LANGUAGE REFERENCE UNIT1 [Grammar Tense review Present and imperative PRESENT SIMPLE “The affirmative of the prosent simple i formed with the root ofthe verb, adding »s/-e8inthe third person singular. We need to use the auxiliaries do and does to form negatives and interrogatives. Remember that “when we use does the main verb does not have -s/ -esat the end. The -es already in does! use Routines and habits ‘+ We use the present simple to talk about routines and habits. ‘My mother doesn't travel by bus. Where do you go to school? ‘+ We often use the present simple with adverbs of frequency, such as always, often, sometimes, rarely, hardly ever and never, '* Note that we put the adverb of frequency after the verb be and before other main verbs. | Mike is always top of the class in maths. Tina often misses the bus for school os General truths ‘= We use the present simple to talk about things that are true in general. i Banks in Britain are open from nine to five Footballers play football, A 7 Stories and jokes S + “The present simpleis often used for telling stories and jokes. en ae a The future + The present simple is also used to talk about the ature, The fight arrives at ton clock tomorrow morning, PRESENT CONTINUOUS FORM ‘The present continuous if formed with the verb be + the gerund (verb with «ing ending). Use At the moment of speaking + We use the present continuous to talk about something That is happening at the moment of speaking Daniel's not here right now -he's eating out. Mum's not working at the moment - she's siting on the sofa Why are you packing your suitcase? Temporary situations «+ We also use the present continuous to talk about something thet i temporary. Theyre showing a great documentary on TV this wee Our internet isn’ working tod. How's your sister getting on in New York? Changes “© We can use the present continuous to talk about things that are changing or developing, The weather is getting warmer. The Arctic ice cap is shrinking. The future '* The present continuous can also be used to talk about ‘the future, I'm leaving first thing in the morning. PRESENT PERFECT aon=] » » + , use , Relating past and present ’ «The present perfect mused to relate the past withthe / provee Ie loet her passport. She lost tin the past ond , dsm hove toon) Mb computers stopped working. isnt working now) , Unspecified time . «We use the present perfect to talk about events that took place at an unspecified time in the past Have you seen the latest James Bond film? Mike's been to China, Brad's never eaten paella New information © We also use the present perfect to give information or to announce a recent event. Ugh! I've swallowed a fy! Have you heard the news? Joe and Grace have got married. The first time © We use the present perfect when we talk about the first, second, third, etc. time that something has happened. It’s the third time I've fallen over this week. My dad's phoned me twice this morning, Time expressions + Weuse the present perfect with today, this morning / Gvening, tonight, this week, this month, this year, et wuhen these periods have not finished at the time of speaking haven't had time to phone him this morning. Chloe hasn‘t been to schoo! this week For and since «* We use the present perfect with for and since to say how long something has been happening, We use for for periods of time (an hour, two weeks, thice months, ten years, etc) and since with a specific “moment in time (four o'clock, yesterday morning, Tuesday, December, 1998, Easter, etc.) ‘Sal has worked at the same company for four years. Kirsten has lived in Spain since 2006. Present perfect v present simple Both the present perfect ‘and the present simple are ised to refer to the present, but if we are talking about Something that began in the past and continues until now, we use the present perfect. haven't had anything to eat all morning, LANGUAGE REFERENCE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS use Recent actions with present results + We use the present perfect continuous for activities that started in the past and are stil going on or have ist stopped. There is a connection with the present You're wet. Have you been swimming? (Youre wet now) Claire is very tired. She hasn't been sleeping well ve been talking to Tim about the problem and he agrees with me. It's been raining all day long! For and since “© We can use for and sine with continuous when we ask the questi ‘The activity is still happening or will have just finished. How long has Alex been playing on his tablet? He's been playing on his tablet for an hour ‘Actions repeated over a period of