l a n d p l a tfo r m . T h e
spacing of the horizontal rails shall be such that a 2 1
in. diameter ball will not pass between the rails. The
ends of the rail shall not overhang the terminal posts,
except where such an overhang does not constitute a
projection hazard.
(a ) T he rai l i ngs s h al l b e o f p i p e o r tub i ng wi th
minimum 1 1 ∕2 in. outside diameter or other cross sections
of equivalent strength with the vertical posts spaced not
more than 6 ft on centers.
(b) The top and intermediate railings shall be capable
ofwithstanding a force of200 lb in any direction and at any
location on the railing.
6.4.5 Toe Boards. Toe boards shall be at least 4 in.
nominal vertical height from the top edge to the level
o f the p latfo rm. They s hall b e s ecurely fas tened in
place with not more than 1 ∕4 in. clearance above the plat-
form. They should be made of steel.
6.4.6 Access
(a ) Acce s s o p e ni ngs to wo rk p l atfo rms s h al l b e
guarded.
(b) Where access to work platforms is through the
floor, trap doors shall be provided. Access doors shall
remain closed except when persons are accessing or
leaving the platform. Access doors and hatches should
be designed as self closing.
(c) Where access to work platforms is by way of side-
step ladders, the opening shall be guarded by self-closing
gates.
6.5 Scaffolding and Hoists Used for Construction
of Steel Stacks
6.5.1 General. Scaffolding shall meet the applicable re-
quirements of the current revision of ANSI A10.8.
6.5.2 Lifelines. Lifelines and body belts, or harnesses
and their anchorages, shall be used as specified in the
current revision of ANSI A10.14.
6.5.3 Anchorage Points. When scaffolds and hoists are
to be used to provide access to steel stacks, appropriate
anchorage points shall be provided. Attachments for
suspending scaffolds, hoists, and lifelines shall not be
bolted or riveted through the stack plate (see para. 6.3.14).
6.5.4 Personnel Hoists. Personnel hoists shall meet
the requirements of the current revision of ANSI A10.4.
6.5.5 Painter’s Trolleys. Painter’s trolleys should not
be used for hoisting, lowering, or supporting personnel.
Painter’s trolleys should be used for hoisting materials
only.
6.6 Thermal Protection
6.6.1 Hot Surfaces. Surface of steel stacks (when
exposed to personnel) shall be limited to a maximum
temperature of 140°F.
6.6.2 Where to Protect. Areas that should be protected
are as follows:
(a) 2-ft width — full length of ladders
(b) platform grating to 8 ft above grating
(c) stack base to 8 ft above base, if hot
6.6.3 How to Protect. Protection may be provided by
insulation and cladding and/or stand-off mesh. Mesh shall
be no larger than 2 in. × 2 in.
6.6.4 Materials. Materials used for anchorage, clad-
ding, and mesh shall be corrosion resistant and designed
to resist wind pressures.
7 ELECTRICAL
7.1 Scope
Provisions of section 7 shall apply to permanent elec-
trical items as related to the stack. They shall not apply to
items used during construction or demolition of steel
stacks.
7.2 General
7.2.1 Purpose. The purpose of this section is to identify
the electrical items commonly used with stacks and estab-
lish a standard as it relates to such items.

