DOCTORAL THESIS 1994:142 D

DIVISION OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING ISSN 0348 - 8373

ISRN: HLU - TH - T - - 1994 - 142 - D - - SE

Analysis and Modelling of

Plastic Bending Processes

Z h e n g T a n

I T T TEKNISKA
LSI HÖGSKOLAN I LULEÅ
LULEÅ UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
D O C T O R A L THESIS 1994:142 D

DIVISIONS OF MATERIALS PROCESSING

ISRN: H L U - T H - T - - 1 4 2 - D - - S E
ISSN 0348-8373

Analysis and Modelling of

Plastic Bending Processes

Z H E N G T A N

AKADEMISK AVHANDLING
som med vederbörligt tillstånd av Tekniska Fakultetsnämnden vid Tekniska
Högskolan i Luleå för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen kommer att
offentligen försvaras i sal E 246 vid LuTH, tisdagen den 10 maj 1994 kl. 9.00

Fakultetsopponent: Professor Tarras Wanheim

Technical University of Denmark, Danmark

f U B TEKNISKA
LSI HÖGSKOLAN I LULEÅ
LULEÅ UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Att lära utan att tänka är förspilld möda. Att tänka utan att lära är
farligt.

Confucius
 PREFACE

The research w o r k presented i n the dissertation has been p e r f o r m e d a t the

D e p a r t m e n t o f M a t e r i a l s Science a n d M a n u f a c t u r i n g E n g i n e e r i n g , L u l e å
U n i v e r s i t y of Technology, Sweden. The m a i n part o f the w o r k concerns modelling
and s i m u l a t i o n of sheet metal plastic bending processes.

D u r i n g the passed years I have been given generous help f r o m many kind-hearted
and sympathetic people. W i t h o u t t h e i r help, I could not have finished m y work. I
w i s h to express m y sincere g r a t i t u d e to the f o l l o w i n g people w h o have been
involved d u r i n g the progress of m y work:

F i r s t to m y supervisor Professor Claes Magnusson f o r his enthusiastic and

encouraging support and for many guiding discussions.

To Professor Bengt Persson for his advice and suggestions, to D r . U l l a Ö h m a n

and Senior Researcher L a r s M e l i n f o r h e l p f u l discussions a n d valuable co-
operation, and to D r . L i Wenbin O ^ i L Ä for many f r u i t f u l discussions.

To the s t a f f of the D i v i s i o n of M a n u f a c t u r i n g E n g i n e e r i n g f o r assistance and

understanding i n various ways d u r i n g the course of the work, p a r t i c u l a r l y to Tore
Silver, U l f K u m m u and Å k e Wesselheim for t h e i r laboratory assistance.

To D r . Daniel A s k i n , D r . John N i s k a and Eur. Eng. D a v i d Legge f o r help w i t h the

correction of English i n the manuscripts.

To m y w i f e , Che Qiaoqing C£3=Jfe) and son, T a n L i ( f t i l ) , f o r t h e i r support and

t

understanding. They have been bound to a life w i t h the husband and f a t h e r often
away. I dedicated this w o r k to them.

The financial support f o r m y first year f r o m the State Committee of Education of

7
China ( ' j S B ^ & - # ) , t h e n f r o m L u l e å University of Technology and the Swedish
Board for Technical Development ( N U T E K ) is g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

Luleå, March 1994

Zheng Tan (*Mt)

 ABSTRACT

I t is well k n o w n that anisotropic properties of material affect f o r m i n g of sheet

metals and t h a t non-homogeneous deformation across thickness of a bend
gives rise to residual stresses. The interaction between material a n d process
parameters determines, i n a very complex manner, the formability o f m a t e r i a l .
Theoretical analyses of some problems related to bending processes were
carried out by the incremental theory of plasticity i n an attempt to achieve a
better understanding. Study was also made of the B a u s d ü n g e r effect t h a t is
manifested as a premature yielding of material on reversal of s t r a i n i n g a f t e r
plastic prestrain. The Bauschinger effect was analysed by subjecting sheet
metals to u n i a x i a l compression-tension tests. O n the base of the continuum
theory of plasticity and experimental results, parameters for revealing the
combined effects of strain hardening and softening i n the forward and reverse
straining were denned. A hardening rule to formulate the Bauschinger effect
i n complex loading conditions was also presented.