ti perfect continuous for actions period of time the present perfect jon How long... ? e + We use the present that are repeated over a am is a greet pianist. He's been playing si: “Jeriny speaks Spanish well She's been leaming it for wen years Present perfect continuous v present perfect = When we are interested in the activity itself and not the result the activity, we use the present perfect Continuous. When we are interested in the result of an etivity and not the activity itself, we use the present perfect. Silva's hands are covered in paint she’s been painting a mural. Silvia has painted the mural- it's full of lots of bright colours. (She's finished painting it) yee he was six How ... ? «We use the present perfect continuous with How long ...? How long have you been learning Te been learning English for six years «We use the present perfect with How much « How many ... ?and How many times How much of the How many times have they be English? 2 book have you read? zen to your hou! How many people have visite Language Reference ~ se this wel? .d the web page this week? 105LANGUAGE REFERENCE IMPERATIVE FORM “The imperative is formed with the infinitive without sree eiised for commands or orders. For negative Commands or orders, we add don't ‘Come hero! ‘Don't forget to buy some bread when you g0 Out, Past PAST SIMPLE ron Fecntor veto fom ther past srg trae by ang ae ere the stom tthe vero changes Phone aplatievsthih arin avon! anda ee cee: conten eee Fe PE appens wih vt of ors han wre eit seangino vowel ond» coneonant Seer stale on he lst oyableprefer— 7 preferred. '* Ifa verb ends in a consonant + y, the y changes to and we add -ed: deny — denied; try tried. | Inthe interrogave snd negative forms, the auxiliary did is used with the infinitive (.e, without the ed ending) a ae ; Did you have fn on hoi? i The past tense of irregular ‘verbs can be completely different from their stem: have - had; see~ saw; | ae Spain eaten 19270953 USE Completed actions We use the past simple for completed actions which took place at a specific time in the past. ‘ My dad took my mum to Pari for their anniversary. | didn't go to the party last Friday. Where did you stay ie So CR me eS. in Brazil? goat Narrative sequences “+ We use the past simple in narrative sequences Time expressions in the past simple David got up, had.a shower shaved and got dressed, He cidn't have time for breakfast We often use time expressions with the past simple WeeSSte when something happened. We place the time expressions atthe beginning or end of the Tentence, Some common time expressions include the following: lastnight / week / month /year/ Christmas / summer atten /twelve o'clock in 1492/2017 ton minutes /two hours / six weoks / th ‘on Sunday / Monday (morning / afternoon / evering) yesterday My uncle and: Last year, my uncle and aunt ree years 990 ‘aunt emigrated to Australia last year. emigrated to Australie. PAST CONTINUOUS ‘USE Actions in progress in the past '* We use the past continuous to describe actions in progress ata particular moment in the past. Who were you talking to for so long? | was talking to Carla. I was trying to persuade her to .go out with me on Friday.Simultaneous actions + We also use the past continuous for simultaneous parents were making lunch, the children Waite the Relating two actions + We cen ute the ast simple andthe past continuous pce todoresbe the estar Boren two, oath pw comin edt den 8 completed action, . Wie ware tonal nding onthe comer chtting wh the cat crashed into the tree. Seis when, while and as ‘+ When, while and as can be used to describ used to describe situations inwihich one event inerupt another While and ‘are usually followed by the past continuous, and when by the past simple. ti era As/ While she was running in the park, she was listening to music on her MP3 player. He was copying from his book when the teacher saw him. PAST PERFECT USE ‘The past perfect is used when we talk about two past ‘events and we want to make it quite clear which event happened first. We use the past perfect for the first ‘event and the past simple for the second event. The match had started when we got to the stadium. When I looked in my bag for the key, | realised I'd left it at the gym. USED TO, WOULD Used to @ We can use used to when we want to express tt, but no something that happened regularly in the past longer happens. Freddie used to read all the business news online. Did you use to ride your bike every day? I didn’t use to like ice cream! @ We also use used to for something that was true, isn’t true anymore. Evie used to have ver Now it’s short. i but ry