32
 ASME STS-1–2021
7.3 Aviation Obstruction Light System
7.3.1 FAA Requirements. It is recommended, immedi-
ately following the determination of the location and
height of the proposed stack, that the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) be contacted to determine the
FAA’s specific requirements for lighting and marking.
Aviation warning lighting will be required for stack
heights 2 00 ft and higher and sometimes for shorter
stacks, when the stack is near an airport, heliport, or
seaport.
Sometimes, however, modifications to the marking/
lighting rules are logical and can be acceptable to the
FAA. This is generally true in the case of cluster stacks,
s tacks in line, s tacks in a large indus trial co mp lex
where other tall structures or other stacks are present,
etc. The FAA will investigate and rule on the most appro-
priate marking and/or lighting for each such case upon
request.
7. 3. 2 System Com pon en ts. Wh e n re q u i re d , a n
obstruction-marking light system shall conform to the re-
quirements of FAA AC 70/7460-1K. A light system may
consist of the following:
(a) Flood Lights. Flood lights located at or near the base
of the stack are considered nonstandard but may be used
on short stacks with FAA approval.
(b) A via tio n Red Ob stru ctio n L igh ts. Aviation red
obstruction lights mounted on the stack at required eleva-
tions and specific positions around the circumference
should be as required by FAA AC 70/7460-1K. All red
obstruction lighting should be exhibited from sunset to
sunrise. When the red light system is used, it usually is
necessary to paint the stack with an aviation orange-
and-white color pattern for daytime obstruction marking.
(c) Medium Intensity White Obstruction Lights. Omni-
directional medium intensity obstruction lights are rec-
o m m e n d e d fo r m o s t s te e l s ta c ks , s i n c e th e h i gh
intensity lights are not normally recommended on struc-
tures with heights below 500 ft. The light system intensity
must be controlled. FAA AC 70/7460-1 sets the number
a nd l o cati o n s . O n s m a l l d i a m e te r s tacks , th e F AA
frequently will allow only two lights, since their light
rays are omnidirectional.
(d) High In ten sity Wh ite Obstruction Ligh ts. If FAA
unidirectional high intensity white obstruction lights
are required, they should be mounted on the stack at par-
ticular elevations and specific positions around the
circumference as required b y FAA AC 70 /7 460 - 1 K.
T hi s typ e o f s ys te m i s us e d wi th a l i gh t s e ns i ti ve
control device, which faces the north sky to control inten-
sity.
(e) Dual Lighting With Red/Medium In ten sity White
Obstruction Lights. This lighting system is a combination
of the red-and-white lighting systems defined in (b) and
(c). A dual lighting system is most commonly used in popu-
lated areas where the use of less conspicuous red lights at
33
night is preferred. Using white lights during daylight hours
negates the need to paint the stack with obstruction mark-
ings.
7.3.3 System Access Location. Access to lights for
maintenance may be by ladders and platform or by a
lowering device that brings the light fixture to an acces-
sible location. Because ofstack gas downwash, the location
of the access and lights should be as low as the FAA allows.
7.4 Lightning Protection
The lightning protection requirements for metal stacks,
as covered in NFPA 780, requires two ground terminals
located on opposite sides of a stack having a metal thick-
ness of 3 ∕16 in. (4.8 mm) or greater. No air terminals or
down conductors are required. On guyed stacks, metal
guy wires are to be grounded at their lower ends if
ancho re d in co ncre te o r to a mas o nry b ui ldi ng o r
other nonconductive support.
7.5 Convenience Lighting
Convenience or area lighting on test platforms, monitor
platforms, access systems, annular space, etc. may be
considered and specified as applicable.
7.6 Convenience Power Outlets
Convenience power outlets are generally useful during
stack testing and maintenance of monitoring equipment.
7.7 Instrumentation: Sampling
Instrumentation for monitoring or sampling of stack
emissions, based on current Federal EPA regulations,
CFR Part 60, shall be mounted on the external surface
of the steel stack protected from excessive heat and
providing for thermal and other stack movement.
8 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
8.1 Purpose
Section 8 is designed to establish a good level of fabri-
cation and erection quality to create a high degree of
public safety and confidence in these structures. It estab-
lishes the welding requirements for the fabrication and
erection of welded steel stacks.
8.2 Scope
This sectio n co vers the reco mmended guidelines
applying to the fabrication and erection of steel stacks.
It includes, but is not limited to, single-wall, dual-wall,
and multiflue steel stacks and applies to stacks that
are free standing, self supported, guy or cable supported,
or supported by structural steel braces or framework.
These guidelines also pertain to shop or field fabrication
and to field erection.
 ASME STS-1–2021
8.3 Welding
AWS D1.1/D1.1M or ASME BPVC, Section IX shall be
used for all welding provisions, workmanship, techniques,
welder and inspector qualifications, and inspections. All
structural butt welds shall be full penetration welds.
8.4 Welding Inspection and Nondestructive
Testing
Welding inspection shall be performed to the extent
specified with minimum requirements as follows:
8.4.1 Minimum Weld Inspection
(a ) Visual inspections shall be made for all welds
during the welding operation and again after the work
is completed to determine that thorough fusion exists
between adj acent layers of weld metal and between
the weld and base metals. After the welding is completed,
slag shall be removed from all welds. The weld and adja-
cent weld metal shall be cleaned by brushing or other
suitable means. The inspector shall pay particular atten-
tion to surface cracking, surface porosity, surface slag
inclusion, undercut, overlap, gas pockets, and size of
welds. Defective welding shall be corrected according
to ASME or AWS Code requirements.
(b) A minimum of one radiograph per each three shop
circumferential seams on the stack structural shell shall be
made, preferably at the vertical weld intersection. The
inner o r o uter s hell s hall b e co ns idered s tructural
when it is designed to resist the controlling wind or
seismic load.
(c) All structural full penetration field welds should be
visually inspected. Radiographs of shell or flue field splice
welds are not usually feasible due to the design of the field
splices.
8.4.2 Types of Welding Inspection. The procedure and
technique shall be in accordance with specifications of the
specific j ob, and the standards of acceptance shall be
according to ASME or AWS Codes.
(a) Radiograph ic In spection . This procedure can be
performed in the shop on full penetration butt welds.
(b ) Visu a l In sp e c tio n . T h i s p ro c e d u re i s to b e
performed on all shop and field welds.
(c) Magnetic Particle Inspection. This procedure can be
used on all ferromagnetic material welds.
(d) Ultrasonic Inspection. This procedure can be used
on all shop butt welds ≥ 5 ∕16 in.
(e) Dye Penetrant Inspection. This procedure shall be
used as required to supplement the visual inspection. The
standard methods set forth in AWS D1.1/D1.1M shall be
used for dye penetrant inspection, and the standard accep-
tance shall be according to ASME or AWS Codes.
34
8.5 Tolerances
Unless otherwise specified, the following shall be used
as acceptable tolerances:
(a) Misalignment between plates at any butt joint shall
not exceed the following limits:
Plate Thickness, in. Maximum Offset
Up to 3 ∕4 1
∕4 (t) [Note (1)]
3
∕4 to 1 1 ∕2 3
∕16 in.
NOTE: (1) t = normal thickness of the thinner plate at the joint, in.
(b) Peaking is a localized deviation of stack cylindrical
section contour from a true circle at junctions. Peaking of
joints and seams shall not exceed 1 ∕4 in. (6 mm) maximum
as measured from an 18-in.-long (450-mm-long) template
centered at the weld and cut to the prescribed radius.
(c) At the time of erection, the stack shall be true and
plumb to within 2 in. (50 mm) in 100 ft (30 m).
(d) At the time of erection, the difference between the
maximum and minimum inside diameters at any cylin-
drical shell cross section along the height shall not
exceed 1% of the diameter.
(e) Local dents in plates shall be no deeper than one-
half the plate thickness.
8.6 Shop Fabrication and Field Erection
8.6.1 During the assembly of bolted connections ð 21 Þ
(a) drifting, if required, shall not enlarge the holes or
distort the members. Holes that must be enlarged shall be
reamed.
(b ) A-3 2 5 and A-49 0 bolts used for flanged shell
connections shall be brought to a snug-tight condition
as defined in AISC. When pretensioning is specified by
the engineer, bolts shall be tightened using one of the
following:
(1 ) turn-of-the-nut method
(2) calibrated wrenches
(3) twist-off-type tension control
(4) direct-tension-indicator washers
Preinstallation testing shall be appropriate for the
method used. Refer to Research Council on Structural
Connections (RCSC).
(c) Bolts used for connecting appurtenances, including
platforms and ladders, shall be snug-tight unless the joint
design requires one of the following:
(1 ) slip-type connection to allow for thermal expan-
sion or differential movement
(2) pretension or slip-critical connections to avoid
significant load reversal
8.6.2 Any required straightening of material shall be
done by procedures that will result in the minimum resi-
dual stress to the steel.
8.6.3 Anchor bolt straightening or bending by heating
is prohibited.
 ASME STS-1–2021
8.6.4 All vertical shop and field plate or panel butt weld
seams are to be staggered a minimum of20 deg. All welded
cylindrical sections joined to other cylindrical sections by
circumferential welds shall have their vertical seams stag-
gered from each other a minimum of 20 deg.
8.6.5 Dimensions and weights of stack sections shall
be accurately calculated and compared with crane capabil-
ities at the working radii of cranes to be used during erec-
tion. Crane capacities and working radii shall not be
exceeded.
8.6.6 Lifting clips, lugs, dogs, brackets, and other items
welded to the stack sections, or other parts of the perma-
nent structure and used for erection or fit-up purposes, if
not left in place, shall be removed without damaging the
base material. Any portion of the weld remaining on the
internal surface of the stack subjected to flue gas shall be
made flush and ground smooth. If backing is used for
welding purposes, they need not be removed.
8.6.7 Erection and scaffolding, ladders, etc. shall be in
accordance with the latest applicable and/or specified
codes.
8.7 Grouting
Grouting of the stack base ring is recommended when
the stack is sup p orted by a co ncrete fo undation or
elevated concrete pad.
8.7.1 After the stack is completely erected plumb and
the anchor bolts have been torqued, the space between the
bottom of the base plate and top of the foundation shall be
grouted. The grout shall be a nonshrink type and shall
harde n free o f b leedi ng o r dryi ng s hrinkage when
mixed and placed at any consistency (fluid, flowable,
plastic, or damp-pack) . Steel shims used for plumbing
the stack during erection may be best left in place.
8.7.2 Surface areas to be grouted shall be free of all
foreign matter and thoroughly wetted down prior to
grouting.
8.7.3 The temperatures of the grout, base plate, and
foundation during grouting shall be in accordance with the
grout manufacturer’s recommendations.
8.7.4 If anchor bolts are set in open sleeves, care must
be taken to ensure complete filling with grout of sleeve
cavity.
8.8 Handling and Storage
8.8.1 Handling during unloading, erecting, or moving
any section using a crane, lift, hoist, or manpower should
be safely planned.
8.8.2 Protective shipping coverings, if provided, shall
remain on their respective stack section areas or locations
as long as possible. Components to be set down prior to
35
erection shall be kept off the ground and properly posi-
tioned and braced to prevent damage.
8.8.3 All erection aids such as slings, hooks, chokers,
beams, lifting lugs, etc. shall be of adequate strength to
handle all sections and parts in a safe manner.
8.8.4 The following storage conditions shall be met:
(a) All parts shall be stored in a manner to preclude
being kinked, dented, bent, misshapen, or otherwise
mismanaged.
(b) All parts shall be stored above ground and posi-
ti o n e d s o a s to m i n i m i z e wa te r- h o l d i n g p o c ke ts ,
soiling, contamination, or deterioration of the coating
or lining.
(c) Items that could deteriorate or become damaged
due to the influence of the elements shall be properly
protected.
9 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
9.1 Purpose
The purpose of this section is to identify problems that
occur during the service life of steel stacks and to outline
the measures for counteracting such problems through
regular inspections and maintenance.
For a database systematic inspection procedure and
technique, the reader is referred to ASCE Chimney and
Stack Inspection Guidelines.
9.2 Scope
The inspection and maintenance provisions of this
section apply to the stack shell, flue liners, and appurte-
nances.
9.3 Common Problems
(a) atmospheric corrosion and weathering on exterior
surface
(b) corrosion due to acid condensation in flue gases on
internal surfaces
(c) fly ash or particulate collection at the base, false
bottom, or roof cap of the stack
(d) moisture condensate at the base of the stack
(e) acid/moisture infiltration of insulation
(f) deformation due to thermal or other loading
(g) corrosion of anchor bolts
(h) fatigue cracks
(i) loss or deterioration of insulation, coating, or linings
(j) loosening of anchor bolts
(k) loosening of splice/flanged bolts
(l) formation of "hot spots" on the shell of stacks with
internal lining
(m) separation of ladder supports from the stack shell
 ASME STS-1–2021
9.4 Inspection
For early detection of the commonly occurring prob-
lems, it is recommended that the stack be inspected peri-
odically to enable the user of the stack to take appropriate
measures to counteract such problems.
9 . 4. 1 Freq u en cy of I n specti on . The frequency of
inspections should be based upon climate, construction
materials, type of construction, and the nature of use
(e.g., fuel type, operating temperature, and operating
schedule). This may be specified by the stack manufac-
turer; however, in the absence of such information, it
is recommended that the stacks be inspected annually
fo r the fi rs t 3 yr. The re s ults o f the s e i ns p ecti o ns
should then determine the frequency of future inspec-
tions.
ð 21 Þ 9.4.2 Items of Inspection
(a) Exterior Inspection
(1 ) Sh ell Th ickn ess. Ultrasonic devices for non-
destructive thickness testing or core samples and drill
tests for destructive testing may be used to measure
the shell thickness. Depending upon the condition of
the stack, one shell thickness reading for each portion
of the stack height equal to the stack diameter is recom-
mended. A record of the results shall be maintained for
monitoring corrosion of the steel shell.
(2) Finish. Damage, wear, and discontinuity in the
exterior finish shall be inspected, and all deficiencies
should be recorded.
(3) Access System. All ladders, ladder anchors, cages,
safety climb devices, and platforms shall be inspected to
ensure their integrity and safety.
(4) Lightning Protection System. All components of
the lightning protection system, including the grounding
connection, shall be inspected for electrical continuity.
(5) Support System. Any brace, guy wire anchors, guy
cables, guy fittings, and other similar items shall be
checked. All deficiencies shall be noted and analyzed.
(6) Bolts. All bolts including anchor bolts shall be
inspected.
(7) Electrical System. The presence of any moisture
condensation on the inside of the conduit and fittings shall
be noted. Corrosion of fittings and conduits shall also be
noted. Burned-out lamps must be replaced.
(8) Insulation. Soaking of insulation due to infiltra-
tion of acid in insulated stacks is possible. Wet and acid-
saturated insulation rapidly accelerates corrosion of the
shell, leading to major structural damage.
(b) Interior Inspection
(1 ) Sh ell Th ickn ess. Ultrasonic devices for non-
destructive thickness testing may be used to measure
the shell thickness. Depending upon the condition of
the stack, one shell thickness reading for each portion
of the stack height equal to the stack diameter is recom-
36
mended. A record of the results shall be maintained for
monitoring corrosion of the steel.
(2) Linings and Coatings. These components of the
stack are the most critical in terms of wear, cracks, spalls,
and other deficiencies. Such deficiencies are often hidden
by overlaying particulate deposits, and, therefore, proper
care s hall b e exercis ed to detect defi ciencies . I t is
suggested that pH readings be taken in areas where
there is evidence of chemical corrosion. pH readings
may be taken by chemical analysis of representative
samples of scrapings from lining surfaces or by any
other conventional method.
(3) Particulate Accumulation. Accumulation of parti-
culates such as combustion residue, fly ash, etc. on the
s tack wall and at the b as e o f the s tack p ro vides a
matrix for acid condensate.
(c) General Items. Deformation ofany component ofthe
stack due to thermal or other loading shall be noted to
include stack cap, expansion joints, and test and instru-
ment ports.
9.4.3 Inspection Procedure ð 21 Þ
(a) For thorough inspections, the stack shall be rigged
with equipment allowing the inspector to traverse the
e n ti re h e i gh t o n th e i n te ri o r a n d e xte ri o r o f th e
chimney. All rigging and scaffolding shall be in compliance
with OSHA regulations.
(b) The full height ofthe stack shall be traversed, photo-
graphing general interior conditions at regular intervals
with specific attention to defective areas.
(1 ) It is recommended that color photographs be
taken for use in the report. Instant photographs may
be taken as backups.
(2) D efective areas that may be found shall be
charted and noted.
(c) Since the main purpose of the refractory-concrete
lining is to protect the steel shell from extreme heat, it is
important to ensure that the integrity of the lining is not
compromised. Spot discoloration of the outside of the
stack, or local deformed shell plate are signs of potential
lining damages. The integrity of the lining shall be judged
on a visual basis, supplemented by routine probing to
determine hardness, soundness, and/or general condi-
tions.
(d) Unlined steel stacks shall receive either non-
destructive thickness testing using an acceptable ultra-
sonic device or destructive thickness testing using drilling
or core sampling.
(e) The exterior inspection shall also include a thor-
ough examination of all appurtenance items, such as
anchor bolts, bolted field splice connections, cleanout
door, ladder, caps, lightning protection system, and any
other hardware items.
 ASME STS-1–2021
ð 21 Þ 9.4.4 Inspection Report. The scope of inspection work
shall be specified by the stack owner. In the absence of
such specifications, it is recommended that the stack
inspection report have the following items:
(a) identification and brief description of the stack.
(b) description of the inspection procedures.
(c) color photographs showing typical conditions as
well as problem areas. Each photograph must be identified
as to the location of the photograph as well as the descrip-
tion of what is shown in the photograph.
(d) drawings and/or location charts defining shell
thickness, pH readings (if recorded), and deficiencies.
(e) analysis of deficiencies and problems noted during
the inspection.
(f) maintenance and/or repair recommendations.
9.5 Maintenance
9.5.1 Exterior Surface. All wear, corrosion, and other
deficiencies in the exterior surfaces shall be repaired as
required.
9.5.2 Interior Surface. Periodic removal of particle
deposits on the interior surfaces using high-pressure
wash or other effective and practical methods is recom-
mended, and other deficiencies in the lining should be
repaired.
ð 21 Þ 9.5.3 Anchor Bolts. Areas around the anchor bolts
shall be kept clean and free of particle deposits and
moisture. Anchor bolts should be periodically inspected
and retightened if necessary.
9.5.4 Drains. All drains and false bottom floors shall be
kept clean through periodic maintenance.
9.5.5 Appurtenance. All ap p urtenance s s hall b e
repaired as necessary for safety and intended use.
ð 21 Þ 10 REFERENCES
The following is a list of publications referenced in this
Standard. Unless otherwise specified, the latest edition
shall apply.
29 CFR, Part 1910 Occupational Safety and Health Stan-
dards
Code of Federal Regulations
Publisher: Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) , U.S. Department of Labor, 2 00 Constitution
Avenue, Washington, DC 20210 (www.osha.gov)
AC 70/7460-1M, Obstruction Marking and Lighting
Publisher: U.S. Department of Transportation, 1200 New
Jersey Avenue, S.E., Washington, DC 20590
(www.transportation.gov)
ACI 307-08, Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
Chimneys
37
Publisher: American Concrete Institute (ACI) , 3 8800
C o untry C lub D ri ve, Farmingto n H il ls , M I 48 3 3 1
(www.concrete.org)
AISC Manual of Steel Construction
Publisher: American Institute ofSteel Construction (AISC),
130 East Randolph Street, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601
(www.aisc.org)
ANSI ASC A14.3, Ladders — Fixed — Safety Requirements
P u b l i s h e r: Am e ri ca n N ati o n al S tand ard s I ns ti tu te
(ANSI) , 2 5 West 43 rd Street, New York, NY 1 003 6
(www.ansi.org)
NFPA 780, Lightning Protection Code
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code
Publisher: National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),
1 B a tte rym a rc h P a rk, Qu i n c y, M A 0 2 1 6 9 - 7 4 7 1
(www.nfpa.org)
ASCE 7-10 and ASCE 7-16, Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures
NOTE: Use adopted edition in jurisdiction of the facility.
ASCE Chimney and Stack Inspection Guidelines: Design
and Construction of Steel Chimney Liners, 1975
Chimney and Stack Inspection Guidelines
The Structural Design of Air and Gas Ducts for Power
Stations and Industrial Boiler Applications, 1995
Publisher: American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) ,
1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191
(www.asce.org)
ASHRAE Handbook
Publisher: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE), 1791 Tullie
Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329 (www.ashrae.org)
ASME Technical Paper, 65WA/FU5
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), Section I
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), Section II
Publisher: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), Two Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5990
(www.asme.org)
ASTM A20/A20M, Standard Specification for General Re-
quirements for Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels
ASTM A3 6/A3 6M, Standard Specification for Carbon
Structural Steel
ASTM A1 93 /A1 93 M, Standard Specification for Alloy-
Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting for High Temperature
or High Pressure Service and Other Special Purpose
Applications
ASTM A203/A203M, Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Nickel
ASTM A2 40/A2 40M, Standard Specification for Chro-
mium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate,
Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General
Applications
 ASME STS-1–2021
ASTM A2 42 /A2 42 M, Standard Specification for High-
Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
ASTM A2 47, Standard Test Method for Evaluating the
Microstructure of Graphite in Iron Castings
ASTM A264, Standard Specification for Stainless Chro-
mium-Nickel Steel-Clad Plate
ASTM A265, Standard Specification for Nickel and Nickel-
Base Alloy-Clad Steel Plate
ASTM A283/A283M, Standard Specification for Low and
Intermediate Tensile Strength Carbon Steel Plates
ASTM A285/A285M, Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, Low- and Intermediate-
Tensile Strength
ASTM A307, Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts,
Studs, and Threaded Rod 60 000 PSI Tensile Strength
ASTM A325, Standard Specification for Structural Bolts,
Steel, Heat Treated, 1 2 0/1 05 ksi Minimum Tensile
Strength
ASTM A3 54, Standard Specification for Quenched and
Tempered Alloy Steel Bolts, Studs, and Other Externally
Threaded Fasteners
ASTM A3 68, Standard Specification for Stainless Steel
Wire Strand
ASTM A378, Standard Specification for Flat-Rolled Elec-
trical Steel (Withdrawn 1955)
ASTM A387/A387M, Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Chromium-Molybdenum
ASTM A449, Standard Specification for Hex Cap Screws,
Bolts and Studs, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105/90 ksi
Minimum Tensile Strength, General Use
ASTM A463 /A463 M, Standard Specification for Steel
Sheet, Aluminum-Coated, by the Hot-Dip Process
ASTM A474, Standard Specification for Aluminum-Coated
Steel Wire Strand
ASTM A475, Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated Steels
Wire Strand
ASTM A490, Standard Specification for Quenched and
Tempered Alloy Steel Bolts for Structural Steel Joints
ASTM A515/A515M, Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, for Intermediate- and
Higher-Temperature Service
ASTM A516/A516M, Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, for Moderate- and Lower-
Temperature Service
ASTM A517/A517M, Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, High-Strength, Quenched and
Tempered
ASTM A527/A527M, Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-
Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process, Lock-
Forming Quality
ASTM A5 2 9/A5 2 9M, Standard Specification for High-
Strength Carbon-Manganese Steel of Structural Quality
ASTM A537/A537M, Standard Specification for Pressure
Vessel Plates, Heat-Treated, Carbon-Manganese-Silicon
Steel
38
ASTM A554, Standard Specification for Welded Stainless
Steel Mechanical Tubing
ASTM A563, Standard Specification for Carbon and Alloy
Steel Nuts
ASTM A5 69/A5 69M, Standard Specification for Steel,
Carbon (0.1 5 Maximum, Percent) , Hot-Rolled Sheet
and Strip Commercial Quality
ASTM A570, Standard Specification for Hot-Rolled Carbon
Steel Sheet and Strip, Structural Quality
ASTM A5 72 , Standard Specification for High-Strength
Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel
ASTM A5 8 6, Standard Specification for Zinc-C oated
Parallel and Helical Steel Wire Structural Strand
ASTM A5 88, Standard Specification for High-Strength
Low-Alloy Structural Steel, up to 5 0 ksi [3 45 MPa]
Minimum Yield Point, With Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance
ASTM A603, Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated Steel
Structural Wire Rope
ASTM A606/A606M, Standard Specification for Steel,
Sheet and Strip, High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Hot-Rolled
and Cold-Rolled, With Improved Atmospheric Corro-
sion Resistance
ASTM A607, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet and
Strip , H o t- Rolled and C o ld-Ro lled, H igh-S trength,
Low-Alloy Columbium and/or Vanadium
A61 8/A61 8M, Standard Specification for Hot-Formed
Welded and Seamless High-Strength Low-Alloy Struc-
tural Tubing
ASTM A666, Standard Specification for Annealed or Cold-
Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel Sheet, Strip, Plate, and
Flat Bar
ASTM A687, Standard Specification for High-Strength
Nonheaded Steel Bolts and Studs
ASTM B209, Standard Specification for Aluminum and
Aluminum-Alloy Sheet and Plate
ASTM B2 2 1 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
Aluminum-Alloy Extruded Bars, Rods, Wire, Profiles,
and Tubes
ASTM C279, Standard Specification for Chemical-Resis-
tant Masonry Units
ASTM C980, Standard Specification for Industrial Chimney
Lining Brick
ASTM F436/F436M, Standard Specification for Hardened
Steel Washers Inch and Metric Dimensions
ASTM F593 , Standard Specification for Stainless Steel
Bolts, Hex Cap Screws, and Studs
ASTM F1 554, Standard Specification for Anchor Bolts,
Steel 36, 55, and 105-ksi Yield Strength
ASTM F3125/F3125M, Standard Specification for High
Strength Structural Bolts and Assemblies, Steel and
Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, Inch Dimensions 1 2 0 ksi
and 1 5 0 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength, and Metric
Dimensions 83 0 M Pa and 1 0 40 M Pa M inimum
Tensile Strength
 ASME STS-1–2021
Permanence of Organic Coatings (STP-1)
Publisher: American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM International) , 1 00 Barr Harbor Drive, P.O.
B o x C 7 0 0 , We s t C o ns h o h o cke n, P A 1 9 4 2 8 - 2 9 5 9
(www.astm.org)
AWS A5.1/A5.1M, Specification for Covered Carbon Steel
Arc Welding Electrodes
AWS A5.4/A5.4M, Specification for Stainless Steel Elec-
trodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
AWS A5.9/A5.9M, Specification for Bare Stainless Steel
Welding Electrodes and Rods
AWS A5.11/A5.11M, Specification for Nickel and Nickel
Allo y Welding E lectro des fo r S hielded M etal Arc
Welding
AWS A5.14/A5.14M, Specification of Nickel and Nickel
Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods
AWS A5.18/A5.18M, Specification for Carbon Steel Elec-
trodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
AWS A5.20/A5.20M, Specification for Carbon Steel Elec-
trodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding
AWS D1.1/D1.1M, Structural Welding Code — Steel
AWS D1.6/D1.6M, Structural Welding Code — Stainless
Steel
AWS D10.8, Recommended Practice for Welding of Chro-
mium-Molybdenum Steel Piping and Tubing
Publisher: American Welding Society (AWS), 8669 NW 36
Street, No. 130, Miami, FL 33166 (www.aws.org)
Chimney Coatings Manual, 1996
Model Code For Steel Chimneys, 1999, Revision 1, Amend-
ment A
Publisher: International Committee on Industrial Chim-
neys (CICIND), Preussenstrasse 11, D-40883 Ratingen,
Germany (www.cicind.org)
Coatings and Linings Handbook
Publisher: National Association of Corrosion Engineers
( N A C E I n te r n a ti o n a l ) , 1 5 8 3 5 P a r k T e n P l a c e ,
Houston, TX 77084-4906 (www.nace.org)
Design and Evaluation Guidelines For Department of
Energy Facilities Subj ected to Natural Phenomena
Hazards, UCRL-15910, 1990
Publisher: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Safety
Ap p r a i s a l s , 1 0 0 0 I n d e p e n d e n c e A ve n u e , S . W. ,
Washington, DC 20585 (www.energy.gov)
39
Entrainment in Wet Stacks, CS-2520, 1982
Publisher: Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 3420
Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304 (www.epri.com)
Formulas for Stress and Strain, 1965, 5th ed.
Mechanical Vibrations, 1948, 3rd ed.
Structural Engineering Handbook
Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 2001, 8th ed.
Wind Effects on Structures, 1978
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Co., P.O. Box 182605, Columbus,
OH 43218 (www.mhprofessional.com)
Good Painting Practice, Steel Structures Painting Manual,
Vol. 1
Systems and Specifications, Steel Structures Painting
Manual, Vol. 2
Publisher: SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings, 800
Trumbull Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15205 (www.sspc.org)
Guide for Steel Stack and Duct Design Construction
Publisher: Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’
National Association (SMACNA), 4201 Lafayette Center
Drive, Chantilly, VA 20151 (www.smacna.org)
National Building Code
Publisher: Building Officials and Code Administrators
(B O C A) , 4 0 5 1 W. Flo s s mo o r Ro ad, C o untry C lub
Hills, IL 60478 (www.iccsafe.org)
National Building Code Of Canada
Publisher: National Research Council of Canada (NRCC),
1200 Montreal Road, Building M-58, Ottawa, ON, K1A
0R6 Canada (nrc.canada.ca/en)
Stack Height Regulation, 40 CRF Part 51, 2015
Publisher: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ariel
Ri o s B ui l di ng, 1 2 0 0 P e nns yl vani a Ave nue , N . W. ,
Washington, DC 20460 (www.epa.gov)
Steam
Publisher: The Babcock & Wilcox Co., 20 S. Van Buren
Avenue, Barberton, OH 44203-0351
(www.babcock.com)
UL 96A, UL Standard for Safety Installation Requirements
for Lightning Protection Systems
Publisher: Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL) , 3 3 3
Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062 -2 096, Order
Address: Comm 2000, 151 Eastern Avenue, Bensenville,
IL 60106 (www.ul.com)
 ASME STS-1–2021

MANDATORY APPENDIX I
ð 21 Þ STRUCTURAL DESIGN — GUST EFFECT FACTOR CALCULATION

The gust effect factor is given by The factors g Q and g v may be taken equal to 3.4. V is the 3-
i
sec gust speed in exposure C at the reference height
jj 1
jj
+ 1.7Iz gQ 2 Q2 + gR 2 R2 yzzzz 1
Gf = 0.925 jjj zz
i 33 yz 6
1 + 1.7Iz gv
zz
jj
jj zz
z
Iz = c jjj zz
k { k z {

where R, the resonant response factor, is given by where

c = given in Table I-1
R= 1
R nRhRB(0.53 + 0.47 Rd ) Iz = the intensity of turbulence at height z
Q = the background response
7.47 1 N z = the equivalent height ofthe structure (0.6 h but not
Rn =
(1 + 1 0.3 N1)
5
3 less than zmin) listed for each exposure in Table I-1
nL
N1 = l z Q is given by
Vz

Rl =
1 1
e 2
> Q= 1

2
2
(1 ) for 0
1 +
i
j
0.63 jjj
B + h yzzz 0.63
k L z z{
1 for =0
where
B = stack diameter
(l = h , B, d) h = stack height
Rl = Rh setting, η = 4.6 n 1 h / Vz L z = the integral length scale of turbulence at the
RB setting, η = 4.6 n 1 B/ Vz equivalent height
Rd setting, η = 15.4 n 1 d/ Vz
β = damping ratio
Lz = l( z / 33)

z yz i 22 yz in which l and are as listed in Table I-1. See Figure I-1 and
Vz = b ijjj zz V jjj zz Tables I-2 through I-4.
k 33 { k 15 {

where b and are listed in Table I-1.