The desired bend angle i n V-die bending is usually obtained by controlling the
punch insertion depth, so t h a t springback can be compensated f o r by the
correct amount of overbending. A process model was developed for V-die
bending of sheet metals. This model was proved to be especially valuable to
control a press brake equipped w i t h a computer integrated controlling system.
Pure bending of elastic-plastic materials was simulated. Analysis o f the
springback and residual stresses on unloading of bending moment was carried
out. The predicted residual stresses were compared w i t h those obtained by the
X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n and good agreement was found. For large bending curvature,
the Bauschinger and anisotropic effects were taken into account f o r r i g i d -
plastic materials. Two models were derived and implemented i n a computer
simulation of stress-strain distribution, thickness change and bending moment
magnitude versus bending curvature. The analysis showed t h a t different
materials responded to the Bauschinger effect i n different ways, the stronger
the effect on a material, the greater the t h i n n i n g i n the bend. Pure bending
tests confirmed the theoretical predictions. I t was found t h a t the anisotropic
effect on material t h i n n i n g i n the bend was relatively small but the effect on
the springback was significant.

ii
This dissertation consists of a survey and the following five papers:

A. Z. Tan, L . M e l i n and C. Magnusson, AppUcation of a n Image Processing

Technique i n S t r a i n Measurement i n Sheet M e t a l Forming. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 33 (1992), 299-310.

B. Z. Tan, B . Persson and C. Magnusson, A n Empirical Model for Controlling

Springback i n V-Die Bending of Sheet Metals, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 34 (1992), 449-455.

C. Z. Tan, B. Persson and C. Magnusson, The Bauschinger Effect i n

Compression-Tension of Sheet Metals. Accepted for publication in
Materials Science and Engineering.

D. Z. Tan, W-B L i and B . Persson, On Analysis and Measurement of

Residual Stresses i n the Bending of Sheet Metals. International Journal
of Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 36, No. 5 (1994), 485-493.

E. Z. Tan, B . Persson and C. Magnusson, Plastic Bending of Anisotropic

Sheet Metals. Submitted to International Journal of Mechanical Sciences.

iii
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1

2. Analysis of surface strains 4

3. Plastic properties of metals 9

3.1. The Bauschinger effect 9

3.2. Experimental measurement of the Bauschinger effect 11

3.3. Simplified models for the Bauschinger effect 16

3.4. Plastic anisotropy 19

4. Bending of sheet metals 21

4.1. Springback i n elastic-plastic bending 22

4.2. Analytical measurement of residual stress 24

4.3. Plastic bending of anisotropic sheets 26

5. Conclusions 33

References 35

A. AppUcation of a n image processing technique i n strain

measurement i n sheet metal f o r m i n g A1-A15

B . A n empirical model for controlling springback i n V-die

bending of sheet metals Bl-Bll

C. The Bauschinger effect i n compression-tension of sheet metals C1-C20

D . O n analysis and measurement of residual stresses i n the

bending of sheet metals D1-D19

E. Plastic bending of anisotropic sheet metals E1-E28

iv
 1. Introduction

I n the modelling of bending processes, one applies theories of plasticity to

carry out stress and strain analysis. Plasticity can be defined as 'the property
t h a t enables a material to undergo continuous and permanent deformation
w i t h o u t r u p t u r e d u r i n g the application of stresses exceeding those necessary
to cause yielding of the material'. I n general, the permanent deformation
depends not j u s t upon the f i n a l state of stress, b u t upon the straining history
i.e. series of stress states f r o m the beginning of the bending process.

The study of plasticity began w h e n Tresca (1864) presented his famous yield
criterion as the foundation of modern theory of plasticity, late on, progress was
made by Saint-Venant (1870), von Mises (1913) and many other scientists. The
most i m p o r t a n t contribution was by H i l l [1], who has made the mathematical
theory of plasticity a real engineering science. Although plasticity theory is not
restricted to any particular k i n d of material, i t is most commonly applied to
metals. I n plastic deformation, most engineering metals have characteristics of
s t r a i n hardening. There are three m a i n approaches to the subject of plasticity.

