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UNIT – III
CENTROIDS, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND MOMENT OF INERTIA
3.1. Introduction to properties of Surface and Solids

In engineering applications, we come across complicated areas and solid bodies whose
properties are very important. The properties such as centroid of areas, centre of gravity of rigid
bodies, moment of inertia of area and mass moment of inertia of rigid bodies are considered in
the analysis and design of elements. The concept of centroid and centre of gravity is also
necessary to find the magnitude and direction of resultant force acting on the bodies. The
concept of moment of inertia is useful for calculation of stresses developed in a beam, buckling
of column and also to study the rotary motion of rigid bodies. This unit is mainly concerned
ww
with the determination of above such properties.
3.2. Terms and Definitions
Centroid w.E
concentrated.
Centre of Gravity
a
It is defined as the point at which the total area of plane figure is considered to be
syE
ngi
It is defined as the point through which the whole weight of a body acts irrespective of its
orientation. It is denoted by C.G (or) G.
Centre of Mass
nee
rin
It is a point where the entire mass of a body is considered to be concentrated.
Centre of Pressure
g.n
When an area is subjected to a pressure, a point in the area exists through which the entire
force could be concentracted with the same external effect. This point is called centre of
et
pressure. If the pressure is uniformly distributed over an area, the centre of pressure coincides
with the centroid of the area.
Reference Axis
Centre of gravity (or) centroid is always computed with reference to some point of
reference or some assumed axis called the reference axis. For plane figure the axis of reference
is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for computing and the left line of the figure for
computing .

y
axis of reference
y axis of reference
ww Figure 3.1
w.E
If the plane figuers have areas symmetrical about x-x axis or y-y axis the procedure for
computing centroid is very much simplified. For symmetrical T-section about x-axis the
Centroidal Axis a
centroid lies on the y-axis, it is need to find only .
syE
It can be defined as an axis which is passing through the centroid of the plane figure is
called the centroidal axis.
3.3. Determinations of Areas and Volumes ngi
nee
The determination of geometric properties of surfaces and bodies such as areas and
volumes are very important in the engineering applications. In order to determine the areas and
rin
volumes, the two theorems developed by Greek scientist Pappus and Swiss mathematician
g.n
Guldinus are used. These two theorems are also used to locate the centroid of bodies by
knowing surface area or volume generated.
3.3.1. Pappus and Guldinus theorems

Theorem I
et
The first theorem states that the area of the surface generated by revolving a plane curve
about a non intersecting axis in its plane is equal to the product of the length of the curve and the
distance travelled by the centroid of the curve during the generation.
B
B
A C
A C A C
Sphere Cone Torus
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.2
Referring to the figure, by rotating a semicircular arc ABC about the axis AC, the surface
of a sphere can be obtained. By rotating a straight line AB about an axis AC, the surface of a
cone is generated. By rotating the circumference of a circle about the axis AC, the surface of a
ring or torus is obtained.
Note:
A surface of revolution is a surface which can be generated by rotating a plane curve about
a fixed axis.
ww
Theorem II
The second theorem states that the volume of solid generated by revolving a plane area
w.E
about a non intersecting axis in its plane is equal to the product of the area and length of path the
centroid travels during the generation.
Solid Sphere
a Solid Cone
syE Solid Torus
(a) (b)
ngi
(c)
Figure 3.3
nee
rin
Referring to figure 2.47, a solid sphere can be obtained by rotating a semicircular area
about an axis. Similarly a cone is obtained by rotating a triangular area and a solid torus by
rotating a full circular area.
Note: g.n
A body of revolution is a body which can be generated by rotating a plane area about a
fixed axis. et
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Determine the surface area and volume of a sphere of radius ‘r’ by Puppus
and Guldinus theorems.
Solution:
a) Surface area
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem I, the surface area of a sphere is generated by rotating
a semi-circular area about an axis.
Surface area A = length × Distance travelled by centroid

 A = 4r2
b) Volume
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem II, the volume of a sphere can be generated by
rotating a semi-circular area.
Volume V = Area × Distance travelled by centroid
2. Find the surface area and volume of a right circular cone of base radius ‘r’
and height ‘h’.
Solution:
ww B
B
w.E –
x h –
x
L
G G
a
A C A C
syE
r r
(a) Surface revolution (b) Body revolution
ngi
a) Surface Area
Figure 3.4
nee
rin
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem I, the surface area of a right circular cone is
generated by rotating a slant length, L.
Surface area A = Length × Distance travelled by centroid g.n
 A = rL.


r
 L   2  
2 
et
b) Volume
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem II, the volume of a right circular cone is generated by
rotating a right angle triangle.
Volume V = Area × Distance travelled by centroid
1  r
 rh   2  
2  3 
 2
V  rh
3

3. Find the surface area and volume of a cylinder using Pappus and Guldinus
theorems.
Solution:
r
G h 2 h
G
r r
(a) Surface revolution (b) Body revolution
ww Figure 3.5
a) Surface Area
w.E
Let h and r be height and radius of a cylinder.
a syE
As per pappus and Guldinus theorem I, a cylinder can be generated by rotating a stright
line of length, h.
Surface area A
ngi
= Length × Distance travelled by centroid.
= h × 2r
b) Volume
 A = 2rh
nee
rin
As per Pappus and Guldinus theorem II, the volume of a cylinder is generated by
considering the shaded area.
Volume V = Area × Distance travelled by centroid g.n
3.4.1
 V = r2h
Determination of Centroid by First Moment of Areas
Consider a plane figure, for which the centroid is to be determined. The total area of the
et
plane figure is ‘A’ and its centroidal distances are and measured from reference axes ox and oy
respectively.
Let a1, a2,........ an are small elemental areas of figure.
x1, x2......... xn are respective distances of small elemental areas from y-axis
y1, y2......... yn are respective distances of small elemental areas from x-axis

x1
a1
x2
a2 C
x
y1
y2 y
x
O
Figure 3.6
ww According vanignon’s theorem,

AX  a1 x1  a 2 x 2  ........  a n x n
w.E
n
a x  a 2 x 2  ......  a n x n
a
i 1
i xi
X  1 1 
A A
a
n
a
syE
yi
a y  a 2 y 2  ......  a n y n
i
i 1
Y  1 1 
A A
Similarly,
n
a
n
a
ngi
where,
(or ) y axis.
i 1
i xi
(or) i 1
i yi
nee
is the first moment of area of the surface about x
3.4.2 IMPORTANT POINTS

rin
i. The axis, about which moments of areas are taken, is known as axis of reference.
g.n
ii. The axis of reference, of plane figures, is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for
determining y line of the figure for calculating
, and left x
iii. If the given section is symmetrical about X-X axis or Y-Y axis, then the C.G. of the section
et
will lie on the axis is symmetry.

3.5. Determination of Centroid of Standard Sections by

Integration
3.5.1 Rectangular Section
Figure 3.5 shows a rectangular section of width b and height h. Consider a small elemental
strip of thickness dy and width b as shown in figure 3.5.
Let dA = Area of strip
= b dy
h
A   dA   bdy  bh
 Total area 0
First moment of small elemental strip about x-axis
ww = dA y
w.E
Total first moment of area about x-axis
a
h h
  dA y    b dy  y
y 
2
 b  
h
bh
0
2
0
syE
 0
2 2
bh 2
 dA y  2  h
ngi
 Y
 dA bh 2 nee
rin
h
 Y
2
Similarly,
hb2 g.n
 X
b
 X
 dA
 dA x
 2 
bh
b
2 et
2
SOLVED PROBLEMS
4. Locate the centroid of the volume shown in figure 3.7. All dimensions are
in cm.