0.577
gR = 2loge(3,600 n1 ) +
2loge(3,600 n1 )

Table I-1
Terrain Exposure Constants
Exposure Zg, ft a b b c l, ft Zmin, ft [Note (1)]
A 5.0 1,500 1/5 0.64 1/3.0 0.30 0.45 180 1/2.0 60
B 7.0 1,200 1/7 0.84 1/4.0 0.45 0.30 320 1/3.0 30
C 9.5 900 1/9.5 1.00 1/6.5 0.65 0.20 500 1/5.0 15
D 11.5 700 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 650 1/8.0 7

NOTE: (1) Zmin = minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z̅ is greater of 0.6 h or Zmin. For stacks with h ≤ Zmin , z̅ shall be
taken at Zmin .

40
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure I-1
Topographic Factor, Kzt

Vz z Vz
z ( )
( )

S peed -u p S peed -u p

Vz Vz x ( U pwi n d )
( )
x ( U pwi n d ) x ( Do wn wi n d ) ( )
x ( Do wn wi n d )
HH/2 HH/2
HH Lh HH
Lh HH/2 HH/2

Escarpment 2-D Ridge or 3-D Axisymmetrical Hill

Topographic Multipliers for Exposure C [Note (1)]
K2 Multiplier
K1 Multiplier [Note (2)] [Note (2)] K3 Multiplier [Note (2)]
HH/Lh 2-D 2-D 3-D Axisym. x/Lh 2-D All Other z/Lh 2-D 2-D 3-D Axisym.
[Note (3)] Ridge Escarp. Hill [Note (3)] Escarp. Cases [Note (3)] Ridge Escarp. Hill
0.20 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.50 0.88 0.67 0.10 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.30 0.43 0.26 0.32 1.00 0.75 0.33 0.20 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.30 0.37 1.50 0.63 0.00 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.30
0.40 0.58 0.34 0.42 2.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.30 0.37 0.20
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.50 0.38 0.00 0.50 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.50 0.72 0.43 0.53 3.00 0.25 0.00 0.60 0.17 0.22 0.09
… … … … 3.50 0.13 0.00 0.70 0.12 0.17 0.06
… … … … 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.14 0.04
… … … … … … … 0.90 0.07 0.11 0.03
… … … … … … … 1.00 0.05 0.08 0.02
… … … … … … … 1.50 0.01 0.02 0.00
… … … … … … … 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Republished with permission of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Reston, VA; from Minimum Design Loads and Associated
Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, 2017; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
(b) Nomenclature:
HH = height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain, ft (m)
K1 = factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect
K2 = factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest
K3 = factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain
Lh = distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment, ft (m)
x = distance (upwind or downwind) from the crest to the building site, ft (m)
z = height above local ground level, ft (m)
μ = horizontal attenuation factor
γ = height attenuation factor
NOTES:
(1) Multipliers are based on the assumption that wind approaches the hill or escarpment along the direction of maximum slope.
(2) For HH/L h > 0.5, assume HH/L h = 0.5 for evaluating K1 , and substitute 2 HH for L h for evaluating K2 and K3 .
(3) For values of HH/L h , x/L h , and z/L h , other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.

41
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure I-1
Topographic Factor, Kzt (Cont’ d)

NOTES (Cont’d)
Equations:
Kzt = (1 + K1K2K3) 2

K1 determined from table below

K2 = 1 x
Lh

K3 = e z / Lh

Parameters for Speed-Up Over Hills and Escarpments

K1 /(HH/Lh) μ
Exposure Upwind of Downwind of
Hill Shape B C D γ Crest Crest
Two-dimensional ridges [or valleys with 1.30 1.45 1.55 3 1.5 1.5
negative HH in K1 /(HH/L h )]
Two-dimensional escarpments 0.75 0.85 0.95 2.5 1.5 4
Three-dimensional axisymmetrical hill 0.95 1.05 1.15 4 1.5 1.5

Table I-2
Risk Category of Buildings and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow, and Earthquake Loads
Use or Occupancy of Buildings and Structures Risk Category
Buildings and other structures that represent low risk to human life in the event of failure I
All buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV II
Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial risk to human life III
Buildings and other structures, not included in Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a substantial economic impact
and/or mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of failure
Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that
manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals,
hazardous waste, or explosives) containing toxic or explosive substances where the quantity of the material exceeds
a threshold quantity established by the Authority Having Jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if
released
Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities IV
Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial hazard to the community
Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or
dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing sufficient
quantities of highly toxic substances where the quantity of the material exceeds a threshold quantity established by
the Authority Having Jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released
Buildings and other structures required to maintain the functionality of other Risk Category IV structures

GENERAL NOTE: Data from ASCE 7-16, Table 1.5-1, with permission from the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Reston, VA.

42
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table I-3
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kz
Height Above Exposure
Ground Level, z,
ft (m) [Note (1)] B C D
0–15 (0–4.6) 0.57 0.85 1.03
20 (6.1) 0.62 0.90 1.08
25 (7.6) 0.66 0.94 1.12
30 (9.1) 0.70 0.98 1.16
40 (12.2) 0.76 1.04 1.22
50 (15.2) 0.81 1.09 1.27
60 (18.0) 0.85 1.13 1.31
70 (21.3) 0.89 1.17 1.34
80 (24.4) 0.93 1.21 1.38
90 (27.4) 0.96 1.24 1.40
100 (30.5) 0.99 1.26 1.43
120 (36.6) 1.04 1.31 1.48
140 (42.7) 1.09 1.36 1.52
160 (48.8) 1.13 1.39 1.55
180 (54.9) 1.17 1.43 1.58
200 (61.0) 1.20 1.46 1.61
250 (76.2) 1.28 1.53 1.68
300 (91.4) 1.35 1.59 1.73
350 (106.7) 1.41 1.64 1.78
400 (121.9) 1.47 1.69 1.82
450 (137.2) 1.52 1.73 1.86
500 (152.4) 1.56 1.77 1.89
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Republished with permission of the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) , Reston, VA; from Minimum Design Loads
and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures,
2 0 1 7 ; p ermis s io n co nveyed thro ugh C o p yright C learance
Center, Inc.
(b) Exposure categories are defined in para. 4.3.3.4.

NOTE: (1) Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height, z, is

acceptable.

43
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table I-4
Force Coefficients, Cf
h /D
Cross Section Type of Surface 1 7 25
Square (wind normal to face) All 1.3 1.4 2.0
Square (wind along diagonal) All 1.0 1.1 1.5
Hexagonal or octagonal All 1.0 1.2 1.4
Round ( D qz > 2.5) Moderately smooth 0.5 0.6 0.7

( D q > 5.3 , D in m, q in N/m )

2 Rough (D′/ D = 0.02) 0.7 0.8 0.9
z z
Very rough (D ′/ D = 0.08) 0.8 1.0 1.2
Round ( D qz 2.5) All 0.7 0.8 1.2

( D qz 5.3 , D in m, qz in Nn/m 2
)

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Republished with permission of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Reston, VA; from Minimum Design Loads and Associated
Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, 2017; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
(b) The design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the structure projected on a plane normal to the wind direction. The force shall
be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
(c) Linear interpolation is permitted for h / D values other than shown.
(d) Nomenclature:
D = diameter of circular cross section and least horizontal dimension of square, hexagonal, or octagonal cross sections at elevation under
consideration, ft (m)
D′ = depth ofprotruding elements such as ribs, corrugated jackets, or other surface irregularities that affect the roughness ofthe stack, ft (m)
h = height of structure, ft (m)
q z = velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, psf (N/m 2 )

44
 ASME STS-1–2021

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
MECHANICAL DESIGN ð 21 Þ

See Figures A-1 through A-13 and Table A-1.

Figure A-1
Friction Factor, f, as Related to Reynolds Number
and Stack Diameter
0.030

0.025
Di = stack dia., ft 2
f = Friction Factor

0.020
5

10
0.01 5
NRe (approx.) = 15
20
20,000 w 25
TgDi
0.01 0
5 1 05 2 5 1 06 2 5 1 07
NRe = Reynolds Number

45
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-2
External Heat Transfer Coefficient for Forced and Natural Convection
Diameter, ft
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 0.0

9.0

Natural convection
Forced convection

8.0
Ambient Air-Free Temperature: 60°F

7.0
External Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr-ft 2 – °F

6.0
50 mph

45 mph

5.0 40 mph

35 mph

4.0
30 mph

25 mph

3.0
20 mph

1 5 mph
2.0

1 0 mph

7 mph
1 .0 5 mph

3 mph
2 mph

0.0
0 40 80 1 20 1 60 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 560 600
U , Temperature Difference Between External Surface
and Ambient Air-Free Stream, °F

46
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-3
Effect of a Change in the Ambient Air-Free Stream
Temperature on the External Heat Transfer Coefficient
for Forced Convection
1 .2
Tem pera tu re Correcti on Factor

1 .1

1 .0

0. 9

0. 8
1 00 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 –1 0
Am bi en t Ai r-Free Stream Tem peratu re, T (°F)
GENERAL NOTE:
h T = (h 60°F ) (Temperature Correction Factor) T, where
h T = the external heat transfer coefficient for forced
convection when the ambient air-free stream
temperature is T (°F)
h 60°F = the external heat transfer coefficient for forced
convection for a T (°F) of 60°F (see Figure A-2)

47
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-4
Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Air Gap Between Two Walls of a Double-Walled Metal Chimney
(Mean Temperature 200°F Through 400°F)
4.2
Mean temperature 5 400°F
4.0 DT 5 200°F
DT 5 150°F
DT 5 100°F
3.8 DT 5 50°F
DT 5 10°F
3.6
3.4
3.2
Mean temperature 5 300°F
3.0
DT 5 200°F
DT 5 150°F
2.8 DT 5 100°F
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Air Gap, Btu/hr-ft2 – °F

DT 5 50°F
DT 5 10°F
2.6
2.4
Mean temperature 5 200°F
2.2
DT 5 200°F
DT 5 150°F
2.0 DT 5 100°F
DT 5 50°F
1.8 DT5 10°F

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Air Gap, in.

48
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-5
Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Air Gap Between Two Walls of a Double-Walled Metal Chimney
(Mean Temperature 500°F and 600°F)
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
Mean temperature 5 600°F
7.0 DT 5 200°F
DT 5 150°F
DT 5 100°F
6.8 DT 5 50°F
DT 5 10°F
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Air Gap, Btu/hr-ft2 – °F

6.6
6.4

6.2
6.0
5.8
5.6
Mean temperature 5 500°F
5.4 DT 5 200°F
DT 5 150°F
5.2 DT 5 100°F
DT 5 50°F
DT 5 10°F
5.0
4.8

4.6

4.4
4.2
4.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Air Gap, in.

49
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-6
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 200°F
1 2. 0

1 ft

1 1 .0

1 0. 0
2 ft

9. 0 3 ft

4 ft

8. 0
I n tern al H eat Tran sfer Coeffi ci en t, Btu /h r-ft 2 - °F

6 ft

8 ft

1 0 ft
7. 0
1 2 ft

1 5 ft

6. 0 I n tern al di am eter
of cyl i n dri cal
sm oke stack, ft

5. 0

4. 0

3. 0

2. 0

Fi l m tem peratu re: 200°F

1 .0

0. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00

Vel oci ty, ft/sec

50
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-7
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 300°F
1 2. 0

1 1 .0

1 ft

1 0. 0

9. 0 2 ft

3 ft

8. 0
I n tern al H eat Tran sfer Coeffi ci en t, Btu /h r-ft 2 - °F

4 ft

6 ft
7. 0
8 ft

1 0 ft
1 2 ft

1 5 ft
6. 0

I n tern al di am eter
of cyl i n dri cal
sm oke stack, ft
5. 0

4. 0

3. 0

2. 0

Fi l m tem peratu re: 300°F

1 .0

0. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00

Vel oci ty, ft/sec

51
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-8
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 500°F
1 2. 0

1 1 .0

1 0. 0

9. 0 1 ft

8. 0
I n tern al H eat Tran sfer Coeffi ci en t, Btu /h r-ft 2 - °F

2 ft

3 ft
7. 0
4 ft

6 ft
6. 0 8 ft

1 0 ft
1 2 ft
1 5 ft
5. 0

I n tern al di am eter
of cyl i n dri cal
sm oke stack, ft
4. 0

3. 0

2. 0

Fi l m tem peratu re: 500°F

1 .0

0. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00

Vel oci ty, ft/sec

52
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-9
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient vs. Velocity at Film Temperature: 1,000°F
1 2. 0

1 1 .0

1 0. 0

9. 0

8. 0
I n tern al H eat Tran sfer Coeffi ci en t, Btu /h r-ft 2 – °F

7. 0
1 ft

6. 0 2 ft

3 ft

4 ft
5. 0
6 ft
8 ft
1 0 ft
1 2 ft
4. 0 1 5 ft

I n tern al di am eter
of cyl i n dri cal
sm oke stack, ft
3. 0

2. 0

Fi l m tem peratu re: 1 ,000°F

1 .0

0. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00

Vel oci ty, ft/sec

53
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-10
Flue Size
0 1 60

1 50

1 00

1 40

1 30
200

1 20

ec
/s
ft
20
VS
300
= 110
i ty
l oc

TG
ve
as

=2
G

1 ,8
1 00

,30
00

08F

Stack Di a. or Exi t Di a. , i n . [ N ote (1 )]

8F
400 1 ,5
0 0 8F
, 1 ,000 l b/h r

1 ,2

90
00
ec

8F
s

1,
ft/

00 90
30

08
F 0 8F 8 0 8F 8F
W

500 80
Gas Fl ow,

7 0 60
ec

08
0 0
s

F
ft/
40

70
ec

5 05
00
s

40

F
ft/

08
08

F
45

600
G
as
ec

30
te

08
s

60
m
ft/

F
p.
50

TG =
ec

20
ft/s

08
F

50
60

700
c e
ft/s
72

40
ce
ft/s
80

c e

800
ft /s

30
90

20

900

10

1 ,000 0
Exam pl e: G as fl ow = 200,000 l b/h r; g as tem p. = 500 8 F, g as vel oci ty i n fl u e = 50 ft/sec; fl u e si ze = 70 ft.

NOTE: (1) For square or rectangular flues, use equal cross-sectional areas.

54
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-11
Natural Draft
2,1 00 0.0

S ta c k
h e ig h
2,000 t = 20 0.1
ft , 0 in
.
30 f
t, 0
in .
1 ,900 0.2
40
ft, 0
in.
50
1 ,800 ft, 0.3
0i
n.
60
ft,
0i
n.
1 ,700 70 0.4
ft,
80 0
in
ft, .

10
90 0
in

0
1 ,600 ft . 0.5

ft
, 0

, 0
in

in
.

1 ,500 . 0.6
12
5
ft,
0
15

in
0

1 ,400 0.7
ft,
0
in
17

.
5f

1 ,300 0.8
t,
20

0i
8F

0f

n.

N atu ral Draft, i n. of Water

00
t, 0
TAG

00 9 –
1 ,200 0.9
in.
22
Average G as Tem p.

5f

p. 1
2 50

t ,

te m
0i
275

ft, 0

n.

1 ,1 00 1 .0
F
ie n t
ft, 0 , 0 i n .

80 8
300

in.

F
b
ft
in.

60 8
Am

1 ,000 1 .1
350
ft , 0

F
308

900 1 .2
40 0

in .

0 8F
ft , 0

8F
0
–2
in .
45 0 ft

800 1 .3
, 0 in
5 0 0 ft

700 1 .4
.
, 0 in

600 1 .5
.

500 1 .6

400 1 .7

300 1 .8

200 1 .9

1 00 2.0
Exam pl e: TAG = 6008F; H = 1 50 ft, 0 i n .; T am b
= 60 8 F; natu ral draft = 1 .1 24 i n.

55
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-12
Friction Loss
Gas Velocity, V, ft/sec
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

D = 2 ft, 0 in .
D = 5 ft
D = 10 f
D= 1
D = ft, 0 i n .
D=

, 0 in
Tavg = 200 F8
20

5 ft
25

t, 0 in

.
ft,

,0
0

in.

. 40 0 8F
in.

50 0 8F 60 0 8F
800 8F 1 ,000 8F

2, 1 00 8F

8F 8F
1 ,2 0 0 1 ,5 0 0 1 ,8 0 0 8F
Friction Loss, D F (for 1 00 ft) – in. of Water

0.60 Gas velo city V = 20 ft/se c

V = 30 ft/sec
Fl u
V = 40 ft/sec
ed
ia.
D= 2
0.50
ft, 0

V = 50 f
in.

0 8F
D=

D = t/sec

50
3f

5f
t, 0

t, 0
V = 60
in.

0.40 V= 7 ft /s e
in.
0 ft c =
D

/s e 4
c ft,
0
D= in
.
6f
t, 0
D= in.
7f
0.30 t, 0
in.
D= 8
ft, 0
in.
D= 1
0 ft,
0 in
.
0.20
D = 15 f
t, 0 in
.
D = 2 0 ft
, 0 in .
0.1 1
D = 2 5 ft, 0 in
0.1 0 .