First, the mathematical theories of plasticity deal w i t h a n idealised m a t e r i a l ,

and analyse the distribution of stress and strain i n the body under load. These
theories formulate the results of macroscopic experiments w i t h o u t probing
very deeply into their physical basis. The second approach is that of physical
theories of plasticity, which examine the nature of metals flowing plastically.
Looking at materials from a microscopic viewpoint, atoms, crystals, grains and
dislocations are studied to reveal the mechanism of plastic flow and hardening
of materials.

These two categories of theory are either too theoretical and mathematical or
too deep and specific to physical micromechanism for engineering applications.
The eventual hope, of course, is to combine these theories into one u n i f i e d
theory of plasticity t h a t w i l l both explain the material's behaviour and provide
scientists and engineers w i t h the necessary tools to solve practical problems.
The t h i r d approach can best be termed 'phenomenological', use is made on one
hand, of the relationships of the mathematical theories to study the general
behaviour of plastic materials whilst on the other hand, of experimentally
determined hardening laws and criteria to predict technically some i m p o r t a n t
results. The present treatise is concerned w i t h this t h i r d approach.

1
I t is true t h a t the conditions controlling the plastic stress and the strain
distribution i n a f o r m i n g process have a certain mathematical inevitability
t h a t arises f r o m the observation of the behaviour of a metal i n a plastic state.
One of the difficulties i n applying the mathematical theories of plasticity,
however, is t h a t not only the state of stress but also the material structure
affects the plastic properties. Consideration of anisotropy, for example, w i l l
complicate the analysis. Modelling of a forming process should be relevant to
actual materials, so experiments are necessary. Two experimental approaches
may possibly be chosen, firstly to carry out carefully designed experiments to
test the models or theories themselves; secondly to use the models to predict
the results of some plastic problem of interested, and t h e n to test the
analytical results against that of the experiment. I n this study, the applied
experimental techniques include image processing, compressive-tensile test, X-
ray differential measurement, V-die and pure bending tests.

I t is well k n o w n t h a t anisotropic properties of material affect the f o r m i n g of

sheet metals and t h a t non-homogeneous deformation across thickness of a
bend gives rise to residual stresses. The interaction of the material and process
parameters determines, i n a complex manner, the f o r m a b i l i t y of material.
Analyses of some problems related to bending processes were carried out by
applying theories of plasticity i n an attempt to achieve a better understanding.
Study was also made of the Bauschinger effect t h a t is generally manifested on
reversal of straining.

Following the survey, five papers are selected and appended i n the thesis.
These papers present the results of several research projects carried out
d u r i n g the course of the thesis work. The main topic of the study is modelling
and simulation of bending processes. Some problems related to the bending
process l i k e springback and residual stresses, as well as materials' special
characteristics such as the Bauschinger effect and the anisotropic effect have
also been theoretically and experimentally studied.

I n paper A , a n image processing technique was applied to measure the strain

distribution i n a deformed sheet metal. A n analytical method based on the
photogrammetric theory and the large strain analysis theory was presented,
which makes i t possible to conduct automatic measurement of massive nodal
points on a gridded surface and to perform computerised analysis of surface
strains.

2
Paper B describes a n empirical model for predicting the correct insertion depth
of the punch i n V-die bending process to control springback. The model was
applied to guide a press brake equipped w i t h a computer integrated control
system, so t h a t the springback could be properly compensated for by the over-
bending.

I n paper C, the Bauschinger effect manifested on reversal of loading after

plastic prestraining was studied. By combining the experimental results and
the continuum theory of plasticity, parameters f o r evaluating the Bauschinger
effect were proposed. The extension of several simplified models for the
Bauschinger effect led to a new yield criterion, by which a material's yielding
behaviour under complex loading p a t h could be described more realistically.