25 cm Cone
25 cm Cylinder
20 cm Hemisphere
x
O
ww Figure 3.7
Solution:
w.E
Divide the given figure into three parts.
i) Portion 1: Cone
v1  a1 2
3
1
syE
r h    20   25 
3
2
y1 
h
= 10466.7 cm3
 25  20 
25
 45  51.25 cm ngi
4 4
nee
rin
ii) Portion 2: Cylinder
v 2  r 2 h    202  25
= 31400 cm3
g.n
y2 
h
2
 20 
25
2
 20  32.5 cm
et
iii) Portion 3: Hemisphere
2 2 2
v3  r     203
3 3
= 16746.67 cm3
3r 5
y3  r   r
8 8
5
  20   12.5 cm
8
Using

v1 y1  v 2 y 2  v3 y3
y
v1  v 2  v3

10466.67  51.25  31400  32.5  16746.67  12.5 
10466.67  31400  16746.67
1766250.22
  30.13 cm
58613.34
5. A steel ball of 20 cm diameter rests centrally over a concrete cube of size

30 cm. Determine the centre of gravity of the system. Take density of
concrete as 25 kN / m3 and that of steel as 8 kN / m3.
ww 10
cm
w.E
Steel Ball
x
30 cm
a
Concrete Cube
30 cm
x syE
ngi
nee
rin
Figure 3.8
g.n
Solution:
As the system is symmetrical about y-axis, therefore, its centre of gravity lies on the y-axis.
Let be the position of C.G from the reference axis x-x as shown in figure 2.54.
et
i) Portion 1: Steel Ball (Sphere)
3
4 3 4  10  3
v1  r        4.189  10 m
3
3 3  100 
w1 = v1 × Density of steel = 4.189 × 10–3 × 8000
= 33.5 N
y1 = 30 + 10 = 40 cm
ii) Portion 2: Concrete cube
v2 = 0.3 × 0.3 × 0.3 = 27 × 10–3 m3
w2 = v2 × Density of concrete = 27 × 10–3 × 25000

= 675 N.
y2 = 30/2 = 15 cm
w1 y1  w 2 y2  33.51  40    675  15
y  
w1  w 2 33.51  675
= 16.18 cm.
6. A machine component is formed by combining a hallow cylinder, a solid
cylinder and a cube as shown in figure 3.9. The mass density of solid cylinder
and cube is 8000 kg / m3 and of hollow cylinder is 8500 kg / m3.
i) Find the centre of gravity of the composite volume
ii) Locate the centre of mass of the composite volume.
ww y
w.E
12 cm
12 cm 1 Cube
10 cm
12 cm 3
2
a
8cm
syE
Solid Cylinder
8 cm Hollow Cylinder
ngi
Figure 3.9
Solution: nee
rin
As the machine component is symmetrical about y-axis, therefore, it is necessary to find
g.n
only.
Divide the component into three parts
i) Portion 1: Cube
v1 = 12 × 12 × 12 = 1728 cm3 = 1.728 × 10–3 m3
m1 = v1 × density= 1.728 × 10–3 × 8000
et
= 13.824 kg.
12
y1   22  28 cm
2
ii) Portion 2: Solid cylinder
v2 =  r2 h =  × 44 × 10 = 502.72 cm3
= 0.502 × 10–3 m3
m2 = v1 × density = 0.50 × 10–3 × 8000
= 4.07 kg.
10
y2   12  17 cm
2

iii) Portion 3: Hollow cylinder

v3 =  (R2 – r2)h =  (62 – 42) × 20
= 1256.8 cm3 = 1.2568 × 10–3 m3
m2 = v3 × density= 1.2568 × 10–3 × 8500
= 10.68 kg.
12
y3   6 cm
2
a) Centre of gravity of composite volume
v1 y1  v 2 y 2  v3 y3
y 
v1  v 2  v3
ww 
1.728  10 3
   
 28  0.502  103  17  1.2568  103  6
1.728  103  0.502  103  1.2568  103

b) w.E
= 18.49 cm
Centre of mass of the composite volume
y 

a
m1 y1  m 2 y 2  m3 y3
m1  m 2  m3
syE
13.824  28   4.07  17   10.68  6 
= 18.21 cm.
13.82  4.07  10.68
ngi
7.
nee
Determine the centroid of bent wire as shown in figure 3.10. All dimensions
are in cm.
10 cm
A
Reference axis
rin
g.n
o x
B
5cm
C
D
2 cm
E
et
2cm 4cm
y
Figure 3.10
Solution:
As the bent wire is not symmetrical about any axis, therefore, it is necessary to find both
and . Let ox and oy be the reference axes to which the position of C.G of the wire is determined.
Divide the bent wire into four parts as shown in figure 2.56.

i) Portion 1: Wire AB
L1 = 10 cm
x1 = 10/2 = 5 cm
y1 = 0
ii) Portion 2: Wire BC
L2 = 5 cm
x2 = 0
y2 = 2.5 cm
iii) Portion 3: Wire CD
L3 = 2 cm
ww x3 = 1 cm
w.E
y3 = 5 cm
iv) Portion 4: DEF
D   4
L4 
2

a 2
4
 6.284 cm
x 4  2   4cm
2 syE
y4  5 
4r
3
5
4  2
 3 

ngi
= 5.84 cm
L1 y1  L 2 y 2  L3 y3  L 4 y 4 nee
 Using
y
L1  L 2  L3  L 4
10  0  5  2.5   2  5   6.284  5.84 rin


10  5  2  6.284
g.n
= 2.54 cm
L x  L 2 x 2  L3 x 3  L 4 x 4
x 1 1
et
Similarly, L1  L 2  L3  L 4

10  5  5  0   2 1   6.284  4 
10  5  2  6.284
= 3.31 cm
8. Determine the centroid of the area bound by x-axis, if OB is represented by
y = kx2 and OA = a and OB = b as shown in figure 3.11.

B
2
y=kx
b
y
x
O x A
a dx
ww
Solution:
Figure 3.11
w.E
The equation of the curve is y = kx2. The value of constant ‘k’ can be obtained by
substituting the values of x = a and y = b in the above equation.
 b  ka 2
or
a k
b
a2
syE
Area of elemental strip = y dx.
  Area of the figure
ngi
Consider a vertical strip of width dx as shown in figure 2.57.
a a
  y dx   kx 2 dx nee
0 0
rin
g.n
a
 x3  a3
k  k
 3 0 3

b
a
1
2
 ab.
3

a3
3



k
b 

a2 
et
Moment of area about y - axis
a a a
   y dx  x    k x dx  x   kx dx
2 3
0 0 0
a
 x4  b  a4  b a2
k   2  
 4 0 a  4  4
Moment of area about x - axis,

a a
y y2
   y dx 
0
2
 0 2 dx
a
1
a
1  x5 
 
2 0
k 2 x 4 dx  k 2  
2  5 0
1  b2   a 5  ab2
  4  
2  a   5  10
Moment of area about y-axis
x=
Area

 ba 2
/4   ba 2

3 3
 a
1  ab  4 ab 4
3
ww y=
Moment of area about x-axis
w.E
Similarly, Area
ab 2 3 3
  
10 ab 10
COMPOSITE AREAS:
b
a syE
ngi
9. From a rectangular lamina ABCD 10 cm x 12 cm a rectangle hole of 3 cm x 4 cm is cut as
shown in figure.
nee
rin
g.n
et

Solution:
The section shown in figure is having a cut hole. The center of gravity of a section with a cut
hole is determined by considering the main section first as a complete one and then subtracting
the area of the cut hole, i.e., by taking the area of the cut hole as negative.
Let y is the distance between the C.G of the section with a cut hole from the bottom line DC.
a1 = Area of rectangle ABCD = 10 x 12 = 120 cm2
y1 = Distance of C.G of the rectangle ABCD from the bottom line DC
= 12/2 = 6 cm
ww
a2 = Area of cut hole, i.e., rectangle EFGH = 4 x 3 = 12 cm2
w.E
y2 = Distance of C.G of the cut hole from bottom line DC
= 2 + 4/2 = 2+ 2 = 4 cm
Now using the equation
a syE
y = (a1y1 – a2y2)/A
Where A = a1 – a2
ngi
y = (120 x 6 – 12 x 4) /(120 – 12 ) = 6.22 cm nee
rin
To Find x
g.n
Let x = Distance between the C.G of the section with a cut hole from the left line AD
x1 = Distance of the C.G of the rectangle ABCD from the left line AD
et
= 10/2 = 5 cm
x2 = Distance of the C.G of the cut hole from the left line AD
= 5 + 1 + 3/2 = 7.5 cm
Using the equation
x = (a1x1 – a2x2)/a1 – a2
x = (120 x 5 – 12 x 7.5 ) / ( 120 – 12 ) = 4.72 cm

Result:
Hence, the C.G of the section with a cut hole will be at a distance of 6.22 cm from bottom line
DC and 4.72 cm from the line AD.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

Review Questions
1. Differentiate between centre of gravity and centroid.