F
p. 08
m 20
te =
0 8F

as Ta v g
0 8F

0 8F
0 8F

.g
40

0 8F
008

008
0 8F

g
80

Av
2,1 0
1 ,80
1 ,50
60

1 ,0

1 ,2

0.00
Example: D = 5 ft, 0 in.; Tavg = 5008F; V = 50 ft/sec. Friction loss for 1 00 ft, DF = 0.1 1 (in. of water).

56
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure A-13
Exit Loss and Entrance
1 00.0 0.00

0.1 5

90.0 0.30
30-d e
g ang
le e n
tra n c 0.45
e

80.0 0.60
8F
1 , 80 0

45 - 0.75
d eg
F
2 ,1 0 0 8

ang
le
1 , 0 0 1 , 2 0 0 8F
8F

70.0 0.90
1 ,5 0 0

0 8F
8F

0.986 in.
80 0

60
-d
eg 1 .05
50 0 0 8F

an
40 0 8 F

0 8F
60

gle
8F

No
20
8F

co
T=
0

ne
30

60.0 1 .20
re

P , in. of Water
90
tu

-d
ra

eg
pe
Gas Velocity, , ft/sec

10

an
em

-d

gl 1 .35
eg
15
st

e
-d
Ga

co
eg
V

ne
co
ne

50.0 1 .50

D
Pressure Drop,
1 .65

40.0 1 .80

1 .95

30.0 2.1 0

2.25

20.0 2.40

2.55

1 0.0 2.70

2.85

0.00 3.00
Example: V = 80 ft/sec; T = 500 F; 1 0-ft exit cone; pressure drop,
8 D P 0.986 in.

57
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table A-1
K Factors for Breeching Entrance Angle
K= factor depending on breeching entrance angle from vertical
= 1.0 for 90 deg
= 0.75 for 60 deg
= 0.5 for 45 deg
= 0.2 for 30 deg
= 0.85 for 45-deg slope on top only

58
 ASME STS-1–2021

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
MATERIALS FOR AMBIENT AND ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
SERVICE

See Tables B-1 through B-17.

Table B-1
ASTM A36 Carbon Steel

A — Chemical Composition of Elements

Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.35 max.
Manganese 0.29/1.06
Phosphorus 0.048 max.
Sulfur 0.058 max.
Silicon 0.10 min.

B — Typical Annealed Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−20 (−29) 36.0 (248.0) 58.0 (399.6) 29,676 (204 471)
100 (38) 36.0 (248.0) 58.0 (399.6) 29,062 (200 234)
150 (66) 33.8 (232.9) 58.0 (399.6) 28,831 (198 644)
200 (93) 33.0 (227.4) 58.0 (399.6) 28,600 (197 054)
250 (121) 32.4 (223.2) 58.0 (399.6) 28,350 (195 332)
300 (149) 31.8 (219.1) 58.0 (399.6) 28,100 (193 609)
400 (204) 30.8 (212.2) 58.0 (399.6) 27,700 (190 853)
500 (260) 29.3 (201.9) 58.0 (399.6) 27,100 (186 719)
600 (316) 27.6 (190.2) 58.0 (399.6) 26,400 (181 896)
650 (343) 26.7 (184.0) 58.0 (399.6) 25,850 (178 106)
700 (371) 25.8 (177.8) 58.0 (399.6) 25,300 (174 317)
750 (399) 24.9 (171.6) 57.3 (394.8) 24,650 (169 838)
800 (427) 24.1 (166.0) 53.3 (367.2) 24,000 (165 360)
850 (454) 23.4 (161.2) 48.5 (334.2) 23,150 (159 503)
900 (482) 22.8 (157.1) 43.3 (298.3) 22,300 (153 647)
950 (510) 22.1 (152.3) 38.0 (261.8) 21,250 (146 413)
1,000 (538) 21.4 (147.4) 33.4 (230.1) 20,200 (139 178)

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

59
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-2
ASTM A387 Grade 11 Alloy Steel
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.15 max.
Manganese 0.30/0.61
Phosphorus 0.045 max.
Sulfur 0.045 max.
Silicon 0.50 max.
Chromium 0.80/1.25
Molybdenum 0.44/0.65

B — Typical Annealed Properties (Class/Cond./Temper = 1)

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−20 (−29) 35.0 (241.2) 60.0 (413.4) 30,076 (207 227)
100 (38) 35.0 (241.2) 60.0 (413.4) 29,462 (202 990)
150 (66) 33.3 (229.4) 60.0 (413.4) 29,231 (201 400)
200 (93) 32.3 (222.5) 60.0 (413.4) 29,000 (199 810)
250 (121) 31.5 (217.0) 60.0 (413.4) 28,750 (198 088)
300 (149) 30.7 (211.5) 60.0 (413.4) 28,500 (196 365)
400 (204) 29.5 (203.3) 60.0 (413.4) 28,000 (192 920)
500 (260) 28.4 (195.7) 60.0 (413.4) 27,400 (188 786)
600 (316) 27.4 (188.8) 60.0 (413.4) 26,900 (185 341)
650 (343) 26.9 (185.3) 60.0 (413.4) 26,550 (182 929)
700 (371) 26.4 (181.9) 60.0 (413.4) 26,200 (180 518)
750 (399) 25.9 (178.5) 60.0 (413.4) 25,900 (178 451)
800 (427) 25.2 (173.6) 60.0 (413.4) 25,600 (176 384)
850 (454) 24.5 (168.8) 58.3 (401.7) 25,200 (173 628)
900 (482) 23.8 (164.0) 55.8 (384.5) 24,800 (170 872)
950 (510) 22.9 (157.8) 52.6 (362.4) 24,350 (167 771)
1,000 (538) 21.9 (150.9) 48.8 (336.2) 23,900 (164 671)

C — Typical Normalized and Tempered Properties (Class/Cond./Temper = 2)

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−20 (−29) 45.0 (310.1) 75.0 (516.8) 30,076 (207 227)
100 (38) 45.0 (310.1) 75.0 (516.8) 29,462 (202 990)
150 (66) 42.8 (294.9) 75.0 (516.8) 29,231 (201 400)
200 (93) 41.5 (285.9) 75.0 (516.8) 29,000 (199 810)
250 (121) 40.5 (279.0) 75.0 (516.8) 28,750 (198 088)
300 (149) 39.5 (272.2) 75.0 (516.8) 28,500 (196 365)
400 (204) 37.9 (261.1) 75.0 (516.8) 28,000 (192 920)
500 (260) 36.5 (251.5) 75.0 (516.8) 27,400 (188 786)
600 (316) 35.3 (243.2) 75.0 (516.8) 26,900 (185 341)
650 (343) 34.6 (238.4) 75.0 (516.8) 26,550 (182 929)
700 (371) 34.0 (234.3) 75.0 (516.8) 26,200 (180 518)
750 (399) 33.2 (228.7) 75.0 (516.8) 25,900 (178 451)
800 (427) 32.5 (223.9) 75.0 (516.8) 25,600 (176 384)
850 (454) 31.6 (217.7) 72.8 (501.6) 25,200 (173 628)
900 (482) 30.6 (210.8) 69.7 (480.2) 24,800 (170 872)
950 (510) 29.4 (202.6) 65.7 (452.7) 24,350 (167 771)
1,000 (538) 28.4 (195.7) 61.0 (420.3) 23,900 (164 671)

60
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-2
ASTM A387 Grade 11 Alloy Steel (Cont’ d)
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

61
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-3
ASTM A387 Grade 12 Alloy Steel

A — Chemical Composition of Elements

Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.15 max.
Manganese 0.30/0.61
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulfur 0.045 max.
Silicon 0.50/1.00
Chromium 1.00/1.50
Molybdenum 0.44/0.65

B — Typical Annealed Properties (Class/Cond./Temper = 1)

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−20 (−29) 33.0 (227.4) 55.0 (379.0) 30,076 (207 227)
100 (38) 33.0 (227.4) 55.0 (379.0) 29,462 (202 990)
150 (66) 31.0 (213.6) 55.0 (379.0) 29,231 (201 400)
200 (93) 29.8 (205.3) 54.0 (372.1) 29,000 (199 810)
250 (121) 28.9 (199.1) 53.5 (368.3) 28,750 (198 088)
300 (149) 28.1 (193.6) 52.9 (364.5) 28,500 (196 365)
400 (204) 26.8 (184.7) 52.9 (364.5) 28,000 (192 920)
500 (260) 25.9 (178.5) 52.9 (364.5) 27,400 (188 786)
600 (316) 25.1 (172.9) 52.9 (364.5) 26,900 (185 341)
650 (343) 24.8 (170.9) 52.9 (364.5) 26,550 (182 929)
700 (371) 24.4 (168.1) 52.9 (364.5) 26,200 (180 518)
750 (399) 24.0 (165.4) 52.9 (364.5) 25,900 (178 451)
800 (427) 23.6 (162.6) 52.9 (364.5) 25,600 (176 384)
850 (454) 23.1 (159.2) 52.9 (364.5) 25,200 (173 628)
900 (482) 22.5 (155.0) 51.4 (354.1) 24,800 (170 872)
950 (510) 21.7 (149.5) 48.9 (336.9) 24,350 (167 771)
1,000 (538) 20.9 (144.0) 45.8 (315.6) 23,900 (164 671)

C — Typical Normalized and Tempered Properties (Class/Cond./Temper = 2)

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−20 (−29) 40.0 (275.6) 65.0 (447.9) 30,076 (207 227)
100 (38) 40.0 (275.6) 63.8 (439.6) 29,462 (202 990)
150 (66) 37.5 (258.4) 62.5 (430.6) 29,231 (201 400)
200 (93) 36.2 (249.4) 62.5 (430.6) 29,000 (199 810)
250 (121) 35.0 (241.2) 62.5 (430.6) 28,750 (198 088)
300 (149) 34.0 (234.3) 62.5 (430.6) 28,500 (196 365)
400 (204) 32.5 (223.9) 62.5 (430.6) 28,000 (192 920)
500 (260) 31.4 (216.3) 62.5 (430.6) 27,400 (188 786)
600 (316) 30.5 (210.1) 62.5 (430.6) 26,900 (185 341)
650 (343) 30.1 (207.4) 62.5 (430.6) 26,550 (182 929)
700 (371) 29.6 (203.9) 62.5 (430.6) 26,200 (180 518)
750 (399) 29.1 (200.5) 62.5 (430.6) 25,900 (178 451)
800 (427) 28.6 (197.1) 62.5 (430.6) 25,600 (176 384)
850 (454) 28.0 (192.9) 62.5 (430.6) 25,200 (173 628)
900 (482) 27.2 (187.4) 60.8 (418.9) 24,800 (170 872)
950 (510) 26.3 (181.2) 57.8 (398.2) 24,350 (167 771)
1,000 (538) 25.3 (174.3) 54.2 (373.4) 23,900 (164 671)

62
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-3
ASTM A387 Grade 12 Alloy Steel (Cont’ d)
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

Table B-4
ASTM A242 Type 1, A606 Type 4 (Corten A)
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.12 max.
Manganese 0.20/0.50
Phosphorus 0.07/0.15
Sulfur 0.05 max.
Silicon 0.25/0.75
Copper 0.25/0.55
Chromium 0.50/1.25
Vanadium 0.65 max.
GENERAL NOTE: Reprinted with permission from USS Steels for Elevated
Temperature Service, 1976 revision.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−20 (−29) 54.1 (372.7) 81.3 (560.2) 30,000 (206 700)
80 (27) 54.1 (372.7) 81.3 (560.2) 30,000 (206 700)
200 (93) 50.8 (350.0) 76.2 (525.0) 29,000 (199 810)
400 (204) 47.6 (328.0) 76.4 (526.4) 28,000 (192 920)
600 (316) 41.1 (283.2) 81.3 (560.2) 26,900 (185 341)
800 (427) 39.9 (274.9) 76.4 (526.4) 25,600 (176 384)
1,000 (538) 35.2 (242.5) 52.8 (363.8) 23,900 (164 671)
1,200 (649) 20.5 (141.2) 27.6 (190.2) 21,800 (150 202)
1,400 (760) 20.5 (141.2) 10.6 (73.0) 18,900 (130 221)

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Considerable deviation from the listed properties may occur as a result of the relatively broad chemical composition range shown.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
(c) Values taken from USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service, 1976 revision.
(d) Reprinted with permission from USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service, 1976 revision.

63
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-5
ASTM A588 Grade A, A709 (Corten B)

A — Chemical Composition of Elements

Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.10/0.19
Manganese 0.90/1.25
Phosphorus 0.04 max.
Sulfur 0.05 max.
Silicon 0.15/0.30
Copper 0.25/0.40
Chromium 0.40/0.65
Vanadium 0.02/0.10
GENERAL NOTE: Reprinted with permission from USS Steels for Elevated
Temperature Service, 1976 revision.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−20 (−29) 55.0 (379.0) 86.7 (597.4) 30,000 (206 700)
80 (27) 55.0 (379.0) 86.7 (597.4) 30,000 (206 700)
200 (93) 51.7 (356.2) 81.4 (560.8) 29,000 (199 810)
400 (204) 48.4 (333.5) 79.8 (549.8) 28,000 (192 920)
600 (316) 46.7 (321.8) 75.5 (520.2) 26,900 (185 341)
800 (427) 45.1 (310.7) 71.1 (489.9) 25,600 (176 384)
1,000 (538) 35.8 (246.7) 52.0 (358.3) 23,900 (164 671)
1,200 (649) 20.0 (137.8) 30.3 (208.8) 21,800 (150 202)
1,400 (760) 9.4 (64.8) 11.3 (77.9) 18,900 (130 221)

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Considerable deviation from the listed properties may occur as a result of the relatively broad chemical composition range shown.
(b) This material should not be used above 800°F for load-bearing structures because of possible loss of ductility.
(c) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
(d) Values taken from USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service, 1976 revision.
(e) Reprinted with permission from USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service, 1976 revision.

64
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-6
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 410

A — Chemical Composition of Elements

Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.1 5

Manganese 1 .00

Phosphorus 0.04

Sulfur 0.03

Silicon 1 .00

Chromium 1 1.50/13 .5 0

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 65 .0 (447.9) 2 9,72 9 (2 04 83 6)

1 00 (3 8) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 65 .0 (447.9) 2 9,01 5 (1 99 91 6)

1 5 0 (66) 2 8.4 (1 95.7) 65 .0 (447.9) 2 8,708 (1 97 796)

2 00 (93 ) 2 7.6 (1 90.2 ) 65 .0 (447.9) 2 8,400 (1 95 676)

2 5 0 (12 1) 2 7.0 (1 86.0) 64.4 (443 .4) 2 8,1 5 0 (1 93 95 3 )

3 00 (149) 2 6.6 (1 83 .3 ) 63 .7 (43 8.9) 2 7,900 (1 92 2 3 1)

400 (2 04) 2 6.2 (1 80.5) 62 .6 (43 1.3 ) 2 7,3 00 (1 88 097)

5 00 (2 60) 2 5 .8 (1 77.8) 61 .6 (42 4.4) 2 6,800 (1 84 65 2 )

600 (3 1 6) 2 5 .3 (1 74.3 ) 60.1 (41 4.1) 2 6,2 00 (1 80 51 8)

65 0 (3 43 ) 2 4.8 (1 70.9) 5 9.0 (406.5) 2 5 ,85 0 (1 78 107)

700 (3 71) 2 4.3 (1 67.4) 5 7.5 (3 96.2 ) 2 5 ,5 00 (1 75 695)

75 0 (3 99) 2 3 .6 (1 62 .6) 5 5 .6 (3 83 .1) 2 5 ,000 (1 72 2 5 0)

800 (42 7) 2 2 .7 (1 5 6.4) 5 3 .4 (3 67.9) 2 4,5 00 (1 68 805)

85 0 (45 4) 2 1 .6 (1 48.8) 5 0.7 (3 49.3 ) 2 3 ,85 0 (1 64 3 2 7)

900 (482 ) 2 0.3 (1 3 9.9) 47.7 (3 2 8.7) 2 3 ,2 00 (1 5 9 848)

95 0 (51 0) 1 8.9 (1 3 0.2 ) 44.2 (3 04.5) 2 2 ,3 5 0 (1 5 3 992 )

1 ,000 (53 8) 1 7.2 (1 1 8.5) 40.3 (2 77.7) 2 1 ,5 00 (1 48 13 5)

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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Table B-7
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 304
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.06

Manganese 2 .00

Phosphorus 0.045

Sulfur 0.03 0

Silicon 0.75

Chromium 1 8.0/1 2 .00

Nickel 8.0/1 0.5

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 8,776 (1 98 2 70)

1 00 (3 8) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 8,1 15 (1 93 715 )

1 50 (66) 2 6.7 (1 84.0) 73 .0 (5 03 .0) 2 7,808 (1 91 5 95 )

2 00 (93 ) 2 5.0 (1 72 .3 ) 71.0 (489.2 ) 2 7,5 00 (1 89 475 )

2 50 (1 2 1 ) 2 3 .6 (1 62 .6) 68.6 (472 .7) 2 7,2 50 (1 87 753 )

3 00 (1 49) 2 2 .4 (1 54.3 ) 66.2 (456.1) 2 7,000 (1 86 03 0)

400 (2 04) 2 0.7 (1 42 .6) 64.0 (441 .0) 2 6,400 (1 81 896)

5 00 (2 60) 1 9.4 (1 3 3 .7) 63 .4 (43 6.8) 2 5,900 (1 78 451 )

