Gas Turbine Combustion Arthur H. Lefebvre Thermal Sciences and Propulsion Center School of Mechanical Engineering : Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana OQ HEMISPHERE PUBLISHING CORPORATION A member of the Taylor & Francis Group New York Washington Philadelphia LondonGAS TURBINE COMBUSTION Copyright © 1983 by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved, Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 1234567890 BRBR 898 This book was set in Press Roman by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. The editors were Rodger H. Klas, Brenda Munz Brienza, and Edward Millman; the designer was Sharon Martin DePass; the production supervisor was Miriam Gonzalez; and the typesctter was Shirley J. McNett. Braun-Brumfield, Ine. was printer and binder. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Lefebvre, Arthur Henry, date. Gas turbine combustion. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1, Gas-turbines~Combustion. I. Title. IL. Series. TII8.LAL7 1983 621.433 82-187: ISBN 0-89116-896-6Gas Turbine Combustioncontents, Preface xv 1. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS / Introduction 1 Basic Design Features 2 Combustor Requirements 4 Combustor Types 4 Tubular chamber 5 Annujar chamber § Tuboannular chamber 5 Diffuser 5 Primary Zone 9 Intermediate Zone 10 Dilution Zone = 12 Fuel Preparation 12 Pressure-swirl atomizer 13 Spill-return atomizer 14 Rotary atomizer 14 Airblast atomizer 14 Airassist atomizer 15 Vaporizer 15 Premix-prevaporize combustor 16 Gas injection 16 Wall Cooling 17 Wail-cooling techniques 18 Combustor Configurations 20 Short Combustors 22 Combustors for Low Emissions 24 Combustors for Small Engines 27 Industrial Chambers 29 Fuels 30 , References 31 2. COMBUSTION FUNDAMENTALS = 33 Introduction 33 Preflame combustion 33 Deflagration 33 Detonation 33 Classification of Flames 34vi CONTENTS Physics or Chemistry? 34 Flammability Limits 35 Effect of inert diluents and oxygen enrichment on flammability limits 38 Chemical Aspects 38 Chemical kinetics 39 Global reaction-rate theory 41 Laminar Premixed Flames 44 ‘Measurement of burning velocity 44 Factors influencing laminar flame speed 46 Laminar flame-propagation theory 49 Turbulent Premixed Flames 50 Region] 52 Region3 52 Region2 52 Turbulent flame structure 53 Laminar Diffusion Flames 55 Turbulent Diffusion Flames 57 Jet mixing 58 Flame Propagation in Heterogeneous Mixtures 59 Evaporation 61 Evaporation time 61 Spontaneous-Ignition Delay Time 62 Flashback 65 Stoichiometry 66 ‘Adiabatic Flame Temperature 66 Factors influencing the adiabatic flame temperature 67 Nomenclature 72 References 73 Bibliography 75 3. DIFFUSERS 77 Introduction 77 Diffuser Geometry 78 Flow Regimes 80 Performance Criteria 81 Pressure-recovery coefficient 83 Overall effectiveness 83 Loss coefficient 84 Performance 84 Conical diffusers 85 Two-dimensional diffusers 86 Annular diffusers 87 Comparison of various diffuser types 87 Effect of Inlet Flow Conditions on Performance 89 Reynolds number 89 Mach number 89Turbulence 90 Swirl 90 Inlet boundary-layer thickness 91 Profile-Distortion Parameters 91. Blockage factor 91 Kinetic-energy coefficient 93 Flow Control 93 Splitter vanes 94, Vortex generators © 94 Boundary-layer control by suction 94 Vortex-controlled diffuser 95 Hybrid diffusers. 97 Design Considerations 98 Faired diffusers 98 Dump diffuser 100 Diffusers for reverse-flow combustors 101 Diffusers for tubular and tuboannular combustors Testing of diffusers 102 Nomenclature — 103 References 103 4, AERODYNAMICS 107 Introduction 107 Reference Quantities 107 Pressure-Loss Parameters 108 Relationship Between Size and Pressure Loss 111 Casingarea LAL Liner area \11 Flow inthe Annulus 113 Flow through Liner Holes 114 Discharge coefficient 114 Initial jet angle 117 Jet trajectories 117 Jet mixing 123 Swirler Aerodynamics 126 ‘Swirler types 127 Flow pattern 127 Size of recirculation zone 128 Swirl number 129 Flow reversal 131 Flow entrainment 133 Pressure loss 133 Geometry 134 Stabilization by Opposing Jets 135 Bluff-Body Stabilization 137 Airflow Distribution within Liner 137 102 CONTENTS vitwii CONTENTS Primary zone 138 Intermediate zone 140 Dilution zone 141 Dilution-zone design = 143 Correlation of data 146 Rig testing for pattern factor 148 Mathematical