long hair when she was a child. LANGUAGE REFERENCE “Tharsis no present form of ined 6 {Y \do yooe once a week. 1 Isedt0 do yoge once a week. Would + We Use would when we want to express somathin that happened regularly nthe post a Whenever Jane was unhappy, she would go to her room and ey. Used to can describe actions and states, bbut would ean only describe actions. J They used to be crazy about Doctor Who. 3 They would be crazy about Doctor Who. Future PRESENT SIMPLE FOR THE FUTURE «© We use the present simple to talk about things which ‘are scheduled for the future, such as bus, train and flight times. We leave London on the Eurostar at 2om.on 24 July. We get to Paris at 5pm, Then our overnight train for Nice leaves at 8pm. BE GOING TO USE Future plans and intentions © We use be going to and a main verb to talk about future plans and intentions. I'm going to get my nose pierced next week. They're not going to spend the summer in Calpe this year Are you bb after going tois go, we can omit It \ goingtegotothecinems | ‘We're going tothe cinema | | going to make a cake for my birthday? NOTE: if the ver Instead of saying, We're tonight, we normally 5: tonight. Language Reference ~ 107 pa eeMaking predictions redictions when ing toto make + We can ure Ps revert or past evidence that there i strong pres SDmething is going to happen: ‘ The temperature is already 20°C and its only Bom. I's going to be really hot todky. Mum's going to be angry because Ihaver't tidied ™y Present continuous + future time reference = Wo use the present continuous to talk about future vents which are already planned. The vet's operating on my dog next week ‘Are we all meeting at Paco's house on Friday?" That's right. That’ the plan. When we use the present continuous to tak about the future, there is usualy a reference to time, either in the sentence or in the content. What are you doing? (now) 'm fishing my homework. ‘Ave you doing anything on Friday? future) Yes, I’m ‘meeting Monica. «+ There is sometimes very ltl difference in meaning between the present continuous for the future and be going tom seeing Carlos tonight is, n theory, 4 more definite plan than Im going to see Carlos tonight” However, here you can use either. Predictions © We use the future simple to make predictions based ‘en our opinions, ‘Come and listen to this new track. You'll ‘Steve will throw a great party -| Picea Will for spontaneous decisions {whan wo make a decision ot the tine + We often ut wo ara speak ‘ve goto go out to got some pasia and tomatoes “ll come with you Will for offering to do something «We also use willwhon we offer to do something Finish your work. I'l cook lunch, he tickets. I'l go and pick them up. Don't worry about ti FUTURE CONTINUOUS: WILL BE + -ING FORM The future continuous is formed with will + be + the Sorund (verb with -ing ending). ‘USE ‘Actions in progress in the future “* We use the future continuous to talk about actions: that will be in progress in the future. This time next week, we'll be packing our cases for our holiday. When I'm 20, I'll be studying Fine Arts at university. Future events # We also use the future continuous to talk about a future event which has already been decided. They'll be going anay next week. Joe won't be coming to the party because he’s got to babysit. FUTURE PERFECT: WILL HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE Completed actions in the future areca ‘© We use the future perfect to talk about things that will be finished before a certain time in the future,You'll have lost two kilos by next month if you continue ike this By the time youre 25, you'llbe working. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS: WILL HAVE BEEN + -ING FORM ‘+ We use the future perfect continuous when we look back to the past from a point in the future to focus on the length or duration of an event or a specific activity In January, | will have been living in Italy for 11 years. Ei will have been studying English for five years by the ‘end of this school year, |Vocabulary Travel TRAVEL / VOYAGE / TOUR / TRIP TRAVEL * Travelis a verb and an uncountable noun, Asa verb: Jamie travelled around Australia, As a noun, we never talk about ‘a travel’, but use it as a general noun: Travel broadens the mind. VOYAGE * Avoyageis usually along journey by sea, butits use is quite formal. He was a young sailor on his fist sea voyage. TOUR '* A touris a visit to a place or an area, especially one in which you look round the place or area and learn about it. We went on a guided tour of the cathedral. TRIP * A trip is a journey in which you go somewhere and ‘come