600 (3 16) 1 8.4 (1 2 6.8) 63 .4 (43 6.8) 2 5,3 00 (1 74 3 17)

650 (3 43 ) 1 8.0 (1 2 4.0) 63 .4 (43 6.8) 2 5,050 (1 72 5 94)

700 (3 71 ) 1 7.6 (1 2 1 .3 ) 63 .4 (43 6.8) 2 4,800 (1 70 872 )

750 (3 99) 1 7.2 (1 18.5 ) 63 .4 (43 6.8) 2 4,450 (1 68 461 )

800 (42 7) 1 6.9 (1 16.4) 62 .8 (43 2 .7) 2 4,1 00 (1 66 049)

850 (454) 1 6.5 (1 13 .7) 62 .0 (42 7.2 ) 2 3 ,800 (1 63 982 )

900 (482 ) 1 6.2 (1 11 .6) 60.8 (418.9) 2 3 ,5 00 (1 61 915 )

950 (5 10) 1 5.9 (1 09.6) 5 9.3 (408.6) 2 3 ,1 50 (1 59 5 03 )

1 ,000 (5 3 8) 1 5.5 (1 06.8) 5 7.4 (3 95 .5) 2 2 ,800 (1 57 092 )

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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Table B-8
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 316
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.08

Manganese 2 .00

Phosphorus 0.045

Sulfur 0.03 0

Silicon 0.75

Chromium 16.0/18.00

Nickel 1 0.0/1 4.0

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75 .0 (51 6.8) 2 8,776 (1 98 2 70)

1 00 (3 8) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75 .0 (51 6.8) 2 8,1 1 5 (1 93 71 5)

1 5 0 (66) 2 7.4 (1 88.8) 75 .0 (51 6.8) 2 7,808 (1 91 595)

2 00 (93 ) 2 5 .9 (1 78.5) 75 .0 (51 6.8) 2 7,5 00 (1 89 475)

2 5 0 (12 1) 2 4.6 (1 69.5) 72 .9 (502 .3 ) 2 7,2 5 0 (1 87 75 3 )

3 00 (149) 2 3 .4 (1 61.2 ) 71 .9 (495.4) 2 7,000 (1 86 03 0)

400 (2 04) 2 1 .4 (1 47.4) 71 .8 (494.7) 2 6,400 (1 81 896)

5 00 (2 60) 2 0.0 (1 3 7.8) 71 .8 (494.7) 2 5 ,900 (1 78 45 1)

600 (3 1 6) 1 8.9 (1 3 0.2 ) 71 .8 (494.7) 2 5 ,3 00 (1 74 3 1 7)

65 0 (3 43 ) 1 8.5 (1 2 7.5) 71 .8 (494.7) 2 5 ,05 0 (1 72 594)

700 (3 71) 1 8.2 (1 2 5.4) 71 .8 (494.7) 2 4,800 (1 70 872 )

75 0 (3 99) 1 7.9 (1 2 3 .3 ) 71 .5 (492 .6) 2 4,45 0 (1 68 461)

800 (42 7) 1 7.7 (1 2 2 .0) 70.8 (487.8) 2 4,1 00 (1 66 049)

85 0 (45 4) 1 7.5 (1 2 0.6) 69.7 (480.2 ) 2 3 ,800 (1 63 982 )

900 (482 ) 1 7.3 (1 1 9.2 ) 68.3 (470.6) 2 3 ,5 00 (1 61 91 5)

95 0 (51 0) 1 7.1 (1 1 7.8) 66.5 (45 8.2 ) 2 3 ,1 5 0 (1 5 9 503 )

1 ,000 (53 8) 1 7.0 (1 1 7.1) 64.3 (443 .0) 2 2 ,800 (1 5 7 092 )

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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Table B-9
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 304L
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.03

Manganese 2 .00

Phosphorus 0.045

Sulfur 0.03 0

Silicon 0.75

Chromium 1 8.0/2 0.00

Nickel 8.0/12

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 2 5.0 (172 .3 ) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 8,776 (1 98 2 70)

1 00 (3 8) 2 5.0 (172 .3 ) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 8,1 15 (1 93 715 )

1 50 (66) 2 2 .7 (15 6.4) 68.1 (468.9) 2 7,808 (1 91 5 95 )

2 00 (93 ) 2 1.4 (147.4) 66.1 (455 .4) 2 7,5 00 (1 89 475 )

2 50 (1 2 1 ) 2 0.2 6 (13 9.2 ) 63 .7 (43 8.5) 2 7,2 50 (1 87 753 )

3 00 (1 49) 19.2 (13 2 .3 ) 61.2 (42 1 .7) 2 7,000 (1 86 03 0)

400 (2 04) 17.5 (12 0.6) 5 8.7 (404.4) 2 6,400 (1 81 896)

5 00 (2 60) 16.4 (11 3 .0) 5 7.5 (3 96.2 ) 2 5,900 (1 78 451 )

600 (3 16) 15.5 (106.8) 5 6.9 (3 92 .0) 2 5,3 00 (1 74 3 17)

650 (3 43 ) 15.2 (104.7) 5 6.7 (3 90.7) 2 5,050 (1 72 5 94)

700 (3 71 ) 15.0 (103 .4) 5 6.4 (3 88.6) 2 4,800 (1 70 872 )

750 (3 99) 14.7 (101.3 ) 5 6.0 (3 85 .8) 2 4,450 (1 68 461 )

800 (42 7) 14.5 (99.9) 5 5.4 (3 81 .7) 2 4,1 00 (1 66 049)

850 (454) 14.3 (98.5) 5 4.6 (3 76.2 ) 2 3 ,800 (1 63 982 )

900 (482 ) 14.0 (96.5) 5 3 .6 (3 69.3 ) 2 3 ,5 00 (1 61 915 )

950 (5 10) 13 .7 (94.4) 5 2 .3 (3 60.3 ) 2 3 ,1 50 (1 59 5 03 )

1 ,000 (5 3 8) 13 .3 (91 .6) 5 0.7 (3 49.3 ) 2 2 ,800 (1 57 092 )

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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Table B-10
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 316L
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %

Carbon 0.03

Manganese 2 .00

Phosphorus 0.045

Sulfur 0.03 0

Silicon 0.75

Chromium 16.0/18.00

Nickel 1 0.0/1 4.0

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 2 5 .0 (1 72 .3 ) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 8,776 (1 98 2 70)

1 00 (3 8) 2 5 .0 (1 72 .3 ) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 8,1 1 5 (1 93 71 5)

1 5 0 (66) 2 2 .7 (1 5 6.4) 69.1 (475.8) 2 7,808 (1 91 595)

2 00 (93 ) 2 1 .3 (1 46.8) 68.1 (469.2 ) 2 7,5 00 (1 89 475)

2 5 0 (12 1) 2 0.1 (1 3 8.5) 66.1 (45 5.1) 2 7,2 5 0 (1 87 75 3 )

3 00 (149) 1 9.0 (1 3 0.9) 64.0 (441.0) 2 7,000 (1 86 03 0)

400 (2 04) 1 7.5 (1 2 0.6) 62 .2 (42 8.6) 2 6,400 (1 81 896)

5 00 (2 60) 1 6.4 (1 1 3 .0) 61 .8 (42 5.8) 2 5 ,900 (1 78 45 1)

600 (3 1 6) 1 5 .6 (1 07.5) 61 .7 (42 5.1) 2 5 ,3 00 (1 74 3 1 7)

65 0 (3 43 ) 1 5 .3 (1 05.4) 61 .6 (42 4.4) 2 5 ,05 0 (1 72 594)

700 (3 71) 1 5 .0 (1 03 .4) 61 .5 (42 3 .7) 2 4,800 (1 70 872 )

75 0 (3 99) 1 4.7 (1 01.3 ) 61 .1 (42 1.0) 2 4,45 0 (1 68 461)

800 (42 7) 1 4.4 (99.2 ) 60.5 (41 6.8) 2 4,1 00 (1 66 049)

85 0 (45 4) 1 4.1 (97.1 ) 5 9.7 (41 1.3 ) 2 3 ,800 (1 63 982 )

900 (482 ) 1 3.8 (95.1 ) 5 8.6 (403 .8) 2 3 ,5 00 (1 61 91 5)

95 0 (51 0) 1 3.5 (93 .0) 5 7.1 (3 93 .4) 2 3 ,1 5 0 (1 5 9 503 )

1 ,000 (53 8) 1 3.2 (90.9) 5 5 .4 (3 81.7) 2 2 ,800 (1 5 7 092 )

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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Table B-11
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 317
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.08

Manganese 2 .00

Phosphorus 0.045

Sulfur 0.03 0

Silicon 0.75

Chromium 1 8.0/2 0.0

Nickel 1 1.0/1 5.0

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 8,776 (1 98 2 70)

1 00 (3 8) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 8,1 15 (1 93 715 )

1 50 (66) 2 7.4 (1 88.8) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 7,808 (1 91 5 95 )

2 00 (93 ) 2 5.9 (1 78.5 ) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 7,5 00 (1 89 475 )

2 50 (1 2 1 ) 2 4.6 (1 69.5 ) 72 .9 (5 02 .3 ) 2 7,2 50 (1 87 753 )

3 00 (1 49) 2 3 .4 (1 61 .2 ) 71.9 (495 .4) 2 7,000 (1 86 03 0)

400 (2 04) 2 1.4 (1 47.4) 71.8 (494.7) 2 6,400 (1 81 896)

5 00 (2 60) 2 0.0 (1 3 7.8) 71.8 (494.7) 2 5,900 (1 78 451 )

600 (3 16) 1 8.9 (1 3 0.2 ) 71.8 (494.7) 2 5,3 00 (1 74 3 17)

650 (3 43 ) 1 8.5 (1 2 7.5 ) 71.8 (494.7) 2 5,050 (1 72 5 94)

700 (3 71 ) 1 8.2 (1 2 5 .4) 71.8 (494.7) 2 4,800 (1 70 872 )

750 (3 99) 1 7.9 (1 2 3 .3 ) 71.5 (492 .6) 2 4,450 (1 68 461 )

800 (42 7) 1 7.7 (1 2 2 .0) 70.8 (487.8) 2 4,1 00 (1 66 049)

850 (454) 1 7.5 (1 2 0.6) 69.7 (480.2 ) 2 3 ,800 (1 63 982 )

900 (482 ) 1 7.3 (1 19.2 ) 68.3 (470.6) 2 3 ,5 00 (1 61 915 )

950 (5 10) 1 7.1 (1 17.8) 66.5 (458.2 ) 2 3 ,1 50 (1 59 5 03 )

1 ,000 (5 3 8) 1 7.0 (1 17.1 ) 64.3 (443 .0) 2 2 ,800 (1 57 092 )

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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Table B-12
ASTM A516 Grade 70
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.2 8

Manganese 0.85 /1 .2 0

Phosphorus 0.03 5

Sulfur 0.03 5

Silicon 0.15 /0.40

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 3 8.0 (2 61.8) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 9,876 (2 05 849)

1 00 (3 8) 3 8.0 (2 61.8) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 9,2 62 (2 01 61 2 )

1 5 0 (66) 3 5 .7 (2 46.0) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 9,03 1 (2 00 02 2 )

2 00 (93 ) 3 4.8 (2 3 9.8) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 8,800 (1 98 43 2 )

2 5 0 (12 1) 3 4.2 (2 3 5.6) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 8,5 5 0 (1 96 709)

3 00 (149) 3 3 .6 (2 3 1.5) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 8,3 00 (1 94 987)

400 (2 04) 3 2 .5 (2 2 3 .9) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 7,900 (1 92 2 3 1)

5 00 (2 60) 3 1 .0 (2 1 3 .6) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 7,3 00 (1 88 097)

600 (3 1 6) 2 9.1 (2 00.5) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 6,5 00 (1 82 585)

65 0 (3 43 ) 2 8.2 (1 94.3 ) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 6,000 (1 79 140)

700 (3 71) 2 7.2 (1 87.4) 70.0 (482 .3 ) 2 5 ,5 00 (1 75 695)

75 0 (3 99) 2 6.3 (1 81.2 ) 69.1 (476.1) 2 4,85 0 (1 71 2 1 7)

800 (42 7) 2 5 .5 (1 75.7) 64.3 (443 .0) 2 4,2 00 (1 66 73 8)

85 0 (45 4) 2 4.7 (1 70.2 ) 5 8.6 (403 .8) 2 3 ,3 5 0 (1 60 882 )

900 (482 ) 2 4.0 (1 65.4) 5 2 .3 (3 60.3 ) 2 2 ,5 00 (1 5 5 02 5)

95 0 (51 0) 2 3 .3 (1 60.5) 45 .9 (3 1 6.3 ) 2 1 ,45 0 (1 47 791)

1 ,000 (53 8) 2 2 .6 (1 5 5.7) 40.4 (2 78.4) 2 0,400 (1 40 55 6)

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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Table B-13
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 309
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.08

Manganese 2 .00

Phosphorus 0.045

Sulfur 0.03 0

Silicon 0.75

Chromium 2 2 /2 4

Nickel 1 2 /1 5

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 8,776 (1 98 2 70)

1 00 (3 8) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 8,1 15 (1 93 715 )

1 50 (66) 2 7.6 (1 90.2 ) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 7,808 (1 91 5 95 )

2 00 (93 ) 2 6.3 (1 81 .2 ) 75.0 (5 16.8) 2 7,5 00 (1 89 475 )

2 50 (1 2 1) 2 5.1 (1 72 .9) 74.9 (5 15 .7) 2 7,2 50 (1 87 753 )

3 00 (1 49) 2 4.2 (1 66.7) 74.7 (5 14.7) 2 7,000 (1 86 03 0)

400 (2 04) 2 2 .7 (1 56.4) 73 .2 (5 04.0) 2 6,400 (1 81 896)

5 00 (2 60) 2 1.6 (1 48.8) 71.6 (493 .3 ) 2 5,900 (1 78 451 )

600 (3 1 6) 2 0.8 (1 43 .3 ) 70.2 (483 .7) 2 5,3 00 (1 74 3 17)

650 (3 43 ) 2 0.5 (1 41 .2 ) 69.3 (477.5) 2 5,050 (1 72 5 94)

700 (3 71) 2 0.2 (1 3 9.2 ) 68.3 (470.6) 2 4,800 (1 70 872 )

750 (3 99) 2 0.0 (1 3 7.8) 67.2 (463 .0) 2 4,450 (1 68 461 )

800 (42 7) 1 9.7 (1 3 5 .7) 65.8 (453 .4) 2 4,1 00 (1 66 049)

850 (45 4) 1 9.4 (1 3 3 .7) 64.2 (442 .3 ) 2 3 ,800 (1 63 982 )

900 (482 ) 1 9.1 (1 3 1 .6) 62 .5 (43 0.6) 2 3 ,5 00 (1 61 915 )

950 (5 1 0) 1 8.8 (1 2 9.5 ) 60.4 (416.2 ) 2 3 ,1 50 (1 59 5 03 )

1 ,000 (5 3 8) 1 8.4 (1 2 6.8) 5 8.2 (401 .0) 2 2 ,800 (1 57 092 )

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-14
ASTM A240 Stainless Steel Type 310
A — Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.08

Manganese 2 .00

Phosphorus 0.045

Sulfur 0.03 0

Silicon 0.75

Chromium 2 4/2 6

Nickel 19/2 2

Iron Bal.

B — Typical Tensile Properties

Temperature, °F (°C) Minimum Yield, ksi (MPa) Minimum Tensile, ksi (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity, ksi (MPa)
−2 0 (−2 9) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75 .0 (51 6.8) 2 8,776 (1 98 2 70)

1 00 (3 8) 3 0.0 (2 06.7) 75 .0 (51 6.8) 2 8,1 1 5 (1 93 71 5)

1 5 0 (66) 2 7.9 (1 92 .2 ) 74.6 (51 4.0) 2 7,808 (1 91 595)

2 00 (93 ) 2 6.5 (1 82 .6) 74.2 (51 1.2 ) 2 7,5 00 (1 89 475)

2 5 0 (12 1) 2 5 .3 (1 74.3 ) 72 .5 (499.5) 2 7,2 5 0 (1 87 75 3 )

3 00 (149) 2 4.2 (1 66.7) 70.8 (487.8) 2 7,000 (1 86 03 0)

400 (2 04) 2 2 .6 (1 5 5.7) 69.6 (479.5) 2 6,400 (1 81 896)

5 00 (2 60) 2 1 .4 (1 47.4) 69.5 (478.9) 2 5 ,900 (1 78 45 1)

600 (3 1 6) 2 0.6 (1 41.9) 69.5 (478.9) 2 5 ,3 00 (1 74 3 1 7)

65 0 (3 43 ) 2 0.2 (1 3 9.2 ) 69.5 (478.9) 2 5 ,05 0 (1 72 594)

700 (3 71) 1 9.9 (1 3 7.1) 69.3 (477.5) 2 4,800 (1 70 872 )

75 0 (3 99) 1 9.6 (1 3 5.0) 68.8 (474.0) 2 4,45 0 (1 68 461)

800 (42 7) 1 9.4 (1 3 3 .7) 68.0 (468.5) 2 4,1 00 (1 66 049)

85 0 (45 4) 1 9.1 (1 3 1.6) 66.9 (460.9) 2 3 ,800 (1 63 982 )

900 (482 ) 1 8.8 (1 2 9.5) 65 .5 (45 1.3 ) 2 3 ,5 00 (1 61 91 5)

95 0 (51 0) 1 8.5 (1 2 7.5) 63 .8 (43 9.6) 2 3 ,1 5 0 (1 5 9 503 )

1 ,000 (53 8) 1 8.2 (1 2 5.4) 61 .6 (42 4.4) 2 2 ,800 (1 5 7 092 )

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical,” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.