2. Define centre of mass. How is it different from centre of gravity.
3. What is centre of pressure?
4. What do you understand by axis of symmetry? Give examples.
5. Define centre of symmetry. Give examples.
6. What do you understand by axis of reference?
7. Distinguish between reference axes and centroidal axes.
8. State papus and Guldinus theorems.
ww9. What is centroid of a volume?

10. Under what conditions do the following coincide?
11. Centre of mass and centre of gravity
w.E
12. Centre of gravity and centroid of area.
13. What is a body of revolution?
a
14. Find the centroid of an I-section with top flange 100mm×20mm, web 200mm×30mm
syE
and bottom flange 300 mm×40 mm.
(Ans:= 79 mm from bottom of lower flange)
ngi
15. Find the position of the centroid of an unequal angle section 10 cm × 16 cm × 2 cm.
(Ans: =5.67 cm, = 2.67 cm)
nee
16. Find the moment of inertia of a T-section having flange and web both 120mm × 30mm
about x-x axis passing through the C.G of the section.
rin (Ans: Ixx = 14715 × 103 mm4)
g.n
et

DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE FIGURE

Moment of Inertia of a plane Area
Moment of inertia of an area about an axis is nothing but second moment of area about the
desired axis. It is a purely mathematical term and one of the important properties of areas.
Consider a plane area, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out. Split up the
whole area into a number of small elements.
Let a1, a2, a3 ..... = Areas of small elements and

r1, r2, r3 .... = Distance of the elements from the line about which the moment
of intertia is required to be found out
ww Now the moment of inertial of the area,

I = a1 r12 + a2 r22 + a3 r32 + ......
w.E =  ar2
Moment of Inertia by the Method of Integration
a syE
Consider a plane figure, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out about x-x axis
and y-y axis as shown in figure. Let us divide the whole area into a number of small elemental
areas. Consider one of these strips.
y
ngi
x dA
nee
y rin
x g.n
et
O
Fig
Let dA = Area of the small element under consideration.
x = Distance of the C.G. of the element on x-x axis.
y = Distance of the C.G. of the element on y-y axis.
We known that the moment of inertia of the elemental area about y-y axis
= dA · x2
 Moment of inertia of the whole area may be obtained by integrating the above equation.
 I yy   dA x 2   dA x 2
Similarly,

Ixx   dA y2   dA y2
Polar moment of inertia

The moment of inertia of an area of plane figure with respect to an axis perpendicular to the x-y
plane and passing through a pole O (z -axis) is called the polar moment of inetia.it is denoted by
the letter J.
Polar moment of inertia of the element about Z axis
=area(dA)×(distance between the element and Z axis)2
=dA.r2
Polar moment of inertia of the whole area about z axis
J= ∫ r2 dA
But from the geomentry of figure, r2=x2+y2
J=∫ r2 dA=∫ (x2+y2)dA =∫ x2dA +∫y2dA
ww
J=IYY+IXX
w.E
Units of moments of inertia
We know that moment of intertia of an area
=(area)(distance)2 =(length)4
Radius of gyration
a
Thus ,it has a unit of ‘m4’.
syE
ngi
Radius of gyration of an area is defined as the distance from a reference axis whose area is
considered to be concentrated such that these is no change in the moment of inertia about the
reference axis.
nee
If the entire area A is concentrated at a distance k from a reference axis, then the moment
rin
of inertia, I, of the entire area about the reference axis is taken as Ak2.
i.e., I = Ak2
k
I g.n
or A
where, k = Radius of gyration.

A = Area of the section.
et
Hence, radius of gyration about x-x axis,
I xx
k xx 
A
and, radius of gyration about y-y axis,

Parallel Axis Theorem

This theorem states that moment of inertia of an area about any axis in the plane of an area,
is equal to the sum of moment of inertia about a parallel centroidal axis and the product of area
and square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
dA
y
G G
C.G
ww B
Fig
w.E
a
Referring to figure,
IAB = IGG + Ah2 syE
ngi
where, IAB is the moment of inertia about the axis AB
IGG is the moment of inertia about centroidal axis GG parallel to AB,
A is the area of the plane figure
nee
h is the distance between the axis AB and the parallel centroidal axis GG.
rin
Consider an elemental parallel strip of area dA at a distance y from centroidal axis.
Then,
IAB    y  h  dA
2
g.n
 
  y2  2yh  h 2 dA   y2 dA   2yh dA   h 2 dA
et
Now,  y dA  Moment of inertia about the axis GG.
2
 2yh dA  2h  y dA
 y dA
 2h A
A
 y dA
In the above, term, 2hA is constant, and A is the distance of centroid from the
 y dA
0
reference axis GG. Since GG passes through the centroid itself, A and hence the term
 2yh dA  0
Now, the third term

  h 2 dA  h 2  · dA  Ah 2
 IAB  IGG  Ah 2
Hence the proof

Perpendicular Axis Theorem
This theorem states that the moment of inertia of an area about an axis perpendiuclar to its
plane at any point O, is equal to the sum of moment of inertia about any two mutually
perpendicular axis through the same point O and lying in the plane of the area.
y
dA
ww
x
w.E
y
r
a x
syE
Fig
ngi
Referring to figure, if z-z is the axis normal to the plane passing through
point O.
As per the theorem,
nee
Izz = Ixx + Iyy
rin
g.n
In order to prove this theorem, let us consider an elemental area dA at a distance r from O.
Let the co-ordinates of dA be x and y. Then from definition,
I zz   r 2 dA

  x 2  y2 dA   r  x 2  y2 
et
  x 2 dA   y 2 dA
= Ixx + Iyy
 Izz  I xx  I yy
Hence the proof.

Determination of M.I of Standard Sections by Integration

M.I of a Rectangular Section
Consider a rectangle of base ‘b’ and depth ‘d’ as shown in figure. Let us find M.I of this
rectangle section about its centroidal axes and base.
ww
a)
Fig w.E
M.I of rectangular section about its centroidal axes
a syE
Consider a strip AB of thickness dy parallel to x-x axis and at a y distance from it.
Area of the strip = b · dy
M.I of the strip about x-x axis,
= Area × y2 ngi
= (b · dy) y2
b · y2 · dy
nee
rin
=
The M.I of the whole section can be found out by integrating for the whole length of the
lamina.
d
2
d
2 g.n
I xx   b · y · dy  
et
2
y 2 · dy
d d
2 2
    d 2  
 d 3 3
d
y  3 2

b  b 2 
 3  d 2 
3 3

Similarly,
bd 3
I yy 
12

b) M.I of rectangular section about its base.

Consider a strip AB of thickness dy parallel to the base RS and at a y distance from it.
M.I of the strip about base
IRS (base) = (b · dy) · y2
M. I of the whole section about the base RS
d
IRS base    b y2 dy
0
d
 y3  3
 b    bd
 3 0 3
ww
M.I of a Circular Section
w.E
Consider a circular section of radius r as shown in figur 2.62. Now consider an elementary
ring of radius x and thickness dx.
 Area of the ring, dA = 2x · dx
a syE
In order to find the M.I of circular section, first find the M.I of the ring about the axis
normal to the plane of circle (zz).
ngi
y
z
dx
x r
nee
rin
x O x
z g.n
y
M.I of ring about zz axis,

et
= dA · x2 = (2 x dx) x2 = 2 x3 dx
M.I of the circular section about zz axis.
r r
Izz   2x 3 dx  2  x 3 dx
0 0
r
 x4   4
 2     r   d
4
 4 0 2 32
We know form the perpendicular axis theorem,

I zz  I xx  I yy
I zz 1 d 4 d 4
 I xx  I yy    
2 2 32 64
d 4
I xx  I yy 
64
M.I of a Triangular Section

Consider a triangular section of base b and height h as shown in figure.
ww
y
w.E
dy P Q
x G x
a
B C
b
Fig
syE
ngi
First find the M.I of the triangle about its base BC, then by applying the parallel axis
theorem we can calculate M.I about its centroidal horizontal axis x-x.
nee
rin
g.n
et

a) M.I of a triangular section about its base

Consider a small strip PQ of thickness by at a distance of y from the apex A of the triangle.
From the geometry of the figure
PQ y

BC h
 Width of the strip
BC  y by
PQ  
 h h
 by 
PQ     dy
 Area of the strip  h 
ww M.I of the strip about base BC

= Area of the strip × (Distance)2
w.E  by 
   dy   h  y 
2
a 
 h 
by
h syE
 h  y  dy
2
ngi
M.I of the whole triangular section, about its base.
nee
h
by
  h  y  dy
2
IBase
0
h
h
rin
b
  y  h  y  dy
2
h0
g.n
h
y  h 2  y2  2hy  dy
b
h 0

et
h

b
h 0
 yh 2  y3  2hy2  dy
h
b y h y 2
2h y 
2 4 3
    
h  2 4 3 0
b  h 4 h 4 2h 4 
    
h 2 4 3 
bh 3

12
bh 3
 IBase 
12

b) M.I of a triangular section about its horizontal centroidal axis x-x.