back again. It can be short or long, We went on a weekend trip to the Sierra Nevada. They're planning a trip around the world, LANGUAGE REFERENCE UNIT 2 [Grammar Modal verbs CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO (ABILITY, POSSIBILITY, PERMISSION) ABILITY © We use can, could, be able to and manage toto express ability Helen could play the piano when she was youngar, but she can't anymore, Now, she’s able to play the violin, Phil managed to reduce his carbon footprint by half lst year Note that we don't use could to talk ‘about an occasion in the past, we use be able to. She was able to go to the match last ‘Saturday. xX She could go to the match last ‘Saturday. + We sometimes use be able to to talk about ability instead of can and could, but there are some cases ‘where we have to use can and could and not be able to. 41) When we're talking about something that is happening as we speak. Listen to me! I can play this tune perfectly on the piano now! Not: / am able to play this tune perfectly on the piano now. 2) Before passives, More local food can be produced. Not: More local food is able to be produced. 3) When the meaning of canis ‘know how to do can drive a car, Not: lam able to drive a car. POSSIBILITY * The modal verbs can, could, may, might and be able toare used to express possibilty. We can see Big Ben from our hotel window. Are you able to come to the meeting? Harry couldn't come on Monday because it was snowing. Language Reference - 109LANGUAGE REFERENC! supposed to PERMISSION jal verbs can, could, be able to, may 's Wo use be supposed to to talk about obligations ane arrangements. (press permission, am supposed to be at the party but my bus is one # We use the mod and be allowed to t0 ex San rapen the window plnte? lam ep May sitdown here? ae eae mrlotop fora couple thous? PROHIBITION STE emoraw Na wer™ nant / Cnt ne Fro go my dad won't o ee ee «We use mustn't and can't for prohibon ort xy that NOTE: We can also use the mada verb must to | © something isnt alowed. Must'ts usually used when the prohibition is implied setess permission or lack fit [tis similarin 5 meaning to (not allowed to. Sy the speater and can'tis used when something is ‘ jainst the rules You must keep it a secret — you mustn't tell anyone against t atall. ae ‘You mustn't take your mobile to school. ee ae You can't park your car here. MUST, HAVE TO, SHOULD, NEED, BE (AONE SUPPOSED TO, HAD BETTER Should / Ought to / Had better OBLIGATION / NO OBLIGATION «Should, ought to and had better are used to express advice «© We use must, mustn't, have to, don’t have to, needn't Se udgot the doctor That cough sounds awl and be supposed fo to express obligation or lack of You should go to the doctor That cova obligation. You ought to apologise to her. She's very upset. You had better cal the electrician - the lights have Must ett ‘The verb form of ‘had better’ is always had and not + Must is personal and we use it when we want 0 express our personal feelings. have. It is followed by the infinitive without to. Tmustpay the elecrciy bil tomorrow orlligetcut_ +. When we refer to actions inthe past we use moc} off (say's necessary) perfect forms nodal verb + have + the past participle) You should have gone to the doctor. Your cough is stil Mustn’t ea '* We use mustn‘twhen we want to say that its SER eacecl ori i e eee ean Tin dit pass ching txt He ought a mustn't be late for the interview or won't get the job. CERTAINTY Have to Must / Can't “¢ Have to is ike must, but it's impersonal and we don't 4 : cet for our personal feelings We use it foc facts, ‘* Must and can’t can be used to express certainty. Jhave to wear glasses because I cantt see very well. You didn’t get to bed until 6am and it's only 8. 30am now. You must be tired! Don't have to ‘That must be Jim's dad ~ Jim looks just like him. You've slept for 14 hours ~ you can’t be tired. They can't be here already. They didn’t leave home until 6pm and it takes at least two hours to get here. ‘© We use don’t have to to mean that we don't need to. ‘do something, butwe canifwewantto. don’t have to get up early in the moming—it’s. ee ene, al selidliect ieee: m MAY, MIGHT, COULD, MUST, CAN'T Needn't, woke ion ae tant oad gi ena ie aA+ Couldis used only in the affirmative, while may and ‘might con bbe used in both the affirmative and the negative. The meaning of could, may and might in the affirmative is the same. The sky looks a bit black. think it may / might /could im afraid the party may not / might not happen. My parents may not / might not go away at the weekend after all NOTE: When we want to express certainty and possibility