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 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-15
ð 21 Þ Other Stainless Steels, Nickel Alloys, and Titanium Used for Stacks and Chimney Liners
Designations Nominal Chemical Composition, wt %
Alloy UNS ASTM C Cr Ni Mo Cu N Ti Fe Other
409 S40900 [Note (1)] A240 0.08 11 0.5 … … … … Bal. 0.75 max.
317L S31703 A240 0.03 19 13.0 3.25 … … … Bal. …
317LM S31725 A240 0.03 19 16.0 4.25 … … … Bal. …
317LMN S31726 A240 0.03 19 16.0 4.0 … 0.15 … Bal. …
2205 S31803 A240 0.03 22 5.0 3.0 … 0.15 … Bal. …
255 S32550 A240 0.03 25 6.0 3.0 2.0 0.15 … Bal. …
… 6% Mo [Note (2)] A240 B688 0.02 20/24 18/25 6/7.3 0/1 0.2/0.5 … Bal. …
625 N06625 B443 0.05 22 Bal. 9.0 … … … … Cb+Ta
276 N10276 B575 0.02 16 Bal. 16.0 … … … … W
22, 622 N06022 B575 0.02 22 Bal. 13.0 … … … … W
59 N06059 B575 0.02 23 59.0 16.0 … … … … …
686 N06686 B575 0.01 21 57.0 16.0 … … … … W
… Titanium R50250 B265 0.08 … … … … … Bal. 0.12 Residuals
NOTES:
(1) Per A240, an order specifying S40900 or Type 409 shall be specified by any one of S40910, S40920, or S40930.
(2) Because the 6% molybdenum super-austenitic stainless steels are proprietary, it is necessary to show a range of compositions.

Table B-16
Thermal Coefficients of Expansion
Average Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion (in./in./°F × 10 −6 ) From 32°F
ASTM Alloy Designation 400°F (204°C) 600°F (316°C) 800°F (427°C) 1,000°F (538°C) 1,200°F (649°C)
ASTM A36 6.8 7.2 7.7 8.0 8.2
ASTM A242 6.9 7.0 7.2 7.5 7.6
ASTM A588 6.9 7.0 7.2 7.5 7.6
ASTM A387, Grade 11, 12 6.8 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1
ASTM A176, Type 409 5.8 6.1 6.4 6.6 6.8
ASTM A176, Type 410 5.8 6.1 6.4 6.6 6.8
ASTM A240, Type 304 9.6 9.8 10.1 10.3 10.5
ASTM A240, Type 316 9.6 9.8 10.1 10.3 10.5
ASTM A240, Type 309 8.8 9.3 9.5 9.7 9.9
ASTM A240, Type 310 8.1 8.3 6.7 9.0 9.0
ASTM B686, 6% Mo 8.9 9.3 9.8 10.0 …
ASTM B443, Alloy 625 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.2
ASTM B575, Alloy C-276 6.2 6.7 7.3 7.4 7.8

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 ASME STS-1–2021

Table B-17
Maximum Nonscaling Temperature
ASTM Type or Grade Maximum Temperature,
[Note (1)] °F (°C)
A36 800°F (427°C)
A242, Type 1 950°F (510°C)
A387, Grade 11, 12 1,050°F (566°C)
A176, Type 409 1,300°F (704°C)
A176, Type 410 1,300°F (704°C)
A240, Type 304 1,650°F (899°C)
A240, Type 316 1,650°F (899°C)
A240, Type 317 1,650°F (899°C)
A240, Type 309 1,900°F (1 038°C)
A240, Type 310 2,000°F (1 038°C)
NOTE: (1) Manufacturers of types or grades not listed should be
consulted for recommendations.

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 ASME STS-1–2021

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX C
LININGS AND COATINGS

See Figures C-1 and C-2 and Tables C-1 and C-2.

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 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure C-1
Dewpoint Versus Sulfur Trioxide Concentration

1 0 –1 1 000

[N otes (1 ) an d (2)]
Su l fu r Tri oxi de i n G as, Vol u m e %

Su l fu r Tri oxi de i n G as, ppm

[N ote (2)] [N ote (1 )]

1 0 –2 1 00

1 0 –3 10
Su l fu r Tri oxi de i n G as, Vol u m e %

Su l fu r Tri oxi de i n G as, ppm

1 0 –4 1

[N ote (2)] [ N ote (1 )]

[ N otes (1 ) an d (2)]

1 0 –5 0. 1
90 1 00 1 1 0 1 20 1 30 1 40 1 50
Dewpoi n t, °C
1 0 –3 10
1 20 (248) 1 30 (266) 1 40 (284) 1 50 (302) 1 60 (320) 1 70 (338) 1 80 (356) 1 90 (374)

Dewpoi n t, °C (°F)

NOTES:
(1) 10% H 2 O from oil, by volume.
(2) 6% H 2 O from coal.

77
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure C-2
Sulfuric Acid Saturation Curve
Operating Conditions
55 ° C 65 ° C 80 ° C 1 35 ° C
Scrubbed Mixed Raw
°C gas gases gas °F
200 400
Basis 0.020 ipy Acid
max. corrosion dew point
rate oxidizing
conditions 300
1 50
62
5
Boiling point
curve C2
1 00 90 76 200
4L
31
6L
6L
50 31 1 00
Adiabatic C-S t
eel
saturation curve
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00

Sulfuric Acid Concentration, wt %

78
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table C-1
Suggested Suitability of Linings for Steel Stacks to Withstand Chemical and Temperature Environments of Flue Gases
Lining Chemical Environment Thermal Environment
Classification
UNS No. Type (ASTM) Mild Moderate Severe Mild Moderate Severe
Organic Polyester X X … X … …
Resin Novolac phenolic epoxy [Note (1)] X X X X X X [Note (2)]
Novolac epoxy [Note (1)] X X X X X …
Epoxy X X … X … …
Vinyl ester X X X X … …
Urethanes X X … X … …
Organic Natural rubber X X … X … …
Elastomers Neoprene X X … X … …
Chlorobutyl X X … X … …
Fluoroelastomer X X X X X …
Inorganic Potassium Silicate X X X X X X
Monolitic Calcium Aluminate X X … X X X
Concrete Refractory X … … X X X
Insulating … … … X X X
Inorganic Borosilicate glass block X X X X X X
Masonry Firebrick and refractory mortar X X … X X X
Acid-resistant brick and chemically resistant mortar X X X X X X
Insulating brick and refractory mortar … … … X X X
UNS S40900 Stainless steel (A240) [Note (3)] X … … X X X
UNS S41000 Stainless steel (A240) [Note (3)] X … … X X X
UNS S30403 Stainless steel (A240) [Note (3)] X X … X X X
UNS S31603 Stainless steel (A240) [Note (3)] X X … X X X
UNS S31703 Stainless steel (A240) X X … X X X
UNS S31725 Stainless steel (A240) X X … X X X
UNS S31726 Stainless steel (A240) X X … X X X
UNS S31803 Stainless steel (A240) X X X X X X
UNS S32550 Stainless steel (A240) X X X X X X
6% Mo Stainless steel (A240) X X X X X X
UNS N06625 Nickel-based alloy (B443) X X XX [Note (4)] X X X
UNS N10276 Nickel-based alloy (B575) X X XX [Note (4)] X X X
UNS N06022 Nickel-based alloy (B75) X X XX [Note (4)] X X X
UNS N06059 Nickel-based alloy (B575) X X XX [Note (4)] X X X
UNS N06686 Nickel-based alloy (B575) X X XX [Note (4)] X X X
UNS R50250 Titanium (B246) X X XX [Note (4)] X X X

GENERAL NOTE: Materials suppliers shall be consulted with respect to specific recommendations on usage.
NOTES:
(1) Can be used in very severe chemical environments.
(2) Coating may darken surface and convert to organic carbon at higher temperatures.
(3) There is usually no significant price advantage to the use of these alloys as linings in place of solid alloys.
(4) Most resistant of the alloys.

79
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table C-2
Suggested Stack Coating Characteristics and Classifications
Generic Maximum
Type Cure Mechanism Acid Salt Weather Dry Heat
Alkyd Air oxidation Poor Fair Excellent 250°F (121°C)
Chlorinated rubber Solvent evaporation Excellent Excellent Good 150°F (66°C)
Catalyzed epoxy Chemical crosslinking Excellent Excellent Good 250°F–300°F (121°C–149°C)
Novolac phenolic epoxy Chemical crosslinking Excellent Excellent Excellent 325°F (163°C)
Novolac epoxy Chemical crosslinking Excellent Excellent Excellent 250°F–300°F (121°C–149°C)
Aliphatic polyurethane Chemical crosslinking Very good Excellent Excellent 180°F–250°F (82°C–121°C)
Aluminum silicone Solvent/heat Poor Good Good 1,000°F (538°C)
Coal–tar epoxy Solvent evaporation Very good Excellent Poor 160°F–250°F (71°C–121°C)
Vinyl Solvent evaporation Excellent Excellent Very good 150°F (66°C)
Inorganic zinc Hydrolysis Excellent [Note (1)] Excellent Excellent 750°F–1,000°F (399°C–538°C) [Note (2)]
Organic zinc-rich Chemical crosslinking Very good [Note (1)] Very good Very good 300°F (149°C) [Note (2)]
Inorganic silicate Chemical reaction Very good Excellent Excellent …
NOTES:
(1) Indicated results based on primer being top coated.
(2) Indicated results based on limitation of top coat in the system.

80
 ASME STS-1–2021

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D
STRUCTURAL DESIGN ð 21 Þ

See Figures D-1 and D-2 and Tables D-1 through D-7.

Figure D-1
Normalized Response Spectrum Values

1 , 000
800 10
,0
% 8, 0
0

Di 00
00

sp
n, 00
1,

la
600 io 6
0

ce
a t ,0
80

m r 00
en le
0

ce4, 0
60

t,
in
. Ac 00
0
40

400
g 2,
00
0
0
20

1,
00
0
0

80
10

200 0
60
80

0
60

40
0
40

20
1 00 0
20

80
10
0
10

80
Velocity, in./sec

60
8

60
6

40
4

40
20
2

10
20
1

8
80
0.

6
60
0.

4
40
0.

10 2
20
0.

8
10

0.
80
0.

6
08

0.
0.

60
0
06
0.

0.
40
0
04

4
0.

0. 0.
02 20
20
0
02

0
00
0.

0.

0. 0.
01 10
10
0

0. 0 0.
00
01

2 00 08
08
80

0.
0.

8 0. 0
00

00

0. 06
00
0.

0.

06
60

6 0
00
00

0. 0.
0.
0.

00 04
04
40

4 0
00

00
0.

0.

1
0. 1 0. 2 0. 4 0. 6 0 .8 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 8 0 1 00 200 400 600 800 1 , 000
Frequency, cps

81
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure D-2
Seismic Zone Map

0.21

0.20 0.30
0.1 5

0.1 5

0.05
0.05
0.1 0
0.40
0.20
0.1 5

0.20 0.20 0.1 5

0.20
0.20
0.40
0.40 0.1 0
0.1 5 0.1 0

0.40 0.1 5 0.05

0.40
0.20 0.1 00.1 0 0.1 0

0.40 0.05 0.1 2

0.1 0
0.05
0.1 0
0.1 1
0.05
0.1 0
0.1 5 0.20

0 Kauai
0. 3 30 Honolulu
Molokai
0 . . 40
0 Maui
0. 1 5

0.30
5
0. 30. 40

0. 0

Hawaii
0
0

5
0. 1

0. 1 2 0 Guam Tutuila
0. 0 Av = 0.30 Av = 0.20
0
0. 1

0. 3
0
0. 4 0 90
Av = 0.20 Av = 0.30
0 . 40
Culebra St. John

St. Thomas
Vieques
0 1 00 200 300
St. Croix

82
 ASME STS-1–2021

Figure D-2
Seismic Zone Map (Cont’ d)

0.1 0
0.08

0.1 0

0.1 0
0.1 0 0.1 1

0.05
0.1 1

0.05

0.1 0 0.1 0
0.05
0.1 5
0.05

0.1 0 0.05
0.20
0.33 0.1 0 0.05 0.1 1

0.1 0 0.1 0 0.1 1

0 1 00 200 300
Miles

83
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table D-1
Special Values for Maximum Ground
Acceleration of 1.0g
Velocity
Frequency, Displacement Spectrum, Acceleration
Hz Spectrum, in. in./sec Spectrum, g
f ≤ 0.25 50.7 318.6 f 5.186 f 2
0.25 ≤ f ≤ 2.5 1 0.39 65.26 1.062 f 0.8564
f
1 .1 436 0.1 436
f

2.5 ≤ f ≤ 9 25.32 1 59.1 2.589

2.1158 1 .1 1 58 0.1 158
f f f

9 ≤ f ≤ 33 63.87 401.3 6.533

2.5369 1 .5369 0.5369
f f f

f > 33 9.768 61.37 1.00

2 f
f

Table D-2
Response Spectrum Scaling Ratio Versus A v
Effective Peak
Velocity-Related
Accelerations, A v Scaling Ratio
0.05 0.04
0.08 0.06
0.15 0.11
0.20 0.15
0.30 0.23
0.40 0.30

GENERAL NOTE: Linear interpolation may be used in between A v

coefficients not given.

84
 Table D-3
Allowable Creep Stress of Carbon Steel at Elevated Temperature
Type of Steel Allowable Creep Stresses, ksi [Note (1)], at
[Note (2)] 750°F 800°F 850°F 900°F 950°F 1,000°F 1,050°F 1,100°F
A36 [Note (3)] 14.3 [Note (4)] [Note (5)] [Note (6)] [Note (6)] [Note (6)] [Note (6)] [Note (6)] [Note (6)]
A53 Grade B … 10.3 [Note (4)] … … … … … …
[Note (3)]
A242 Type I [Note (9)] 12–17 8–13 5–9 [Note (5)] [Note (5)] [Note (6)] [Note (6)]
[Notes (7), (8)] ,
A618 Grade 1
[Notes (7), (8)]
A588 Grade A [Note (9)] 12–17 [Note (5)] [Note (5)] [Note (5)] [Note (5)] [Note (6)] [Note (6)]
[Notes (7), (8)]
A588 Grade B … … … 8–13 5–9 … … …
[Note (7)]
A387 Grade 11 [Note (9)] [Note (9)] [Note (9)] 15.7 [Note (4)] 10.7 [Note (4)] 7.1 [Note (11)] 4.4 [Note (11)] 2.7 [Note (11)]
[Note (10)]
A335 Grade P11 [Note (9)] [Note (9)] [Note (9)] … … … … …
[Note (10)]

ASME STS-1–2021
A387 Grade 12 [Note (9)] [Note (9)] [Note (9)] 18.0 [Note (4)] 11.3 [Note (4)] 7.3 [Note (4)] 4.5 [Note (11)] 2.5 [Note (11)]
[Note (10)]
85

A335 Grade P12 [Note (9)] [Note (9)] [Note (9)] 18.0 11.3 7.3 … …
[Note (10)]
NOTES:
(1) The values presented in this table are allowable stresses based on the criteria presented in para. 3.3.5 with a design life of100,000 hr. The appropriated factor ofsafety has been incorporated in
these values.
(2) Creep and rupture properties are highly dependent upon the exact chemical composition ofthe steel. The values indicated in the table are intended to be used only as a reference. Values used in
design should be obtained from test data reflecting the precise chemical composition of the steel to be used in the ductwork fabrication.
(3) Creep and rupture properties for this steel are derived from ASTM DS-11S1.
(4) The allowable stress value at this temperature is governed by the creep rupture strength.
(5) The use of this steel at this temperature is only recommended for noncritical applications
(6) The use of this steel is not recommended at this temperature
(7) Creep and rupture properties for this steel are derived from various United States Steel Corporation publications, including Steels for Elevated Temperature Service.
(8) A range ofvalues is presented for A242, A588, and A618 steels because ofthe potentially large variation in chemistry, which can drastically affect the steel’s properties. The lower bound value
should be used unless data indicate otherwise.
(9) The creep value does not govern — normal allowable stresses based on Fy govern
(10) Creep and rupture properties for this steel are derived from ASTM DS-50. These values differ from some of the ASME values because ASME limits the allowable stress to 0.25 Fy, which is a
limitation for boilers, not ducts.
(11) The allowable stress value at this temperature is governed by the creep rate.
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table D-4
Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 410 Stainless Steel
Stress, ksi (MPa), for a Creep Rate of Stress, ksi (MPa), for Rupture in
Test Temperature, 0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
°F (°C) 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
900 (482) 24.0 (165) 13.6 (94) 34.0 (234) 22.0 (152)
1,000 (538) 9.0 (62) 7.4 (51) 19.4 (134) 13.0 (90)
1,100 (593) 4.2 (29) 3.6 (25) 10.0 (69) 6.8 (47)
1,200 (649) 2.0 (14) 1.7 (12) 4.8 (33) 2.8 (19)
1,300 (704) 0.8 (6) 0.8 (4) 2.5 (17) 1.2 (8)
1,400 (760) … … 1.2 (8) 0.6 (4)