I n papers D and E, plane strain bending of sheet metals was simulated. Paper
D was concerned w i t h elastic-plastic bending, i n t h a t elastic springback and
residual stresses are the most important. A constitutive model for analytical
measurement of the residual stresses was presented. I n paper E, large plastic
bending was studied, to which the Bauschinger and anisotropic effects rather
t h a n springback are important. A constant for specifying the plane bending of
anisotropic sheets was proposed. Since different materials respond to the
Bauschinger effect i n different ways, i t is impossible to describe t h a t effect by
a single model. Therefore, two models for two extreme cases i n the bending
process were presented, i n one case there is no Bauschinger effect, i n the other
case m a x i m u m possible strain-softening on reverse straining is assumed. The
analysis showed that the stronger the Bauschinger effect on a material, the
greater the t h i n n i n g i n a bend. The anisotropic effect on m a t e r i a l t h i n n i n g was
relatively small b u t the effect on bending moments was significant.

3
2. Analysis of Surface Strains

A knowledge of the magnitude and orientation of surface strains i n sheet

metal forrning is required to evaluate the material formability both i n the
press shop and laboratory. Deterrmning strain w i t h a circle-grid is a well-
established technique [2, 3]. This method involves etching a fine circle-grid
pattern on the sheet surface before pressing and measuring the distorted
circles after deformation. The size of the g r i d is small so that strains can be
considered as homogeneous w i t h i n each g r i d element.

The most i m p o r t a n t application of the g r i d method is to obtain the forrning

Hmit diagram (FLD) i n a f a i l u r e analysis. The F L D is a plot of the major and
m i n o r strains at the onset of local necking or cracking over a wide range of
f o r m i n g processes, f r o m deep drawing (tension-compression e / e = - l ) to
2 1

stretching (tension-tension e /e 2 l = 1). Knowledge of how close the metal is to

f a i l u r e is needed to judge the criticality of a f o r m i n g operation. Moreover, the
strain values and the ratio of the minor and major strain e / e, can give 2

valuable i n f o r m a t i o n about the deformation, to w h i c h extent the m a t e r i a l is

d r a w n or stretched, or whether a change i n strain p a t h is involved. These
extra insights i n t o a press forrning operation have been h e l p f u l i n die
development w o r k [4, 5].

80

0 eo
e,r*>

Fig. 1 F o n n i n g l i m i t diagrams for several materials after Ghosh [6].

4
A l t h o u g h the large strain theory has long been elaborated [7, 8, 9 ] , Sowerby et
al. [10, 11] demonstrated t h a t s t r a i n analysis can be simply applied by mea-
s u r i n g the nodal coordinates on a gridded surface before and a f t e r pressing, i f
a square-grid pattern is used. T h e i r theory is of consequence f o r computerised
s t r a i n analysis i n sheet metal forming.

The m a i n problem i n applying the theory of large s t r a i n analysis has been to

measure the nodal coordinates w i t h efficiency and accuracy, since t r a d i t i o n a l
methods are unsatisfactory to measure massive nodes. I t is k n o w n t h a t image
processing techniques are very powerful i n digitising a surface, on which
massive nodes have been previously marked. B y means of a n image system,
the nodal points can be digitised into two-dimensional image coordinates w i t h
l i t t l e or no h u m a n interaction, after that, f u r t h e r analysis is required for
calculation of the three-dimensional object coordinates of the corresponding
points. The theories concerned w i t h surface digitising are photogrammetric
and computer graphic theory. The principal theoretical contributions i n this
f i e l d have been made by Thompson [12, 13], Newman and Sproull [14], Parke
[15], Rogers and Adams [16] and H a l l [17].

According to the projective theory of photogrammetry, the projecting process

can be mathematically described by a homogeneous coordinate system, and a
linear t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of homogeneous coordinates i n space is k n o w n as

x'~ x'
y y
= A
z' z
y .

where A is a non-singular m a t r i x . I n case t h a t an objective point is projected

onto a n image, we obtain

(A N - A u)x + {A
3X N - A u)y n + {A N - A u)z =
33 (A U-A )
3A U

(A21 - A v)x
3l +( - A 3 2 v ) y + {A -A V)Z
23 33 =(A 3 4 V-A 2 A )

so t h a t A j are the coefficients of the transformation m a t r i x specifying the r i g i d

rotation, scaling and perspective projection from the spatial coordinates (x,y,z)
to the corresponding image coordinates ( m , v ) or vice versa. I n a p p l y i n g the