M.I of a triangular section about its horizontal axis x-x can be obtained from parallel axis
theorem.
P h
dy Q
x G x
B C
b
ww Fig

IBase
  Ixx
w.E = Ixx + Ah2
= IBase – Ah2
 
a
bh 3  bh  h  
  
3
syE

12  2  3  
bh 3 bh 3 bh 3
  ngi
12
 I xx 
18
bh 3
36
nee
36
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
Review Question.
a syE
1. Define moment of inertia of an area.
2. State and prove the parallel axis theorem. ngi
3. State the perpendicular axis theorem.
nee
4. Find the moment of inertia of a T-section having flange and web both 120mm × 30mm
rin
about x-x axis passing through the C.G of the section. (Ans: Ixx = 14715 × 103 mm4)
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

FRICTION
2.1 Introduction to Friction5ffokfkjg1 Introduction

When two bodies in contact have a tendency to move over each other a resistance to the
movement is set up. This resistance to the movement is called the force of friction or simply
friction. Friction depends upon the nature of the surfces of contact and it acts paralle to the
surface of contact. The direction of this frictional force on any of the surfaces of contact will be
opposite to the direction in which the contact surface tends to move. In other words friction
opposes motion. In engineering friction has many applications. Some of the applications are the
design of brakes, belts, bolts and nuts, ropes, etc.
ww
2.1.1 Type of Friction
In engineering applications, we come across the following two types of friction.
w.E
i) Dry friction
ii) Fluid friction
i) Dry friction
a syE
It takes place between dry surfaces of bodies in contact. This type of friction is also known
as coulomb friction. The direction of force is always opposite to the motion or impending
motion.
ii) Fluid friction ngi
nee
It takes place when adjacent layers in a fluid are moving at different velocities. This
motion causes frictional forces between the fuild elements. These forces depend on relative
velocities, velocity gradients and viscosity of the fluid.
rin
Dry friction is further classified into two types.
a) Static friction g.n
a)
b) Dynamic or Kinetic friction
Static friction et
It is one experienced by a body at rest. The static friction is always greater than dynamic
or kinetic firction.
b) Dynamic or kinetic friction
It is one experienced by a body during motion. It is always less than static friction. It
depend on the velocity at which body slides and it slightly decreases as the velocity of sliding
increases.
The dynamic friction is further classified into (i) Sliding friction and (ii) Rolling friction.
Sliding friction occurs when one body slides over another. Rolling friction occurs when the
body rolls over a surface.
2.1.2 Limiting Friction

F
P
Figure 4.1
Consider a wooden block resting on a rough horizontal table. Let W be the weight of the
block. Let the block be subjected to a harizontal force ‘P’. When this applied force is
sufficiently small, the block will remain in equilibrium. Suppose if force ‘F’ continues to oppose
‘P’ with larger magnitude but attains a maximum value ‘Fm’ beyond which the block starts
sliding. This maximum resistance offered by the body is called limiting friction.
ww
2.1.3 Co-efficient of Friction
It is defined as the ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction. It is denoted
by ‘’.
w.E
Mathematically,  
limiting friction
a Normal Re action
syE
Co-efficeient of friction is of two types.
ngi
i) Co-efficient of static friction (s)
It is the ratio of maximum static friction force Fm and the normal reaction ‘R’.
i.e., s 
Fm
R nee
ii) Co-efficient of kinetic friction (k)
rin
g.n
It is the ratio of the kinetic friction force Fk and the normal reaction ‘R’.
Fk
i.e., k 
R
et
Co-effiicient of kinetic friction is approximately 25% less than that of co-efficient of static
friction.
2.1.4 Angle of friction
W
F

R R'
Figure 4.2

Consider a block resting on the horizontal rough surface. Let R’ be the resultant reaction
(resultant of the normal reaction R and friction F). The angle  between the resultant and the
normal to the surface is called the angle of friction.
F
Mathematically, tan  
R
Corresponding to the limiting condition of equilibrium, the friction ‘F’ will reach the
maximum value. Corresponding to this condition the angle of friction reaches a maximam value
 so that
Fmax R
tan       F  R 
R R
ww
   tan –1 
w.E
The inclination of the resultant with the normal when the condition of limiting
equilibrium is reached is called the angle of limiting friction.
a
2.1.5 Angle of Repose
syE R
ngi
w sin 
nee F
 w

w cos rin
g.n
Figure 4.3
Consider a block of weight ‘w’ resting on a rough incline plane as shown in
figure 4.3. Let ‘R’ be the normal reaction and ‘F’ be the friction.
et
Resolving the forces along the plane
w sin = F
Resolving the forces normal to the plane
w cos = R
F w sin 
 tan   
R w cos 
The frictional force ‘F’ opposes the motion and hence the block tends to remain at rest.
As the inclination of the plane is increased, the block slides down since the component w sin
increases. In other words, the angle between the normal and the resultant can

never be greater than the angle of friction . The maximum inclination of the plane at which a
body can remain in equilibriun over the plane entirely by the assistance of friction is called the
angle of repose.
Obviously, Angle of repose () = Angle of limiting friction ().
2.2 Laws of Friction

Based on extensive research, Professor Coulomb has gave two laws. These laws are are
known as laws of coulomb friction (or) dry friction.
i) Laws of static friction
ww ii) Laws of dynamic (or) kinetic friction.

2.2.1 Laws of Static Friction
w.E
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the
body tends to move.
a syE
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force which tends
to move the body.
ngi
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the surfaces of contact.
nee
4. The frictional force does not depends on the shape and area of contact of the
bodies.
2.2.2 Laws of Dynamic Friction
rin
g.n
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the
body is moving.
2. The magnitude of dynamic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces. et
3. The co-efficient of dynamic or kinetic friction is less than the co-efficieint of
static friction.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A body of weight 300N is just moved by a force of 60N as shown in
figure 4.5. Determine the co-efficient of static friction between the block
and the floor.

60N
300N 15°
Figure 4.5
Solution:
ww Draw the FBD of the block.
w.E 300N
a
60N
syE 15°
F=R ngi
R
nee
Figure 4.5 (a)
rin
Resolve all the forces along vertical direction.
g.n
R – 300 + 60 sin 15º = 0
     R = 284.47N
Resolve all the forces along horizontal directions.
et
 Fx  0    ve 
60 cos15º – R = 0
60cos15º 60cos15º
   0.203
R 284.47
2. Find the horizontal force required to drag a body of weight 110N along a
horizontal plane. If the plane, when gradually raised up to 15º, the body will
begin to slide.
Solution:

110N
R
R
Figure 4.6
ww
Given that the body begins to slide when the inclination is raised upto 15º.
       = 15º
and,  = tan  = tan15º
w.E
Resolving the forces along vertical directions.
 Fy  0    ve 
= 0.27.
a
R– 110N = 0
      R = 110N
syE
ngi
Resolving the forces along horizontal directions,
Fx  0    ve 
P – R = 0 nee
     P = R = 0.27×100 = 29.47N
rin
3.
g.n
A block ‘A’ weighing 2000N resting on a horizontal surface supoorts a block B
weighing 1000N as shown in figure 4.7. The block B is connected to a string
which is attached to a vertical wall. Find the horizontal force P which should
be applied on the block ‘A’ so as to just move it leftwards. Take  = 0.3 at
all the contact surfaces. Find also the corresponding tension in the string.
et
B 30°
1000N
A
P
2000N

Figure 4.7
Solution:
Draw the FBD of the blocks.
1000N
T
30°
F1=R1
ww R1
w.E Figure 4.7(a): FBD of block B
a syE
2000N + R1
F1
ngi
nee
P
F2
rin
R2
g.n
Consider Block B
Figure 4.7(b): FBD of block A et
Resolve all the forces along vertical direction,
Fy  0    ve 
R1+T sin30º = 1000N
 T sin30º = 1000 – R1 ...(i)
Similarly,
Resolve all the the forces along horizontal direction.
Fx  0    ve 