Table D-5
Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 304 Stainless Steel
Stress, ksi (MPa), for a Creep Rate of Stress, ksi (MPa), for Rupture in
Test Temperature, 0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
°F (°C) 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
1,000 (538) 25.5 (176) 17.9 (123) 49.8 (343) 36.0 (248)
1,100 (593) 16.5 (114) 11.1 (77) 31.0 (214) 22.2 (153)
1,200 (649) 10.8 (74) 7.2 (50) 19.0 (131) 13.8 (95)
1,300 (704) 7.0 (48) 4.5 (31) 11.9 (82) 8.5 (59)
1,400 (760) 4.6 (32) 2.9 (20) 7.7 (53) 5.3 (37)
1,500 (816) 3.0 (21) 1.8 (12) 4.7 (32) 3.3 (23)

Table D-6
Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 316 Stainless Steel
Stress, ksi (MPa), for a Creep Rate of Stress, ksi (MPa), for Rupture in
Test Temperature, 0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
°F (°C) 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
1,000 (538) 35.5 (245) 20.1 (139) 50.0 (345) 43.0 (296)
1,100 (593) 22.5 (155) 12.4 (85) 34.0 (234) 26.5 (183)
1,200 (649) 14.2 (98) 7.9 (54) 23.0 (159) 16.2 (112)
1,300 (704) 8.9 (61) 4.8 (33) 15.4 (106) 9.9 (66)
1,400 (760) 5.6 (39) 3.0 (21) 10.3 (71) 6.0 (41)
1,500 (816) 3.6 (25) 1.9 (13) 6.7 (46) 3.7 (26)

Table D-7
Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 317 Stainless Steel
Stress, ksi (MPa), for a Creep Rate of Stress, ksi (MPa), for Rupture in
Test Temperature, 0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
°F (°C) 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
1,000 (538) 24.0 (165) 16.0 (110) … …
1,100 (593) 17.3 (119) 14.7 (101) 34.0 (234) 28.0 (193)
1,200 (649) 12.7 (88) 8.7 (60) 24.0 (165) 13.3 (92)
1,300 (704) 7.3 (50) 4.7 (32) 16.7 (115) 10.7 (74)
1,400 (760) 4.3 (30) 2.3 (16) 10.3 (71) 6.7 (46)
1,500 (816) 2.7 (19) 2.0 (14) 6.7 (46) 3.3 (23)

86
 ASME STS-1–2021

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E
EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS ð 21 Þ

E-1 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS E q u i va l e n t s tru c tu re h e i gh t, ft (s e e M a n d a to ry

Appendix I)
E-1.1 Example 1: Velocity Pressure Calculations z = 0.6h = 84
Wind design based on ASCE 7, as applicable for steel
s tack d e s i gn, i s us e d as an e xamp l e o f th e d e s i gn Intensity of turbulence, Iz (unitless) (see Mandatory
method for STS-1. Appendix I)
(a) Input Values Iz = c(33 / z )1 / 6 = 0.1 71 2
Velocity, V = 125 mph Risk Category II
Stack height, h = 140 ft Integral scale length, L z , ft
Top 1 ∕3 stack diameter, D̅, = 8 ft
Exposure category C (see para. 4.3.3.5) Lz = l( z / 33) = ( z / 33) = 602.73037
(b) Calculated Values
Topographical factors K1 , K2 , and K3 (see Figure I-1) Factors gQ and gv (unitless)
Combined topographic factor, Kzt [see eq. (4-6)] gQ = 3.4

Kzt = (1 + K1K2K3) 2 = 1 .0000 gv = 3.4

Velocity pressure exposure coefficient per Table I-3, Background response, Q (unitless)
Kz (at h ) = 1.360
Velocity pressure, q z (at h ) [see (eq. (4-4)] Q= 1
= 0.8908

+
i
j B + h yzzz 0.63
qz = 0.00256 V2KztKz = 54.4 psf 1 0.63 jj
j L z z{
k

See Table E-1 .1 -1 , Stack 1 for input and calculated

Mean hourly wind speed, Vz , ft/sec
values.
i z yz i 22 yz
E-1.2 Example 2: Gust Factor Calculation Vz = b jjj zz V jjj zz = 1 37.5820
k 33 { k 15 {
See Table E-1.2-1 for example results.
F o r c e c o e ffi c i e n t, C f ( a t h ) ( s e e T a b l e I - 4 ) fo r
(h/D ) = 17.50.
Reduced frequency, N1 (unitless)
Cf = 0.6583 N1 = niL z / Vz = 5.21 76
Terrain exposure constants, b , c, l, zmin , , and (see
Table I-1)
Coefficient η h , η B, η d (unitless)
b = 0.65 (unitless)
c = 0.20 (unitless) η h = 4.6 n 1 h/ Vz = 5.5749
l = 500 ft η B = 4.6 n 1 B/ Vz = 0.3186
zmin = 15 ft η d = 15.4n 1 d/ Vz = 1.0665
= 0.1538 (unitless) Coefficient gR (unitless)
= 0.2000 (unitless) 0.577
gR = 2 ln(3,600 n1 ) + = 4.2309
2 ln(3,600 n1 )
Stack first mode natural frequency, n 1 (modal frequency
analysis), Hz
Coefficient Rn (unitless)
n 1 = 1.191
Gust factor calculation, Gf (see Mandatory Appendix I) 7.47 N1
Rn = 5
= 0.0494
(1 + 1 0.3 N1) 3

87
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table E-1.1-1
Example 1: Velocity Pressure, qz, Calculations
Stack 1 Stack 2 Stack 3 Stack 4 Units of Measure/
Variable Definition Input Values References
V Basic wind speed 125.000 115.000 130.000 140.000 mph
h Stack height 140.000 80.000 160.000 240.000 ft
D Top outside diameter 8.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 ft
… Exposure category C C C C Unitless
Calculated Values
Kzt Topographical factor 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Equation (4-6)
Kz (at h ) Exposure coefficient 1.360 1.210 1.390 1.516 Table I-4
qz (at h ) Velocity pressure 54.400 40.966 60.137 76.067 psf

Coefficients Rh , RB, Rd (unitless) E-1.3 Example 3: Stack Along Wind Loading

Rh = Rl setting η = ηh
See Table E-1.3-1.
RB = Rl setting η = ηB
Rd = Rl setting η = ηd
E-1.4 Example 4: Earthquake Response
Rl =
1 1
2
(1 e 2
) for > 0 Calculation
2
For a lumped mass system, such as shown in Example 1,
1 for η = 0 the response spectra analysis is as follows:
Rh = 0.1633 (a) The displacement u jn ofthe jth mass in the n th mode
RB = 0.8177 of vibration is given by
Rd = 0.5502 ujn = o
nu n a rn
(1)
Mass per unit length of top one-third of stack m a lbm/ft
[see para. 5.2.1.2(a)] where
m a = 320 a jn = the n th mode shape value of the jth mass
Air Density, ρ , lbm/ft3 Mj = the jth mass of stack
ρ = 0.076474 N= number of masses
Average stack diameter top one-third, D (ft) o
u =
n
design response spectra value for the n th mode
D = 8.0000 frequency
Aerodynamic damping, βa (unitless) Γn = participation factor of the n th mode
[see eq. (5-1)]
Cf DVz
a = 4 m n 1.6 = 0.009 N
a1 Mjajn
Structural damping, βs, (unitless)
j= 1
n= N (2)
(see Table 5.2.1.2-1)
βs = 0.004 Mja2 jn
Total Damping, β (unitless) j= 1
β = βa + βs = 0.013
Resonance response factor, R (unitless) For the horizontal excitation, the bending moment Min
and shear force Vin at the ith mass location and in the n th
1
R= R nRhRB(0.53 + 0.47 R d) = 0.0689 mode of vibration can be obtained, as

N
Gust factor, Gf (unitless) Vin = Mj n2ujn (3)
i
jj 1
jj + 1.7Iz gQ Q + gR 2 2 2 2 yz
R z zz
j= 1
Gf = 0.925 jjj zz = 1 .0105
1 + 1 .7 Iz gv
jj zz
jj zz
z
k {

88
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table E-1.2-1
Example 2: Gust Effect Factor, Gf, Calculations
i
jj 1
j
+ 1.7Iz gQ 2Q2 + gR 2 R2 yzzz
Gf = 0.925 jjjj zz =
zz 1 .01 05
jj 1 + 1 .7Iz gv zz
k {
Stack 1 Stack 2 Stack 3 Stack 4
Variable Definition Input Values Units of Measure/References
V Basic wind speed 125.000 115.000 130.000 140.000 mph
h Stack height 140.000 80.000 160.000 240.000 ft
D Top outside diameter 8.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 ft
… Exposure category C C C C (unitless)
n1 First mode frequency 1.1910 2.6000 1.3000 0.9000 Hz
t Plate thickness 0.2500 0.2500 0.3125 0.3750 in.
ma Mass per unit length 320.0000 200.0000 500.0000 900.0000 lbm/ft
βa Aerodynamic damping 0.009 0.003 0.007 0.010 (unitless)
βs Structural damping 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 (unitless)
β Total damping 0.013 0.007 0.011 0.014 (unitless)
B Stack width 8.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 ft
c Turbulence intensity factor 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 Table I-1
l Integral length scale factor 500.000 500.000 500.000 500.000 ft (Table I-1)
Integral length scale power law exponent 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 Table I-1
z Equivalent height 84.000 48.000 96.000 144.000 ft
Iz Intensity turbulence 0.171 0.188 0.167 0.156 (unitless)
Lz Integral length scale of turbulence 602.7304 538.9090 619.0439 671.3357 ft
Q Background response 0.8908 0.9141 0.8842 0.8631 (unitless)
b Mean hourly wind speed factor 0.6500 0.6500 0.6500 0.6500 Table I-1
Mean hourly wind speed law exponent 0.1538 0.1538 0.1538 0.1538 Table I-1
Vz Mean hourly wind speed 137.5820 116.1369 146.0542 167.4100 ft/sec
N1 Reduced frequency 5.2176 12.0648 5.5100 3.6091 (unitless)
Rn … 0.0494 0.0287 0.0477 0.0623 (unitless)
ηh … 5.5749 8.2386 6.5510 5.9351 (unitless)
ηB … 0.3186 0.5149 0.4094 0.3709 (unitless)
ηd … 1.0665 1.7238 1.3707 1.2419 (unitless)
Rh … 0.1633 0.1140 0.1410 0.1543 (unitless)
RB … 0.8177 0.7297 0.7750 0.7927 (unitless)
Rd … 0.5502 0.4172 0.4806 0.5081 (unitless)
R Resonant response factor 0.6289 0.4813 0.5977 0.6540 (unitless)
gR Peak factor of resonant response 4.2309 4.4114 4.2516 4.1643 (unitless)
gv Peak factor for wind response 3.4000 3.4000 3.4000 3.4000 (unitless)
gQ Peak factor for background response 3.4000 3.4000 3.4000 3.4000 (unitless)
Gf Gust effect factor 1.0105 0.9766 0.9968 1.0030 (unitless)

89
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table E-1.3-1
Stack 1 Along Wind Loading
Velocity Fluctuating
Pressure Velocity Force Load,
Elevation, Coefficient, Pressure, Coefficient, Mean Load, Base Moment, Mo wD(z) i, Base Moment, M*
Location, i z, ft Kzi qzi, psf Cfi w (z) i, lbf/ft
(i to i+1), kip-ft lbf/ft (i to i+1), kip-ft
1 140 1.360 54.400 0.658 132.397 … 212.650 …
2 130 1.335 53.400 0.658 129.963 177.123 197.460 277.014
3 120 1.310 52.400 0.658 127.529 160.963 182.271 237.522
4 110 1.285 51.400 0.658 125.096 145.290 167.082 201.068
5 100 1.260 50.400 0.658 122.662 130.103 151.893 167.651
6 90 1.240 49.600 0.658 120.715 115.628 136.703 137.273
7 80 1.210 48.400 0.658 117.794 101.403 121.514 109.932
8 70 1.170 46.800 0.658 113.900 86.934 106.325 85.629
9 60 1.130 45.200 0.658 110.006 72.818 91.136 64.364
10 50 1.090 43.600 0.658 106.112 59.481 75.946 46.137
11 40 1.040 41.600 0.658 101.245 46.716 60.757 30.948
12 30 0.980 39.200 0.658 95.404 34.486 45.568 18.797
13 20 0.900 36.000 0.658 87.616 22.975 30.379 9.683
14 10 0.850 34.000 0.658 82.748 12.838 15.189 3.607
15 0 0.850 34.000 0.658 82.748 4.137 0.000 0.570
Mo = 1170.897 M* = 1390.197
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Total base moment: M = Mo + M* = 2561.094 kip-ft
(b) A linear variation in load between the calculation points is assumed in calculation of the moments.

N 1

Min = Mj n ujn( h j hi)

2
ji
N zy
2
(4) jj 2z
j= 1 Vi = jj
jj
Vin zz
zz
(7)
z
k n= 1 {
(b) The overturning moment is
N
MA n =
, ( Mj n ujnh j) + IA n A n
2 2
,
(5)
ji N zy
2
1

j= 1 Mi = jj
jj
jj
Min2zzz
zz
(8)

where
k n= 1 z
{

IA = mass moment of inertia of footing about point A where

ω = natural circular frequency of the n th mode of
stack, in radians per second
θA,n = the n th mode rotation of footing of stack
In the general case, when a stack is supported at many
places, the shear forces, Vin , and bending moments, Min ,
along a stack can be obtained by static analysis due to
inertia loads
Fj = Mj n ujn j =
2
, 1 to
Total shear force, Vi, and bending moments, Mi, at the ith
location are calculated from the modal values Vin and Min
using expressions
N = number of governing modes, i.e., modes that
contribute 10% or more to the responses
E-1.5 Example 5
See Table E-1.5-1.
E-2 VORTEX SHEDDING DESIGN (THIS
N (6) METHODOLOGY IS NOT AN EXAMPLE)
NOTE: This subsection does not apply to guyed or braced stacks
(see paras. 4.10 and 4.11) .
The steel stack response to vortex-induced wind loads is
based upon dimensions, modal properties for the vibra-
tion mode being considered, the structural damping, βs,
and aerodynamic damping, βa .

90
 ASME STS-1–2021

A A
It should be noted that the structural damping for vortex S = 0.1 6 + 1
(D 3 ) for < 15
shedding is in accordance with para. 5.2.1.2(b). This is not 300 D
A
the same value of damping used for seismic loads. = 0.20 for 15
Res p o ns e is highly s ens itive to s mall changes in D
damping βs where values of A 2 are near 1. A
For < 3 or for groups of identical steel stacks or noni-
D
E-2.1 General Theory dentical steel stack groups, interference effects shall be
The root-mean-square motion at the point of maximum established by reference to model test or other studies
displacement is given by of similar arrangements.
aM C1CM
= E-3 COMPUTATION OF VORTEX-INDUCED
D mr (
S + a) RESPONSE (THIS METHODOLOGY IS NOT AN
EXAMPLE)
Ä ÉÑ
Å
C2 ÅÅÅÅÅ i aM yzz 2 ÑÑÑÑÑ E-3.1 Evaluation of Loads Due to Vortex Shedding
a=
j
1 4jjj z Ñ
mr ÅÅÅÅÅÇ k D z{ ÑÑÑÑ
Ö
The equation defining aM / D can be written as,
aM A1
=
D ÄÅ É 1
olo ÅÅ 2 ÑÑÑ o| 2
= H/ D om 1 Å
A2 ÅÅÅÅ 1
i aM yz
4jjj zz
ÑÑ oo
ÑÑ o}
oo ÑÑ oo
on ÅÅ
ÅÇ k D { ÑÑÖ ~
A1 = C1CM/ m r s
mr = me / D 2 gc A2 = C2 / m r s

For m r βs > 0.8

H H
aM A1
me = m ( z) 2
z dz /
( )
2
( ) z dz D 1
ÅÄ
ÅÅ ÑÉÑ 2
0 0 jj C2 y
i z ÑÑ
ÅÅ z Ñ
ÅÅ 1 jj z
z ÑÑÑ
ÅÅ m
k r S { ÑÑÖ
C2 = 0.6 (for parallel stacks only) ÅÇ

1
H 2 For m r βs < 0.4
i
jj yz
jj 1 zz 1
jj
jj H
2
( ) z dz zz
zz m r s zy 2
zz aM ji
j 0.5 jjj 1 zz
z
CM = ( zM) k 0
H
{ D j
k C 2 z{
1 2
z dz
( ) E-3.2 Practical Application
H
0
The general solution may be reduced to the following
ϕ (zM) = value of ϕ (z) at maximum deflection equations of vortex shedding and then used to determine
zM = H for cantilever mode equivalent static loads. For any values of m r βs,
CM ≅ 2.0 for the fundamental mode of vibration 1
2
i y
C1 = 0.12 for an isolated steel stack jj (1 A2 ) + (1 A2 )
2
+ 1 6 A1
2
A2 zzz
0.1 2 aM = D jjj
j zz
= 2
for a grouped steel stack jj 8 A2
zz
z
(5 S) k {
For a group of two or more identical steel stacks, the
amplification factor, α, and Strouhal Number, S, are given The peak values for vortex shedding response are:
as a = g aM