about the past, that is when we are | speculating about past events, we use a modal verb + have + the past participle CERTAINTY Must / Can't / Couldn't + have + the past participle * When we use must, can'tand couldn't + have + post participle, we are fairly certain about the speculstions Wwe are making, The meaning of can't and couldn't + have + the past participle is the same. I must have left my keys at work — they're not in my bag. Because of the tsunarm, many people must have lost their homes. My dad can't have left for work because the car's stil in the garage. Itcan't have been easy to be in Japan when the earthquake happened, I wonder who committed the murder. It couldn't have been Reverend Green because I've got that card and the murder weapon couldn't have been the rope because I've got that card too. Modal verbs always go before another verb: He can swim. Modal verbs never change ~ we don't add an -s or an -ing to them: She must be mad! Modal verbs are always followed by an infinitive without to (except for ought to) They should leave tomorrow. They ought to leave tomorrow. Modal verbs are always followed by not in the "negative: We can't help you with your project ~ sorry! ely before the subject in a LANGUAGE REFERENCE [Vocabulary Word roots Many words in English are formed from Latin or Greek roots. Each root has a specific meaning, sof we understand the meaning of the common word roots, we should be able to make an educated guess at the meaning of the word. Here aro some of the most common word roots with examples of English words derived from ther. Root Meaning Examples Sa a ‘autonomous dictation ict, diet sy Heake ‘educate duc duct lead conduct produce jun jus claw justice, jury loglogue thought __—_logic, dialogue hand manual is empathetic S pathetic is bibliophile Phil tena philosophy telephone hon sound al phonology _ photosynthesis photo light photograph impor, export ort carry /take Por Y support impress, depress Hey press / push eee respect, suspect ERE prospect Language Reference - 111LANGUAGE REF UNIT 3 [Grammar Conditional sentences ZERO CONDITIONAL FORM The zero conditional is formed as follows: +» If prevent simple + present simple / imperative Ifyou want to be fit and Healthy, do lots of exercise. '» present simple /imperative + if + present simple Do lots of exercise if you want to be fit and healthy. USE ‘+ We use the zero conditional to state universal truths. you're in love, nothing else is important. FIRST CONDITIONAL FORM “The first conditional is formed with if+ present ‘simple + future simple OR future simple + iF+ ‘present simple ‘= We use the first conditional to talk about situations which are possible in the present or the future. ‘She won't buy the dress if they don't give her a discount. 2 SECOND CONDITIONAL Besa iT * We use the second conditional to talk about unreal or hypothetical situations, fara a ie ives ng ust © We use the third conditional to talk about things in the ‘past that did oF did not happen and what would have happened if we had done something different. ithe hadn't started working at the shopping mall, he would have had to work for his father. MIXED CONDITIONALS Mixed conditional sentences are sentences which use a mixture of second and third conditionals because we Want to express things we did in the past that might have present consequences, of to express past events that may be the result of present facts. So in mixed conditionals the time in the if clause isn't the same as the time in the main clause. Mfyou hadn't spent all your money, you'd be able to buy 3 new phone. {Past action: you spent all your money. Present consequence: you can't buy anew phone) IfNina weren't so busy, she could have gone to the theatre last night. (Present fact: Nina is busy. Past consequence: she wasn't able to go to the theatre last night) Conditional sentences sometimes contain other ‘modal verbs than will, would and would have: will > can, may, might would— could, might would have—> could have, might have Zero conditionals sometimes contain should + the verb, instead of the imperative. ‘The modal verbs can and could may also appear in ‘the ifclause. Unless, as long as, providing, provided, in case, supposing, even if, otherwise + Inthe frst conditional, ifcan be replaced by other imilar meaning such as unless, as / 30Unless * Unless means if not come round to your house uni Supposing 1 | have to babysit. supposing in conditional sentenc ner to imagine a situation. ‘ll three types of conditional sentences, ‘Supposing you lost your keys, how would you get i your house? Even if @ Even ifis used to make the