T cos30º = F1 = R1 = 0.3 R1 ...(ii)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
T sin 30º 1000 – R1


T cos 30º 0.3 R1
1000 – R1
or t an 30º 
0.3 R1
1000 – R1
ww or 0.5774 
0.3 R1
or
w.E
0.5774×0.3R1
or 0.173R1
= 1000 – R1
= 1000
a  R1 
1000
syE
1.173
 852.51N
and, F1 = R1 = 0.3×852.51 = 255.75N

Consider Block A
ngi
Resolve all the forces vertically.
nee
R2 = 2000+R1 = 2000+852.51 = 2852.51N
 F2 = R2
= 0.3×2852.51 = 855.5N rin
Similarly,
g.n
Resolve the forces horizontally,
P = F1+F2
= 255.75+855.75 = 1111.50N
et
4. A block ‘A’ weighing 350N resting on a rough hroizontal floor supports a block
B weighing 150N. The two blocks are connected to a string passing over
round a smooth pulley as shown in figure 4.8. Find what horizontal force P
has to be applied and the block A so as to just move it towards right. Take 
 =0 at all contact surfaces. Find also the tension in the string.

T
150N B
T A
350N P
Figure 4.8
Solution:
Draw the F.B.D of the blocks
ww 150N R1+350N
w.E F1
T
a syE
T P
F1=R1
ngi F2=R2
nee
R1 R2
(a) Block B
rin
(b) Block A
Figure 4.8 (a)
Consider Block B
g.n
Resolving the forces vertically,
R1–150 = 0
 R1 = 150N
et
Resolving the forces horizontally,
T –R1 = 0
 T = R1 = 0.25 × 150 = 37.5N

and F1 = R1 = 0.25 × 150 = 37.5N
Consider Block A
R2 = R1 + 30 = 150 + 350 = 500N

 F2 = R2 = 0.25 × 500 = 125N

P = T + F1 + F2
= 37.5 + 37.5 + 125 = 200N
5. A body of weight 500N is lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 25°
with the horizontal. It is supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as
shown in figure 4.9. Determine the minimum and maximum values of P, for
which the equilibrium can exist, if the angle of friction is 20º.
P
ww
w.E
500N
25°
Solution:
a)
a syE
To find the minimum value of P
Figure 4.9
ngi
Let Pmin = minimum value of an effort at which the body is at the point of sliding
downwards.
Draw the FBD of the body. nee
R
rin
g.n
P min
5°
W s in2
25°
F=
25° W co
500N
R
s25
°
et
Figure 4.9 (a)
Given, W = 500N,  = 25º and  = 20º
 Fy  0    ve 
R – W cos 25º = 0  R = 500×cos25º = 453.15N

 Fx  0    ve 
Pmin – W sin25º+R1 = 0
       Pmin = W sin25º – R
But,  = tan = tan20º
= 0.363
 Pmin = 500×sin25º –0.363×453.15
= 46.81N
b) To find the maximum value of P
Let Pmax = Maximum value of an effort at which the body is at the point of sliding
ww Draw the
upwards.
FBD of the body
w.E R
a syE in2
5°
P m ax
Ws
= ngi
R 25° W co
s25
°
25° F W=500N
Figure 4.9 (b) nee
We know, R = 453.15N and  = 0.363
rin
Now, Resolving the forces horizontally,
Pmax – W sin25º – R = 0 g.n
6.
Pmax = 500×sin25º+0.363×453.15
= 375.8N
An effort of 200N is required just to move a certain body up an inclined
et
plane of angle 15º, the force acting parallel to the plane. If the angle of
inclination of the plane is made 20º, the effort required, again applied parallel
to the plane, is found to be 230N. Find the weight of the body and the
co-efficient of friction.
Solution:
Given, P1 = 200N, 1 = 15º
P2 = 230N, 2 = 20º
Let  = co- efficient of friction

W = Weight of the body

R = Normal reaction
F = Force of friction
a) When P1 = 200N and 1 = 15º
R1
00N
P 1=2
15°
W sin
ww 1=15°
F1
15°
W W cos15°
w.E Figure 4.10 (a): FBD
a syE
Resloving the forces vertically,
 Fy  0    ve 
R1 = Wcos15º
Resolving the forces horizontally, ngi ... (i)
 Fx  0    ve 
nee
200 = F1 +W sin15º = R1+W sin15º
= W cos15º+W sin15 rin
= W(cos15º+ sin15º)
When P2 = 230N and 2 = 20º
g.n ... (ii)
b)
R2
et
30N
P 2=2
°
in20
Ws
F 2 20°
20°
W W cos
1=20°
Figure 4.10 (b): FBD


 Fy  0    ve 
R2 = Wcos20º ... (iii)
 Fx  0    ve 
230 = F2 + W sin20º = R2 + W sin20º
= W cos20º + W sin20º
= W( cos20º + sin20º) ... (iv)
Dividing equation (iv) by (ii)
ww 230
200

W   cos 20  sin 20 
W   cos 15  sin 15 
w.E
 230 cos 15º + 230 sin 15º = 200  cos 20º + 200 sin 20º
 ( 230 cos 15º – 200 cos 20 º) = 200 sin 20º – 230 sin 15º
a syE 
200 sin 20º – 230 sin 15º
230 cos 15º – 200 cos 20º
 0.259
Substituting the value of  in equation (ii)

ngi
200 = W ( 0.259 cos 15º + sin 15º )

= 0.509W
W
200 nee
 392.9N
0.509
rin
g.n
7. Determine the minimum weight of W so that the block of 1000N will not
slide down the plane. Assume the pulley to be smooth and take  = 0.3
between the block and inclined surface.
et
W
N
00
10
36.87°
Figure 4.11

Solution:
Let T = Tension in the rope of pulley.
T
R1

sin 
W
s
F1 co
W
ww
W
=36.87°
w.E
a R1 F1 syE
Figure 4.11 (a): FBD of block of weight W
F2 ngi
sin
  nee
rin
0 0 
10 c os
00
10
1000N
g.n
=36.87°
et
Figure 4.11 (b): FBD of block of weight 800N.
Consider the block of weight W
R1 = W cos  = W cos 36.87º = 0.8W
T = W sin  + F1 = W sin  + R1

( F1 = R1) = W sin 36.87º + 0.3 × 0.8W = 0.84W

Consider the block of weight 1000N
R2 = R1 + 1000 cos  = 0.8W + 1000 cos 36.87º
= 0.8W + 800
T + F1 + F2 = 1000 sin 
T + R1 + R2 = 1000 sin 
0.84W + 03 × ( 0.8W + 800 ) = 1000 sin 36.87º
ww 1.32W = 1000 sin 36.87º – 0.3 × 800 = 360
W 
360
 272.72N
w.E 1.32
and, T = 0.84W = 0.84 × 272.72 = 229.1N.
8.
a
A body of weight 450N is pulled up along an inclined plane having inclination
syE
30º to the horizontal at a steady speed. Find the force required if the
co-efficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.25 and force is
ngi
applied parallel to the body is 10 m along the plane, find the work done on
the body.
Solution:
Given, W = 450N,  = 0.25,  = 30º and d = 10m
nee
Draw the FBD of the block.
R
rin
P
g.n
W
sin
30°
F
et
30° °
30
cos
W
W
30°
Figure 4.12
Resolving the forces horizontally (i.e., parallel to the incline plane)

P – W sin 30º – F = 0
or P = 450 × sin 30º + 0.25 × R ... (i)
Resolving the forces vertically (i.e., normal to the inclined plane)
R – W cos 30º = 0
    R = 450 × cos 30º = 389.71N
Sustituting the value of R in equation (i)
    P = 450 × sin 30º + 0.25 × 389.71 = 322.42N
Work done = Force × Distance moved
= 322.42 × 10 = 3224.2 Nm.
9.
ww Determine the necessary force P acting parallel to the plane as shown in

figure 4.13 to cause motion to impend. Assume the co-efficient of friction as
0.25 and the pulley to be smooth.
w.E m2
m1=50kg
m1
a m2=150kg
syE
P 45°
ngi
Figure 4.13 nee
Solution:
rin
R1 T g.n
W2=150×9.81=1471.5N
F
=0
1
. 25
R 1
T
et
) 5°
4 5° ° s4
sin 45 co
+W
1
W1
(P F2=0.15R2
W1=50×9.81=490.5N R2
Figure 4.13 (a): FBD of 50kg Block Figure 4.13 (b): FBD of 150kg Block.
Considering 150kg block