(A / D)
< A <
3
= 1 .50 , 3 15 and
24 D
A as = gs aM
= 1 .0 for 15
D

91
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table E-1.5-1
Example 5: Earthquake Response Spectrum Example Calculations
Modal Properties
Stack Dynamic
Properties 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency, cycle/sec 0.8830 5.3730 14.429 26.7400 41.3710
Time period, sec 1.1320 0.1860 0.0690 0.0370 0.0240
Participation factor 1.6008 −0.9801 0.4572 −0.4140 0.2089
Scaled displacement, ft 0.2994 0.0180 0.0018 0.0004 0.0001
Mode Shape
Elevation, ft 1 2 3 4 5 SRSS
210 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.4796
196 0.9087 0.6833 0.4818 0.2706 0.0541 0.4357
182 0.8175 0.3695 −0.0118 −0.3630 −0.6344 0.3919
168 0.7266 0.0699 −0.4099 −0.6960 −0.6823 0.3483
154 0.6367 −0.2009 −0.6437 −0.6201 −0.1261 0.3052
140 0.5485 −0.4279 −0.6734 −0.2032 0.5582 0.2630
126 0.4629 −0.5979 −0.5039 0.3311 0.8113 0.2221
112 0.3808 −0.7016 −0.1867 0.7080 0.4251 0.1829
98 0.3033 −0.7353 0.1921 0.7344 −0.2956 0.1460
84 0.2317 −0.7017 0.5333 0.3929 −0.7776 0.1118
70 0.1673 −0.6101 0.7507 −0.1517 −0.6350 0.0809
56 0.1113 −0.4762 0.7944 −0.6366 0.0249 0.0540
42 0.0652 −0.3213 0.6656 −0.8358 0.6915 0.0318
28 0.0303 −0.1712 0.4192 −0.6794 0.8665 0.0148
14 0.0081 −0.0541 0.1550 −0.3020 0.4816 0.0040
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Moment, ft-kips
Elevation, ft 1 2 3 4 5 SRSS
210 0 0 0 0 0 0
196 72 2,661 19,186 65,894 157,732 62
182 274 8,958 56,860 167,448 332,516 213
168 594 17,222 94,081 221,161 307,182 426
154 1,019 25,858 115,574 183,151 66,594 677
140 1,535 33,425 112,369 63,421 −213,779 948
126 2,130 38,715 83,326 −83,092 −318,044 1,231
112 2,791 40,823 34,947 −185,969 −166,383 1,521
98 3,507 39,197 −20,594 −195,537 119,371 1,819
84 4,267 33,658 −68,763 −108,314 311,865 2,131
70 5,060 24,384 −96,467 30,687 259,070 2,465
56 5,877 11,863 −95,364 149,693 5,951 2,826
42 6,710 −3,191 −63,777 184,799 −239,327 3,217
28 7,553 −19,956 −6,651 109,762 −266,473 3,637
14 8,400 −37,632 66,561 −54,813 −20,266 4,081
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Shear calculation method similar with base shear = 37 kips.
(b) A single-wall steel stack, which has a height of210 ft, outside diameter of12 ft, and thickness of0.50 in., which is located with A v = 0.30, has the
modal properties and response spectrum earthquake SRSS values indicated in the above table.

92
 ASME STS-1–2021

where a is the maximum value and used to calculate peak ji

jj 2
z zyz
zz
loads and stresses, while a s defines equivalent constant jj
jj
2
z dz
( ) zz
zz
jj zz
amplitude for fatigue calculations. The values of g and jj
k z1
z
gs are determined from the following: R= H {

For m rβs > 0.8, 2

z dz
( )
g = 4.0
0
gs = 2.0
For m rβs < 0.4, R = 1.0 for nearly parallel
g = 1.6 C2 = 0.6 R
gs = 1.5 The limits change to
Linear interpolation is used for 0.4 < m rβs < 0.8. mr s > 0.8 R

E-3.3 Equivalent Static Loads mr s < 0.4R

The equivalent static loads corresponding the displace- E-3.5 Symbols and Definitions
ment, aM are given by
, A = center-to-center stack spacing for interfer-
ence effects, ft
w ( z) = a (2 n1) 2
z m( z) / gc
( )
A1 , A2 = constant
ws( z) = as(2 n1) 2 ( z) m( z) / gc a = maximum value amplitude for static equiva-
lent design loads, ft
The number of cycles in T years at the equivalent as = maximum value amplitude for static equiva-
constant amplitude, a s, is given by lent fatigue loads, ft
ÄÅ É aM = r.m.s. dynamic displacement at z = zm , ft
2 ÅÅ 2 ÑÑÑ

N/ n1 = T ji
ji
zyz 1 01 0 jj
Vc zyzz exp ÅÅÅ
ÅÅ
Å ji
1 5 jjj
j Vc zyzz ÑÑ
ÑÑ C1 = constant for grouped/isolated stacks
jj
k 50 {
z jj
j Vzcr zzz{ ÅÅ j Vzcr zzz{ ÑÑ
ÑÑ C2 = constant
k ÅÅ
ÅÇ k ÑÑ
ÑÖ CM = mode shape constant
D = top outside diameter, ft
Vc and Vzcr are evaluated at the same height. D = mean diameter for the segment z1 to z2 or for
A fatigue analysis can be performed using the methods stacks with less than ±10% variation over the
in the CICIND Model Code for Steel Chimneys or the Amer- top one-third the value of D is the average
ican Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). over the top one-third, ft
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2 )
E-3.4 Variable Diameter Stacks g = constant for maximum static equivalent loads
gc = gravitational constant (32.2 lbm-ft/lbf-sec2 )
For variable diameter stacks, the preceding method
m ay b e u s e d wi th th e fo l l o wi n g m o d i fi c a ti o n s to gs = constant for fatigue static equiv. loads
account for the range of possible critical diameters. H = height of steel stack, ft
T h e p re vi o u s m e th o d i s u s e d wi th th e fo l l o wi n g h = stack height, ft
changes in equations. The peak response is determined Kz = exposure coefficient
by varying the range of height being considered for Kzt = combined topographical factor ft
any mean diameter, D , for a portion of the steel stack me = equivalent uniform mass per unit length,
where the diameter varies 15% from this mean diameter. lbm/ft
The peak response is determined by iterations over the mr = dimensionless mass
full height of the stack. m(z) = mass per unit length at height z, lbm/ft
1 n1 = natural frequency for mode being considered,
i
jj z2 yz
zz
2
Hz
jj 1
jj
jj
2
( ) z dz zz
zz NT = effective number of cycles in period years
jj H zz
zz qz = velocity pressure, psf
j z1
CM = ( zM) k
H
{ R= constant for tapered stacks
1
S= Strouhal number
2
( ) z dz T= life of stack in years
H
0 V= basic wind speed, mph
Vc = critical wind speed for vortex shedding, ft/sec
Vzcr = mean hourly design sp eed (5 0 -yr return
period) at the critical height zcr used for eval-
uating the critical wind velocity (ft/sec)

93
 ASME STS-1–2021

z = height under consideration, ft Table E-4-1

z1 , z2 = upper and lower limits of a section ofthe stack Mode Shape by Element
over which the diameter changes by 30% (e.g., k z, ft EIz, ft odz, ft htz, ft m z, lbm/ft ϕz
D ± 15%), ft 1 140 135 8 10 320 1.0000
zcr = 1 ∕2 (z1 + z2 ) or, for stacks with less than ±10%
2 130 125 8 10 320 0.9022
variation over the top third, zcr = 5 ∕6 H, ft
3 120 115 8 10 320 0.8044
zM = height at maximum modal shape displace-
ment (H for mode 1), ft 4 110 105 8 10 320 0.7072

α = amplification factor 5 100 95 8 10 320 0.6113

βa = aerodynamic damping 6 90 85 8 10 320 0.5176
βs = structural damping 7 80 75 8 10 320 0.4272
λ = aspect ratio 8 70 65 8 10 320 0.3413
ρ = air density (0.00238), lbf-sec 2 /ft4 9 60 55 8 10 320 0.2616
ϕ(z) = normalized mode shape at height, z (unitless) 10 50 45 8 10 320 0.1894
ϕ(zM) = max normalized modal displacement ϕ (z) for 11 40 35 8 10 320 0.1263
mode at z = zM, for the first mode z = H (unit- 12 30 25 8 10 320 0.0742
less)
13 20 15 8 10 320 0.0346
( z) = equivalent static load, lbf/ft
14 10 5 8 10 320 0.0092
s ( z)
= equivalent fatigue load, lbf/ft
15 0 0 8 0 0 0.0000

E-4 VORTEX SHEDDING EXAMPLE (EXAMPLE

CALCULATION)
See Tables E-4-1 and E-4-2. Vortex shedding design per
section E-2 for steel stacks with less than 10% variation in
diameter in the upper one-third of the stack. Stack is 140 ft
tall and has an 8 ft diameter and 0.2500 in. constant wall
thickness.
Height (ft):
H = 1 40.00 ft Table E-4-2
Equivalent Fatique and Static Loads by Element
Top 1 ∕3 Ht mean OS diameter, ft:
k z, ft ( z) , lbf/ft s (z) , lbf/ft
D = 8.00
1.00 140.00 3,366 3,155
Top 1 ∕3 Ht mean thickness, in.: 2.00 130.00 3,036 2,847

t = 0.2500 in. 3.00 120.00 2,707 2,538

4.00 110.00 2,380 2,231
3-sec gust velocity (mph) from 5.00 100.00 2,057 1,929
V = 1 25 6.00 90.00 1,742 1,633
7.00 80.00 1,438 1,348
Reference design wind speed: 8.00 70.00 1,149 1,077
VR = V/ 1 .6 = 1 00 9.00 60.00 880 825
10.00 50.00 637 598
Exposure C (see para. 4.3.3.4): 11.00 40.00 425 399
First mode frequency, Hz: 12.00 30.00 250 234
n1 = 1 .1 91 13.00 20.00 116 109
14.00 10.00 31 29
Density of air, slugs/ft3 : 15.00 0.00 0 0
= 0.00238

Gravity acceleration, ft/sec2

g = 32.2

94
 ASME STS-1–2021

Structural damping, unlined (see Table 5.2.1.2-1): Grouped chimney effects must be considered when
= A A
s
0.004 < 1 5. For this example, = 20. By result, the effects
D D
Shape factor (see Table I-4): need not be considered.

Cf = 0.6583 = H = 1 7.50
D
Spacing between stacks:
A= 1 60 ft (20 × D) 0.12
C1 = 2 gr
(5 S )
First mode, therefore (see para. E-2.1):
= 0.12
CM = 2.0

Strouhal Number (see para. E-2.1):

15
A = 2
S = 0.20 for 15 c ( z) htz
D k= 1
= 40.287
Vortex shedding elevation range:
z1 = H
z2 = 0 15

me = 1
mz htz( z) 2
For exposure C (see Table I-1): c k= 1
b = 0.65 = 320.000 lbm/ft

c = 0.2
Ift = 500 Maximum deflection at top for first mode:

= 1
( zM) = 1 .0
6.5
1 C2 = 0.60
= me
5 mr =
D 2g
Critical elevation: = 65.24
5 mr s = 0.261 0
zcr = H
C1CM
6
A1 =
= 1 1 6.67 ft mr s
z1 = 1 40.00 ft = 0.01 390
z2 = 0.00 ft 0.60
A2 =
mr s
Critical velocity: = 2.30

Vc = S n1D 1 mr s = 0.261 0

= 53.40 fps therefore,

Vc 22
15
= 36.41 mph g = 1 .6 and g
s
= 1 .5
For any value of m r × βs:
Mean hourly design speed at 5 H/6 (ft):
1
ÅÄ ÑÉ 2
zcr ÅÅ
+ 2
+ 1 6A1 2A2 ÑÑÑÑ
Vzcr = b ( 33 ) VR 1 5 22
aM = D ÅÅÅ
ÅÅ 1 (1 A2 ) (1 A2 )
ÑÑ
ÅÅ 8 A2 ÑÑ
ÑÑ
= 1 1 5.78 fps ÅÅÇ ÑÖ
= 3.01
If Vc > 1 .2Vzcr , ignore vortex shedding.
For peak loads:
If Vc > Vzcr but less than 1 .2Vzcr reduction factor is allowed.
a = g × aM
For this example, Vc is not greater than 1 .2 Vcr, nor
greater than 1.0 Vcr. Therefore, vortex shedding cannot
= 4.8134
be ignored and no reduction factor is allowed.

95
 ASME STS-1–2021

For fatigue: Average peak moment to consider for fatigue:

as = gs aM = 4.5125 15
ws( z) k + ws( z) k
w ( z) =
ÅÄ
ÅÅ 2 ÑÉ
(z) m (z) ÑÑÑÑ / gc
Ms = 1 i
jj
jj
1
yz
zz (
z zk 1 zk )
ÅÅ ah (2 n1 )
ÅÇ ÑÖ k
1 ,000
=2 k
2
{

ws ( z) =
ÅÄ
ÅÅ
ÅÅ as (2 n1 )
2 ÑÉÑ
(z) m (z) ÑÑÑ / gc ×
z k
( + zk 1)
ÅÇ ÑÖ
2
= 1 7,61 0 ft-kip
Peak bending moment for vortex shedding:
15
w ( z) k + w ( z) k Number of stresses at peak moment for fatigue:
Mh = 1 i
jj
jj
1
yz
zz (
z zk 1 zk) 2
ÄÅ
ÅÅ
É
2 ÑÑÑ
k
1 ,000
=2 k
2
{
N/ n1 = ( 50 ) T i
1 0j
1 0 jjj
Vc yzzz exp ÅÅÅ
ÅÅ i
j
1 5 jjj
Vc yzzz ÑÑ
ÑÑ
( zk + z k Vzcr zz{ Vzcr zz{
j ÅÅ j ÑÑ
1)
× k ÅÅ
ÅÇ k
ÑÑ
ÑÑÖ
2
= 1 8,784 ft-kip N = 1 .1 7 × 1 08 cycles (based on 50 yr)
Calculated bending stress indicates failure for this stack
configuration. Additional damping or aerodynamic wind
spoilers such as helical strakes are required.

96
 ASME STS-1–2021

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX F
CONVERSION FACTORS: U.S. CUSTOMARY TO SI (METRIC)

See Tables F-1 through F-15. Table F-4

Kinematic Viscosity (Thermal Diffusivity)
To Convert From To Multiply By
in. 2 /sec m 2 /sec 0.0006451
Table F-1 in. 2 /sec stokes 6.4521000
Length
To Convert From To Multiply By
in. mm 25.4000
in. cm 2.5400
ft m 0.3048 Table F-5
yd m 0.9144 Force
mi (statute) km 1.6090 To Convert From To Multiply By
kgf N 9.807
kip-force N 4448.000
lbf N 4.448

Table F-2
Area
To Convert From To Multiply By
in. 2 mm 2 645.1600000 Table F-6
in. 2 cm 2 6.4510000 Force/Length
ft2 m2 0.0929000 To Convert From To Multiply By
in. 2 m2 0.0006451 lbf-in. N/m 175.13
yd 2 m2 0.8361000 lbf-ft N/m 14.59
mi2 (statute) m2 2,590,000.0000000

Table F-7
Table F-3 Pressure or Stress (Force per Area)
Volume (Capacity) To Convert From To Multiply By
To Convert From To Multiply By kgf/m 2 Pa 9.807
oz cm 3 29.570000 ksi MPa 6.895
gal m3 0.003785 N/m2 Pa 1.000
in. 3 cm 3 16.400000 ksf kPa 47.880
3
ft m3 0.028320 psf Pa 47.880
yd3 m3 0.764600 psi kPa 6.895

97
 ASME STS-1–2021

Table F-8 Table F-12

Bending Moment (Torque) Temperatures
To Convert From To Multiply By To Convert From To Multiply By
lbf-in. N·m 0.1130 °F °C tc = (tf − 32)/1.8
lbf-ft N·m 1.3560 °C °F tf = 1.8 tc + 32
kgf-m N·m 9.8070 K °C tc = tk − 273.15
Δ°C Δ°F Δ tF = 1.8Δ tc

Table F-9
Mass Table F-13
To Convert From To Multiply By
Heat
ounce-mass (avoirdupois) g 28.3400 To Convert From To Multiply By
ounce-mass (avoirdupois) kg 0.0283 Btu/lbm J/kg 2326.0000
pound-mass (avoirdupois) kg 0.4536 Btu in./hr-ft2 °F W/m·K 0.1442
ton (metric) Mg 1.0000 Btu/hr-ft2 °F W/m2 ·K 5.6780
ton (short, 2,000 lbm) Mg 0.9072 Btu/lbm°F J/kg-°C 4184.0000
Btu/lbm°F kcal/kg-°C 1.0000

Table F-10
Mass per Area Table F-14
To Convert From To Multiply By
Velocity
psf kg/m 2 4.8800 To Convert From To Multiply By
lbm-yd2 kg/m 2 0.5425 in./sec m/s 0.02540
ft/sec m/s 0.30480
ft/min m/s 0.00508
mph km/h 1.60900
km/h m/s 0.27800
Table F-11
Mass per Volume
To Convert From To Multiply By
3 3
lbm-in. kg/m 27,680.0000
lbm-ft3 kg/m 3 16.0200 Table F-15
lbm-yd 3
kg/m 3
0.5933
Acceleration
lbm/gal (U.S. liquid) kg/m3 119.8300 To Convert From To Multiply By
ft/sec2 m/s 2 0.3048
in./sec2 m/s 2 0.0254
freefall, standard m/s 2 9.8070

98
ASME STS-1–2021