Modeling 148 Concluding Remarks 151 Nomenclature 151 References 153 5, COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY 157 Introduction 187, The Combustion Process 157 Reaction-Rate-Controlled Systems 158 Burning-velocity model 158 Stirred-reactor model 164 Comparison of burning-velocity and stirred-reactor models 166 Mixing-Controlled Systems 167 Evaporation-Rate-Controlled Systems 168 Systems Controlled by Reaction Rate and Evaporation 174 Primary-Zone Combustion Efficiency 174 Heat-Release Criteria 174 Summary 175 Nomenclature 176 References 178 6. FLAMESTABILIZATION 179 Introduction 179 Measurement of stability 180 Water-injection technique 181 Bluff-Body Flameholders 183 Mechanism of flame stabilization 184 Cold-flow studies 184 Residence time 185 Blockage effects 185 Experimental findings on bluff-body flame stabilization 188 Summary of-experimental findings 196 ‘Theoretical Aspects 197 Characteristic-time model 197 Stirred-reactor theory 198 Weak-extinction limits 199 Blowout velocity 201 Flame Stabilization in Combustion Chambers 206 Fuel effects 208 Fuel injection 208CONTENTS ix Theoretical aspects 210 Miscellaneous Types of Flameholders 211 Step flameholder 211 Perforated plates 211 Stirred reactors 213 Fluid jets 214 Catalytic flameholders 216 Nomenclature 216 References 217 7. IGNITION 221 Introduction 221 Assessment of Ignition Performance 222 Spark Ignition 222 The surface-discharge igniter 224 dgnifer life 225 Influence of igniter design 225 Spark duration 226 Sparking rate 227 The high-energy ignition unit 227 Agniter location 228 Gas addition 230 Oxygen injection 231 Chemical ignition 231 Other Forms of Ignition 231 Torch igniter 231 Glow plug 232 Hor-surface ignition 232 Plasma jets 233 The Ignition Process 233 Factors influencing phase I 234 Factors influencing phase 2 234 Factors influencing phase3 234 Ignition Theory 234 Theory of Lewis and von Elbe 235 Theory of Fenn 235 Theory of Yang 236 Theory of Swett 236 Theory of Ballal and Lefebvre 236 Ignition Performance 246 Ignition system 246 Flow variables. 247 Fuel parameters 250 Nomenclature 253 References 254x CONTENTS 8 HEATTRANSFER = 257 Introduction 257 Heat-Transfer Processes 258 Internal Radiation 259 Radiation from nontuminous gases 259 Radiation from luminous gases. 266 External Radiation 275 Internal Convection 276 External Convection 277 Calculation of Uncooled Liner Temperature 278 Method of caleulation 278 Significance of calculated uncooled liner temperature 281 Effect of chamber variables on liner wall temperature 282 Film Cooling 286 Total-head devices. 287 Splash-cooling rings 288 Machined rings 288 Relative merits of film-cooling devices 288 Correlation of Film-Cooling Data 289 Theories based on turbulent boundary-layer model 290 Theories based on wall-jet model 291 Calculation of film-cooled wall temperature 295 Influence of film cooling on heat-transfer rates 299 Alternative Methods of Wall Cooling 299 Film cooling with augmented convection 300 Impingement cooling 301 Transpiration cooling 302 Effusion cooling 308 * Louvered walls 309 Finned surfaces 311 Refractory linings 312 High-temperature materials 314 Measurement of wall temperature 315 Nomenclature 316 References 317 9 GASTURBINE FUELS 327 Introduction 321 Types of Hydrocarbons 322 Paraffins 323 Olefins 324 Naphthenes 324 Aromatics 325 Production of Liquid Fuels 326 Removal of sulfur compounds 326 Acid treatment = 327CONTENTS xi Clay treatment = 327 Removal of water 327 Contaminants 327 Asphaltenes 327 Gum 327 Sediment 328 Ash 328 Water 328 Sulfur 329 Sodium 329 Vanadium — 330 Additives 331 Gum prevention 331 Rust inhibition 331 Antiicing 331 Antistatic 331 Lubticity 332 Antismoke 332 Physical Properties of Fuels 333 Relative density 333 API gravity 333 Molecular mass 333 Distillation range 333 Vapor pressure 335 Flash point 336 | Volatility 336 Viscosity 336 Surface tension 337 Freezing point 337 Specificheat 338 Latent heat 341 Thermal conductivity 341 Combustion Properties of Fuels 341 Calorifie value 341 Enthalpy 342 ‘Spontaneous-ignition temperature 344 Limits of flammability 345 Soot-forming tendency 346 Conventional Liquid Fuels 347 Light true distillates 348 Heavy true distillates 348 Ash-bearing fuels 348 Conventional Gaseous Fuels 349. Natural gas 349 | Coal gas 349 Coke-oven gas 351