R2 = 1471.5N.
T – 0.25 R2 = 0  T = 0.25 × 1471.5 = 367.87N
Considering 50 kg block
R1 = 490.5N
T – P – W1 sin45º + 0.25 R1 = 0
367.87 – P – 490.5 × sin 45º +0.25 × 490.5 = 0
ww               P = 143.7N
10.
w.E
Two masses m1 and m2 are tied together by a rope parallel to the inclined
plane surface, as shown in figure 4.14. Their masses are 30kg and 10kg
respectirely. The co-efficient of friction between m1 and the plane is 0.25,
a
while that of mass m2 and the plane is 0.5. Determine i) the value of the
syE
inclination of the plane surface for which masses will just start sliding,
ii) the tension in the rope.
ngi
m2
nee
m1 rin
g.n

et
Figure 4.14
Solution:
Given, m1 = 30kg  W1 = 30 × 9.81 = 294.3N
m2 = 10kg  W2 = 10 × 9.81 = 98.1N
1 = 0.25, 2 = 0.50

Let T = Tension in the rope connecting the masse m1 and m2

R1
T
F1
 s
 co
sin W1
1
W W1

ww Figure 4.14 (a): FBD of mass m1

R2
w.E F2
a syE
+W
2
sin

W2

W2
co
s
(T 
ngi
Considering mass m1
Figure 4.14 (b): FBD of mass m2
nee
Resolving the forces vertically, rin
R1 – W cos  = 0  R1
Resolving the forces horizontally, g.n
= 294.3 cos  .. (i)
T – W1 sin+ F1 = 0
T – W1 sin  + 0.25 × R1 = 0
et
T – W1 sin  + 0.25 × 294.3 cos  = 0
T = W1 sin  – 73.58 cos 
= 294.3 sin  – 73.58 cos  ... (ii)
Considering mass m2
R2 – W2 cos  = 0  R2 = 98.1 cos  ... (iii)

F2 – T – W2 sin = 0
0.5 × R2 – T – 98.1 sin = 0
0.5 × 98.1 cos  – T – 98.1 sin  = 0
49.05 cos– T – 98.1 sin  = 0
T = 49.05 cos  – 98.1 sin  ... (iv)
Equating the equations (ii) and (iv)
294.3 sin  – 73.58 cos  = 49.05 cos  – 98.1 sin 
392.4 sin  = 122.63 cos 
122.63
 tan    0.3125
 392.4
ww           = tan-1 (0.3125 ) = 17.35º

and, T = 294.3 sin (17.35º) – 73.58 × cos (17.35º)
2.3 Ladder Friction

w.E = 17.53N
a syE
A ladder is a device for climbing or scaling on the roofs or walls. It consists of two long
uprights of wood, iron or rope connected by a number of cross pieces called rungs which serve as
steps.
Fw
ngi
Rw
B
Ladder
nee
rin
Wall W
g.n
C
Floor

A
Rf
Ff et
Figure 4.15
Consider a ladder as shown in figure 4.15. Here the vertical surface is the wall and the
horizontal surface is the floor. The forces acting on the ladder are as follows.
i) Self weight of the ladder (W) acting downwards at the centre of gravity of ladder.
ii) Normal reaction offered by the floor (Rf) acting upwards at A.
iii) Friction force offered by the floor (Ff) acting left to right along the floor at A.
iv) Normal rection offered by the wall (Rw) acting right to left at B.

v) Friction force offered by the wall (Fw) acting upwards along the wall.
vi) Weight of person climbing the ladder acting downwards.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A uniform ladder of length10m and weighing 250N is placed against a smooth
vertical wall with its lower end 5m from the wall. The co-efficient of friction
between the ladder and floor is 0.3. Show that the ladder will remain in
equilibrium in this position. What is the frictional force acting on the
ladder at the point of contact between the ladder and the floor.
Solution:
B
Rw
ww 10m
w.E 250N
a syE C
5m
A
Ff
ngi
Figure 4.16
Rf
nee
As the wall is smooth there will be no friction at the point of contact between the ladder
and the wall.
rin
Rw = Ff
Resolving the forces vertically, g.n
Rf = Weight of ladder
= 250N
The vertical distance BC is found from geometry as
et
BC   AB –  AC 
2 2
 10 –  5  8.67m
2 2
Taking moment about B,  MB  0 ( + ve)

Ff × 8.67 – Rf × 5 + 250 × 2.5 = 0
Ff × 8.67 = Rf × 5 – 250 × 20.5
= 250 × 5 – 250 × 2.5 = 625 N

625
 Ff   72.08N.
8.67
Therefore, the frictional force required for equilibrium is 72.08 N.
The available maximum frictional force at the point of contact between the ladder and floor
is,
(Ff)max =  × Rf = 0.3 × 250 = 75 N.
Thus, it can be seen that the amount of the force of friction available at the point of contact
(75 N) is more than the force of friction required for equilibrium (72.08 N). Therefore, the
ladder will remain in equilibrium in this position.
2. A 6m ladder, weighing 400 N rests against a smooth wall. The angle
ww between it and the floor is 70º. The co-efficient of friction between the floor
and the ladder is 0.25. How far up the ladder can a man of 80 kg walk before
w.E
the ladder slips?
Solution:
a syE 6m
B
Rw
x ngi Wm
Wall
Floor 400N
70° nee
C
Ff A
rin
Rf
g.n
Figure 4.17
As the wall is smooth there will be no friction at the point of contact between the ladder
and the wall.
et
Let x = Distance on the ladder at which man stands before slipping of the ladder
Wn = Weight of man = 80 × 9.81 = 784.8 N
 Fy  0    ve 
Rf = 400 + 784.8 = 1184.8 N.
 Force of friction at A,
Ff =  Rf = 0.25 × 1184.8 = 296.2N.
Taking moment about B,

 MB  0 ( + ve)
6 
R f  6 cos 70º – Ff  6sin 70º – 400    cos 70º  –
2  ...
784.8 ( 6 – x ) cos 70º = 0

1184.8 × 6 cos 70º – 296.2 × 6 sin 70º – 400 × 3 × cos 70º
– 784.8 ( 6 – x ) cos 70º = 0
2431.35 – 1670.02 – 410.42 – 1610.5 + 268.41x = 0
or 268.41x – 1259.6 = 0
ww  x
1259.6
268.41
 4.7m
3.
w.E
A 6m long ladder weighing 180N is placed at 60º to the ground and is resting
a vertical wall. The man weighs 700N. The co-efficient of friction between
a
the ladder and ground is 0.4 and that between the ladder and the wall is 0.25.
syE
How far the man can clim so that the ladder does not slip.
Solutiion:
ngi
B nee
Fw
Rw
rin
6m
700N g.n
Wall
et
x
Floor 400N
A 60° C
Ff
Rf
Figure 4.18
Solution:
Rf + Fw – 700 – 800 = 0
Rf + 0.25 Rw – 700 – 180 = 0
 Rf = 880 – 0.25 Rw ... (i)

Ff – Rw = 0 ( ve)
0.4 Rf – Rw = 0  Rw = 0.4 Rf
Substituting the value of Rw in equation (i)
Rf = 880 – 0.25 × 0.4 Rf = 800 – 0.1 Rf
1.1 Rf= 880
880
 Rf   800 N, Ff  0.4  800  320 N.
1.1
and, Rw = 0.4 × 800
= 320 N.
wwTaking moment about B,

 MB  0 ( + ve)
w.E 800 × 6 cos 60º – 320 × 6 sin 60º – 180 × 3 cos 60º – 700
× 6 cos 60º + 700 x cos 60º = 0
a 2400 – 1662.77 – 270 – 2100 + 350 x = 0