condition more emphatic. She won't go to Mark's wedding even if he invites her Otherwise © We often use otherwise in conditional sentences, pesos study or / otherwise you won't be going Wish «We use wish to talk about how we would like 2 p or past situation to be different. resent Present situations * When we are referring to a present situation, structure is wish + past simple / continuous. There are no cheap restaurants near where | lve, there were some cheap restaurants near where the J wish Hive. | can't go out with Pablo on Saturday because were ‘going any for the weekend. Tish | could go out with Pablo on Saturday. | wish we weren't going away for the weekend. My brother won't leave me alone. {wish he would leave me alone. Past situations ‘# When we are referring to a past si ++ past perfect simple / continuous. Those trousers | bought look awful on me J wish I hadn’t bought those trouse’s: Wie didn't get @ good view ofthe castle because 22 raining. I wish ithadn’t been raining. If only + tfonlyis used in t used to express 8 ituation, we use wish yy as wish, but is usually he samme wa yout a situation stronger feeling abe ‘and to talk about regrets It’s lonely being an only child. (1 regi brothers and sisters) Hfonly |had some brothers and sisters. fet not having any 1 ane sie that I ly hc, bit ow th (0 really regret not buying it) ec only 'd bought that shir UNIT 4 |Grammar Reported speech STATEMENTS Tense changes «When we change directs Showrtorablog port | ery sa esl ei he Past continuous emcee LANGUAGE REFERENCE Note that in wish /f only clauses, we don't use would with for | wish | did more exercise. Y I wish (could do mare exercise. XI wish I would do more exercise. speech into reported speech, When weil have to change the verb tenses Direct speech | Reported speech Hosaid that Present simple Past simple ‘he wrote a blog post Present continuous Shere witing a blog post | .- she was wting 2 blog post. ash pee present | Past perfect simple | she had written a blog Past simple and perfect simple She wrote a blag post. | post ‘She's written a blog post Conditional ‘She'll write a blog post. she would write 2 blog coca rile a + part from changing the verb tenses, we also hate pescmber to change the personal pronouns and the possessive adjectives where necessary "| actin the school play every year Andy said cevandy said that he acted in the schoo! Play every year. ‘rm really excited - my story sin the school NeusPaPt guvina soid.—> Edwina said chat she was re excited because her story was in the school newsPaPe™ «We can omit the word thatin reported speech Time expressions «When we are reporting speed ‘changes related to time. th, we often make Language Reference - 173[ANGUAGE REFERENCE u ‘Where are you going at the weekend?” Mary asked, _ Direct speech | Reported speech > Mary asked me where Iwas going atthe w this morning /afternoon / | that morning / afternoon ‘How much did the drama course cost?’ Su evening /week/month/ | / evening / week/month / > Susie asked how much the drama course had cont pomete ne _| year ee a I ie Ya REPORTING VERBS [ronoht | In sddition to say end tel, we can ute other reporting rrext week/month / year_| that week/ month / year verbs and structures when we want to emphasise of - ca | jadicate the intention of the speaker (such as a promise, [ peteriay een a Bese beiete ___| _ anoffer ora suggestion). last summer/week/ | thesummer/week/morth | You will notice that some reporting verbs can be found month / yea, ee year ae, before W diferent boxes 2s they con be lolowed by different now then, Fight away atthattime | structures tomorrow Tenge ratwina a | vary + that + We usualy include that after verb which gives more ‘Meteato, suchas complain or explain. When we here ‘a week/month / year ago | the week / month / year make a suggestion about what we or someone else before, should do, we usually report the suggestion using a aes. that clause. The that clause usually contains a modal “1 bought@ new book this morning,’ Fran said. verb, often should, although other verbs can also be: ‘i used. > Fran said that she had bought a new book that moming. ‘Did you go to the concert last summer?” Claudia asked, —> Claudia asked me if| had gone to the '* Here isa list of reporting verbs often used with that clauses or with a prepositional phrase, concert the summer before. Say and tell 7 © When we reportwhat someone hes said, we use <2y f He suggested that they should go to the ten o'clock there is no direct object and tell if there is an object. showing at the cinema. ‘She said that she wanted to go to drama school. Her grandmother