350 x – 1632.77 = 0 syE
 x = 4.67m
2.4 Wedge Friction ngi
nee
A wedge is a simple device made up of wood or metal pieces, commonly used for raising
or lowering heavy loads. It is usually of a triangular or trapzoidal in corss section. The
rin
problems on wedges are basically the problems of equilibrium on inclined planes. Therefore, the
problems on wedges may be solved either by the equilibrium method or by applying Lamis
theorem.
Consider a wedge ABC, which is used to lift the body DEFG. g.n
Let W
P
= Weight of the body DEFG
= Force required to lift the body.
et
 = Co-effieient of friction on the planes AB, AC and DE such that tan  = 


E F
Body
B
G
D P
Wedge
A  C



ww Figure 4.19
A little consideration will show that when the force is sufficient to lift the body, the sliding
w.E
will take place along three planes AB, AC and DE. The forces acting on the wedge and the body
are shown in figure 4.19 (a) and 4.19 (b).
a R
syE

ngi
nee B
A
rin

R2
g.n
Figure 4.19 (a): Forces on the body DEFG
R2
et

P


R3
Figure 4.19 (b): Forces on the wedge ABC

The reactions R1, R2, R3 and P are found by considering the equilibrium of the body DEFG
and wedge ABC separately. Then resolve the forces acting horizontally and
vertically.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A block weighing 1.5 kN, overlying a 10º wedge on a horizontal floor and
leaning against a vertical wall, is to be raised by applying a horizontal force
to the wedge as shown in figure 4.20. Assuming the co-efficient of friction
between all the surfaces in contact to be 0.3, determine the minimum
wwhorizontal force to be applied to raise the block.

E F
w.E
a syE W=1.5kN G
B
ngi
D
A  C
Figure 4.20 nee

Solution:
rin
Given, W = 1.5 KN = 1500N,  = 10º
 = 0.3   = tan–1  = tan–1(0.3) = 16.7º g.n
Let P = Minimum horizontal force applied to raise the block.
Draw the FBD of the body and wedge.
E F
et
R2
 B
R1
P

B 
1500N G A C
D 
A  R3

R2
(a) FBD of block DEFG (b) FBD of wedge ABC

Considering the block DEFG

R1 cos  – R2 sin (  +  ) = 0
R1 cos ( 16.7º) – R2 sin (10º + 16.7º ) = 0
R 2 sin  26.7º 
 R1   0.47 R 2
cos 16.7º 
(i)
– R1 sin  – 1500 + R2 cos (  +  ) = 0
– 0.4 = R2 × sin ( 16.7º) – 1500 + R2 cos ( 10+16.7º) = 0
ww 0.758 R2 – 1500 = 0
w.E
Considering the wedge ABC
and, R1 = 0.47 × 1978.9 = 930 N.
a
syE
 Fy  0    ve 
R3 cos  – R2 cos (  +  ) = 0
R3 cos ( 16.7º) – 1978.9 cos ( 10º + 167º) = 0 ngi
           R3 = 1845.7 N.
Resolving the forces horizontally, nee
 Fx  0    ve 
rin
R2 sin ( 10º + 16.7º ) + R 3 sin ( 16.7º ) – P = 0
      P = 1419.6 N. g.n
block.
Thus, a minimum horizontal force of 1419.6 N is to be applied to the wedge to raise the
et
2. A 15º wedge has to be driven for tightening a block of weight 1000 N as
shown in figure 4.21. If the angle of friction for all the surfaces is 14º, find
the force P to be applied on the wedge.

1000N
A
15° B
ww
w.E Figure 4.21.
Solution:
aGiven, 
syE = 15º, W = 1000 N, and  = 14º
Draw the FBD of the block and wedge.
P ngi
nee 1000N
R2
rin
R3
 
g.n
15° 
R2 15°
et

R1
(a) FBD of wedge (b) FBD of block.

Consider the block

– R1 sin 14º + R2 cos ( 14º + 15º) = 0

   ve 
R 2 cos  29º 
 R1   3.615 R 2
sin 14º

R1 cos 14 º – R2 sin ( 14º + 15º ) – 1000 = 0
(3.615 R2) cos 14º – R2 sin (29º) – 1000 = 0
3.022 R 2 – 1000 = 0
ww  R2 
1000
3.022
 330.8 N.
w.E
Consider the wedge:
and, R1 = 3.615 × 330.8 = 1195.8 N.
a syE
Resolving the forces horizantally,
R3 cos 14º – R 2 cos (14º15º ) = 0

   ve 
ngi
R3 cos 14º = 330.8 cos (29º)
 R3
= 298.18 N.
nee
R3 sin 14º + R2 sin ( 14º + 15º ) – P = 0
298.1 sin 14º + 330.8 sin (29º) – P = 0 rin
 P = 232.51 N
g.n
Thus, a vertical force of 232.5 N should be applied to the wedge in order to move the block
horizontally. et
2.5 Screw Friction

l
W P
Screw head
Handle
Screw
Nut (body of jack)
ww
w.E d
a syE
ngi
Figure 4.22
nee
A screw jack is a device used for lifting or lowering heavy loads by applying a force at the
end of the lever. It consists of a screw and a nut. The screw head carries the load ‘w’; The nut
rin
is the body of the jack. The nut is fixed and the screw is rotated by mens of a lever at the end of
which the effort is applied.
Figure 4.22 shows the schematic digram of a screw jack.
g.n
Let P = An effort applied at the end of the lever
l = Length of the lever.
d = Mean diameter of the screw
et
r = Mean radius of the screw
 = Helix angle.
P = Pitch of the screw (distance between the adjacent threads)
P1 W
P
d

Figure 4.22 (a): Helix angle.

The equivalent effort P1 at a distance equal to the mean radius of the screw is given by the
condition,
d
P1   P
2
2P P  d
 P1   r 
d r  2
When the handle is rotated once, i.e., when screw is rotated once the load gets lifted by a
height ‘P’ equal to the pitch of the screw. The distance moved by the equivalent effort P1 is d.
ww
This can be compared to the case of an inclined plane on which a load W is moved up by a
horizontal force, P1 as shown in figure 4.22 (a).
w.E
The inclination of this equivalent inclined plane with the horizontal is given by,
p 
  tan –1  
 d 
a syE
We know that horizontal froce P1 required to just push the body up the plane is given by,
P1 = W tan (  +  )
P1 
P
r

P
r ngi
 W tan     
nee
But,
Where  is the limiting friction so that tan  =  and  being the being the co-efficient of friction.
Wr
 P tan     
rin
Similarly,
g.n
The horizontal force required to just push the body down the plane is given by
P
Wr
Torque required to work the jack.

tan   –  
et
T  P
Efficiency of a screw jack
We know that the effort ‘P’ required to lift a load W is given by
Wr
P tan     
Under ideal conditions friction is absent and putting  = 0, the ideal effort is given by
Wr
P0  tan 
 Efficiency ()

Wr
tan 
Ideal effort
 
Wr
Actual effort tan    
tan 

tan   
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. The pitch of a screw of a jack is 10mm and the mean diameter of the thread
is 60mm and length of the lever is 500mm. Find the effort required to lift a
load of 10KN. Take  = 0.08.
ww
Solution:
Given, P = Pitch = 10mm, l = 500mm
d = 60mm, W = 10KN = 10,000N
w.E
We know,
tan  
p

10
d   60
 0.05304
a   = tan–1(0.05304) = 3.03º
syE
tan  = = 0.08
  = tan ( 0.08 ) = 4.57º
ngi
–1
 Effort required to lift the load,

P
Wr
tan      
10000  60
Wd
2 nee
tan     

2  500
tan  3.03º  4.57º 
rin
2.
= 80.05 N.
g.n
A screw jack carries a load of 4000 N. The mean diameter of the screw rod
is 50mm and the pitch of the square threads is 20mm. If the Co-efficient of
friction is 0.22, find the torque required to raise the load, and the efficiency
of the machine. Find also the torque required to lower the load.
et
Solution:
Given, W = 4000 N, d = 50mm
P = 50mm,  = 0.22
p 20
tan     0.1273
We know, d   50
  = tan–1 ( 0.1273 ) = 7.25º
tan  =  = 0.22
     = tan–1 ( 0.22 ) = 12.4º

Torque required to raise the load,

T = Wr tan (  +  )
Wd
tan    
= 2
4000  50
 tan  7.25º  12.4º 
2
= 35706.8 N mm = 35.7 N m.
Efficiency of the screw jack,
tan  tan 7.25º
   100
tan      tan  7.25º  12.4º 
ww = 35.62 %
Torque required to lower the load
w.E T
Wd
2
tan   –   
4000  50
2
 tan 12.4º – 7.25º 
3. a = 9012.73 N mm = 9.012 N m.
syE
The screw of a jack is square threaded with two threads to a centimetre.
The outer diameter of the screw is 5cm. If the co-efficient fo friction is 0.1,
ngi
calculate the force required to be applied at the end of the lever, which is
form long to light and lower a load of 4KN.
Solution:
Given, D0 = Outer diameter = 5cm nee
 = 0.1, l = 70 cm.
rin
W = 4KN = 4000 N
We know, tan  =  = 0.1 g.n
  = tan–1 (0.1) = 5.71º
Distance between adjacent threads = 1 cm et
Distance between the threads
=
    Pitch of the screw Number of threads
= ½ = 0.5 cm.
Let Di = Internal diameter of the screw = D0–2 × pitch
= D0 – 2 × 0.5 = 4cm.
  Mean diameter of the screw.

D o  Di 5  4
d   4.5 cm.
2 2
 p 
 
Let  = Helix angle = tan–1  d 
 0.5 
 tan –1    2.02º
   4.5 
Force required to lift the load at the end of lever,
Wd
P tan    
2
4000  4.5
 tan  5.71º  2.02º 
ww 2  70
Force required to lower the load at the end of lever,
= 17.45 N
P
w.E wd
2
tan   –  
 a
4000  4.5
2  70 syE
tan  5.71º – 2.02º 
= 8.29 N.
2.6 Belt Friction ngi
nee
A belt or rope drive is a device with belt and pulley arrangement used for
transmitting power from one end to other. Such an application may be adopted to provide
rin
breaks, lifting loads, etc. In all such devices frictional resistance develops between the wheel of
the pulley and the belt or rope which is known as belt friction.
R S
g.n
P d

O
R
Q
et
T1 T2
(a)

dF
d d
dN
R S
T T+dT
d
O
(b)
Figure 4.23
ww Consider a flat belt passing over a fixed cylindrical drum as shown in figure 4.22. Let T1
and T2 be the tensions in the belt on either side of drum and  be the angle of warp (lap)
w.E
subtended by belt which is in contact with the drum at the centre. When T 2 > T1, impending
motion acts towards right (clockwise direction). Therefore, let tensions at R and S be T and T +
dT respectively.
a syE
d 
 T  dT  cos   d 
 – T cos  – dF  0   ve 
 2 
d
d  0, cos  1 ngi
 2 
When 2
    ( T + dT ) – T – dF = 0 nee
or dT = dF =  dN
 dN 
dT rin

g.n ... (i)
Similarly,
Where,  = co-efficient of friction

et
 Fy  0    ve 
 d   d 
dN – T sin   –  T dT  sin    0
 2   2 
d d
d  0, sin 
When 2 2
d d
 dN – T –  T  dT   0
2 2

d d
or dN  2T  dT
2 2
(Neglect the small quantities)
or dN  T.d
... (ii)
Equating the equation (i) and (ii)
dT
 T d

ww or
T2 dT 
T1 T 0  d
T2

w.E We get, T 1
 e
T2  T1 e
a syE
or
Torque, T   T2 – T1  R
Then,
ngi
nee
Where, R = Radius of pulley
P   T2 – T1  
Power transmitted by the belt,
Where, v =
rin
Velocity of belt.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
g.n
1. A belt is wound over a pulley as shown in figure 4.24. If the tension in the
belt on one end is 3000N, what is the necessary tension on the other side of
the belt to resist? Take  = 0.25
et
Solution:

15° 15°
O
T2 = 3000N T1 = ?
Figure 4.24

Given, T2 = 3000N,
 = Contact angle = 180º – (15º + 15º) = 150º
 150º   
  radians  2.617 radians.
 180 
Let T1 = Tension on the other side of the belt.
We know, T2 = T1 e
T2 3000
or T1  
  0.25  2.617 
e e = 1560 N.
2. A pulley is driven by a belt in clockwise direction as shown in figure 4.25. If

wwthe tension in the belt on the tight side is 800N, find the tension in the belt on
the slack side. Also find the torque exerted by the belt on the pulley. Take 
 = 0.3
w.E 30°
a syE O 150mm
800N
ngi T1
Figure 4.25 nee

Solution:
Given,     = 0.3, T2 = 800 N. rin
Let
g.n
T1 = Tension in the belt on the slack side
T2 = Tesnsion in the belt on tight side.
We know, T2 = T1 e
 210   
et
 
           180º + 30º = 210º =  180 
= 3.67 radians.
T 800
 T1  2   0.3  3.67   266 N.
e e
Torque exerted, T = (T2– T1) × R
Where, R = Radius of pulley = 150mm
= (800 – 266) × 150
= 80100 N - mm = 80.1Nm.

3. In a flat belt, the maximum tension is 1160N and the angle of lap is 170º.
The co-efficient of friction between the belt and pulley is 0.25. Diameter of
pulley is 90cm and it runs at 540 rpm. Find the power transmitted at the
above speed. Neglect the effect of centrifugal tension.
Solution:
Given,  = 170º,  = 0.25
D = 90cm, N = 540 rpm.
T2 = Tmax = 1160 N
DN   0.9  540
v 
    Velocity of belt, 60 60
ww = 25.4 m/sec
170º  
 2.96 radians
w.E Angle of lap,  = 170º = 180º
Using the relation,
a T2
T1
syE
 e
or
T1 
T2
e 
1160
  0.25  2.96
e
 Net driving tension

= 553.45 N
ngi
= T2 – T1 = 1160 – 553.4
= 606.54 N.
Power transmitted, P = (T2 –T1) × v
nee
= 606.54 × 25.4
rin
g.n
= 15436.6 Nm/sec or Watt, = 15.43 kW
4. A flat belt drive is shown in the figure 4.26. Small pulley is connected to the
motor. The co-efficient of friction between the pulleys and the belt is same
and is equal to 0.25. Maximum allowable tension is 2000 N. Determine the
et
maximum torque that can be transmitted by the drive. If the speed of the
motor is 1300 rpm, find the power.
40°
T1
Driver
400mm L S 100mm
T2

Figure 4.26
Solution:
Given,   = 0.25, Tmax = 2000, Tmax = 2000 N = T2
N = 1300 rpm.
Let   L = Lap angle on large pulley
= 180 + 2 = 220º
 = 20º
s = Lap angle on small pulley
ww = 180–2 = 180º – 40º = 140º
w.E
As the co-efficient of friction is same for both pulleys, slip will occure first on the small
pulley, because ratio of tensions will be smaller than that for larger pulley ( s < L)
a
T  T 
i.e.,  2    2 
 T1 S  T1  L syE
But,
 T2 
  e
s
ngi
.  T1  S
s 
140  
 2.442 and   0.25
nee
where,
T
180
2000 rin
 T1   2s 
e 10.25  2.442
 1086.09 N
g.n
Torque = (T2 – T2) × D/2
Where, D = Diameter of small pulley.
et
= 100 mm.
  Torque = (2000 – 1086.90) × 50
= 45695.09 N-mm = 45.69 N.m
Power transmitted, P = T
Where,  = Angular velocity of small pulley
2N 2  1300
  136.15 rad / sec.
= 60 60
 Power, P = (45.695) × 136.15 = 6221.5 Watt

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
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3.1. Introduction to properties of Surface and Solids

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3.3.1. Pappus and Guldinus theorems

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(a) Surface revolution (b) Body revolution

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ww According vanignon’s theorem,

3.4.2 IMPORTANT POINTS

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3.5. Determination of Centroid of Standard Sections by

First moment of small elemental strip about x-axis

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5. A steel ball of 20 cm diameter rests centrally over a concrete cube of size

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iii) Portion 3: Hollow cylinder

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10  0  5  2.5   2  5   6.284  5.84 rin

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Moment of area about x - axis,

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x = (120 x 5 – 12 x 7.5 ) / ( 120 – 12 ) = 4.72 cm

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1. Differentiate between centre of gravity and centroid.

ww9. What is centroid of a volume?

rin (Ans: Ixx = 14715 × 103 mm4)

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DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA OF PLANE FIGURE

Let a1, a2, a3 ..... = Areas of small elements and

ww Now the moment of inertial of the area,

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Polar moment of inertia

where, k = Radius of gyration.

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Parallel Axis Theorem

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Hence the proof

Hence the proof.

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