recommended that she should wear ‘She told me that she wanted to go to drama school. Sane et He stated that we should see a different film. (QUESTIONS ‘+ Itis also possible to report these types of sentences ¥ ‘without using a modal verb, but the result is more Yes / No questions formal. * Toreport questions, we make the same changes 25 His wife suggested that he see a doctor. terorted! Teens ene eS ae ihe ‘She suggested that she wear a hat and scarf, ae ee Rae a He suggested that we see a different film. use ifor whether before the reported clause and we | Use the statement form rather than the question frm, ae ee eee eee a “Mike asked if/ whether | had seen the new Star Wars Cinrinhaicnshangitt oi oe =r | had read the | «+ Here is a list of the reporting verbs which are followed _ by not) t0+ the infinitive.sak verb + object + to + infinitive + These reporting verbs are usually followed by an Tyo he nkenive wth to Our English teacher warmed us not to make any noise while she was out of the room. Jamie invited his best friend to go on holiday with him and his family Marthe asked William to go to New York with her verb + -ing + These reporting es ae usualy ftlmed bythe io ie Mw bb & & Harry denied breaking the window. ‘Sam accused Jenny of taking her place in the play. The man confessed to having committed the crime. Questions QUESTION TAGS We often make a statement into a question by adding a question tag at the end of the statement. The verb eerain the tag has to match the auxiliary verb in the Sotement. We tend to use question tags to verify that Something is true or when we want reassurance + Ifthe stater You'te getting married, aren't you? he tag will be positv ment is positive, the tag will be negative: «Ifthe statement is negative, # You're not getting married, are you? ‘We make question tags: «in the present simple with door does. “+ in the past simple with did, wuith the verb to be where the verb robes" he ‘or modal verb as in the auxiliary tag for Let’sis shall we? tag for amis aren't? or 'm notis arn I? LANGUAGE REFERENCE EMPHATIC QUESTIONS: We can ask emphatic questions using who oF what ane also expressions like whoever, who on arth, what on ‘earth. In emphatic questions, we should always place ‘emphasis on these words to make a point Ema texted Jake, —» Emme texted who? Im worried about something. > You're worried about what? a Jane's applied for a new job.» Jane has applied for what? Jamie phoned me last night —» Who on earth phoned you? Katie told me. —> Whoever told you that? EMBEDDED QUESTIONS Embedded questions are questions within another totement of question. They generally follow statement Sider rather than question order. So the subject usually comes before the verb. + Embedded questions usually star such as these: with expressions Could you tell me {don't know Do you know The question is wonder Who knows [Vocabulary Time adverbs and expressions ‘Time adverbs describe when, for how long or how often anvction happened. They are usualy placed atthe end ofa sentence, Ifwe need to use more than one time cyerb in sentence, they should go in this order: 1) how Jong; 2) how often; 3) when He only worked for ten days every month last yea. ‘list of some common time adverbs and time Hore is ‘expressions Points in time at midnight ina week’ time at noon the following weekend at the moment the previous day at three thirty throughout the summer during the evening Frequency (definite) annually hourly quarterly daily monthly woekly fortnightly nightly yearly Language Reference - 115LANGUAGE REFERENCE Frequency (indefinite) aways hardy ever regularly SZprow and infrequently sometimes then never suddenly aire ‘eccasionally usually eet rarely Relationships in time aheody fist recent cheaps quiet quieter expensive —> more expensive slowly —> more slowly Spelling rules + Ifa two-syllable adjective toan iand add -er easy easier happy—> happier lucky—> luckier «© Ifa one-syllable adjective ends in a vowel and then a consonant, we double the final consonant and add er. big bigger hot hotter Irregular adjectives and adverbs ‘© Some adjectives and adverbs don't follow these rules, as they are irregular. Here are some of them: good / well—> better bad/ badly —> worse far further/ farther wnds in y, we change the yGet + two comparatives © We can use get followed by two compara by the word and when we want to describe a gro" process. When it stopped at the sta more crowded. Your English is improving. It's getting better and better The ... the ... © Weuse the... the ... with two comparatives to say that one thing depends on another thing. The warmer the weather, the happier | feel The more | thought about the idea, the less | liked it tion, the train got more and As... as We use as things. The apple is as heavy as the banane. We can also use s0.... asin the same way, but net in positive sentences and questions, Nina isn't 50 tall as she looks. Or Nina isn't as tall as ‘as to compare equivalent aspects of two she looks. I'm sorry 'm late. I.got here as fast 2s! could. S ie x I'msorry I'm late. | got here so fast as 1 .e expressions twice as, three times © We can also use th ic, to express the same idea. 42s, four times as, et The new office is three times as big as the old one. = We can use the expressions almost, atleast, neatly, just and nowhere near in the same way. Helena was nowhere near as happy as she said SUPERLATIVES To form the superlative, adjectives and most before adje' than one syllable. cheap — cheapest quiet quietest expensive > most expensive slowly > most slowly we add est to one-syllable ctives that are longer LANGUAGE REFERENCE Spelling rules fa two-sylable adjective ends in y, we change the to an i and add -est. * “ee oasy—> easiont happy lucky Ia one-syllable adjective ends in a vowel and then consonant, we double the final consonant and then add -est. big biggest hot hottest > happiest > luckiest Irregular adjectives and adverbs «= Some adjectives and adverbs don't follow these rules, as they are itregular. bad worst far furthest / farthest good/ well—> best The «We usually use the before superlatives. Polly is the happiest git in the school. Flying is the most expensive form of travel In «After superlatives, we use in wher about places. That's the biggest shopping in we are talking centre in the world. 119 Language Reference ~ericZero Second FORM if+ past simple + conditional OR conditional + if + past simple 424 - Grammer Map USE To talk about unreal or hypothetical situations Titer Liekobhsbbbon Third FORM if-+ past perfect + past perfect conditional oR past perfect conditional y if+ past perfect Mixed conditionals Mixed conditionals are a mixture of second and third conditionals, 10 express things we did in the past that might have present consequences, OF to express past events that may be the result of present facts. The time in the if ‘lause isn't the same as the time in the main clause USE To talk about things in the past that did or did not happen and what (would have happened if wwe had done something differentGRAMMAR Map tS telat roa '* Yes / No questions: use if/ whether before reported clause and use statement Reporting verbs PTC Maa to sued say (no direct ‘Verb + that verb + to + infinitive Verb + object + to Verb + -ing ‘admit, complain, agree, cam, decide, ace oe accuse somebody of, tell (object) ‘explain, point out, demand, expect, advise, allow, ask, beg, ‘admit to, apologise for, complain about, fecommend, state, guarantee, hope, offer, vrention, prove, prefer, promise, refuse confess to, deny. ‘swear, threaten insist on, prohibit, recommend, say, suggest tell, urge, want, warnNETS ———— OO Ye) lah cMdcobebhted € Non-defining 7 Relative pronouns Defining Relative pronouns «+ who for people «which for things comma before and after the clause ‘* who / that for people «© which / that for things. «where for places = when for time # whose for possession « The relative pronoun can be omitted when the person or thing being defined is the object.GRAMMAR MAP. The passive FORM ey Impersonal passive verb to be + the past participle ‘To say who oF what was responsible Inthe impersonal passive The object of the active sentence becomes _for the action start the construction witht the subject of the passive sentence + We do not use by + noun when itis BRRMeE ana Temis the seme, obvious who performed the action Causative passive Verbs with two objects have + something + past participle ‘Active - They gave the comedian a prize. (when somebody else does something for us) Passive - A prize was given to the comedian. 7 The comedian was given a prize. Causative passive = to have something done + When somebody else does something for us: have + something + the past participle ‘© Getis often used instead of have in informal English Z arene |IRREGULAR VERBS dreamt / dreamed ‘drink drank Ee rae = en ate fall fell feed fea — feel fa eee es curt eR fought ia find found found ee Het flown forbid forbade forbidden ict = eee forgot forgotten aia forgave forgiven frozen freeze ies jvenIRREGULAR VERBS. smelt/smelled spoke oe spelt /spelled : ot Sone ae mR spilt /spilled “spoil awe spoilt / spoiled pai /spoiled stand u __stood steal TT iiipereeestolen stick stuck Maer eats struck . snept understood woken =