5
photograrnmetric theory to determine the objective coordinates, the twelve
u n k n o w n coefficients Ay must be specified f i r s t , this is k n o w n as calibration of
the image system. Several methods can be applied i n the calibration, b u t a
relatively simple interactive calibration process was designed by choosing six
non-coplanar points, called 'control points', which are covered on a p a i r of
images. I f theses control points denoted by a, b, c, d, e and f have been
measured, and t h e i r spatial coordinates and image coordinates are k n o w n ,
calibration of the image system can be described by

Q A= V , c e (2.3)
where

y a
z
a 1 0 0 0 0 -u y a a -"aZa '

x b y b
z
b 1 0 0 0 0 ~u x b b -u y b b -"b b 2

x c y c
z
c 1 0 0 0 0 -u x c c -u y c c
-u z c c

X d yd 1 0 0 0 0 -u x d d

*e y* *« 1 0 0 0 0 -u x e e -»,y. -U 2 e t

X
f >'f 2
f
1 0 0 0 0 -U X f f -u y f f
-u z f f

Q = 0 0 0 0 X a
ya 1 -v x a a -v y a a

0 0 0 0 x b fb h 1 ~x v
b b -Wb
v
~ bh
0 0 0 0 yc
Z
c 1 -v x c c ~ cy v
c -Vc*c
0 0 0 0 x d yd
Z
d 1 ~ dXv
d -Wd
0 0 0 0 x e y. z< 1 -v x t e -v,y.
0 0 0 0 x
f yf Z
f 1 -v x f f -v y f f
-V / Z / _

a a ( a, a z
A c - (an,a. ,a\i,au,(i2i>a22> tt' u< h\< n' ii>
n

t
Vc = (.u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,u ,v ,v ,v ,v ,v ,v )'
a b c d e f a b c d e f

A f t e r the image system has been properly calibrated and the surface digitised,
one can apply the theory of large strain analysis. I t has been assumed t h a t the
deformation of a g r i d is " i n plane", the nodal coordinates t h a t describe the
spatial positions and the geometrical shapes of girds, however, are o f three-
dimensional. A n additional local coordinate system is needed f o r each g r i d to
transform the global coordinates to the local coordinates, so t h a t each g i r d
element lies i n the x-y plane of the local coordinate system w i t h the z axis
normal to the g r i d surface.

6
 (a)

(b)

Fig. 2 (a) A gridded specimen used i n the surface strain measurement, and (b)
the resulting mesh of a quarter of the specimen obtained f r o m the photo-
grammetrically measured nodal coordinates.

Because of i t s h i g h speed i n digitising a gridded surface, the image processing

technique has been introduced i n the strain analysis. B y combining the photo-
grammetric theory and the large s t r a i n theory, an analytic method f o r
measuring of surface strain was derived and presented i n paper A . F i g . 2
shows a specimen measured i n the study. The material was deep-drawing-
q u a l i t y sheet steel, w i t h 10x10 m m square-grids photo-chemically etched on
the b l a n k surface before deformation. There were more t h a n 500 nodes on the
specimen surface. A f t e r the gridded surface was digitised into three-
dimensional coordinates, the strains were determined by applying the theory

7
of large strain analysis. Since the specimen is symmetrical, only a quarter of
the specimen has been analysed. The output of computer-aided strain analysis
can be either numerical or graphical. F i g . 3 displays a plot of the first
principal strains distribution over an area on the specimen where the strain
analysis was done and F i g . 4 shows the ratio of the second principal s t r a i n to
the first principal s t r a i n over the same area.

A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 D

Nodal number

Fig. 3 Contour p l o t t i n g of the f i r s t strain £ j d i s t r i b u t i n g over area ABCD.

Nodal number

Fig. 4 Contour p l o t t i n g of the strain ratio, e / e, over the same area.

2

8
3. Plastic Properties of Metals

The theory of plasticity can be classified into two categories. I f large plastic
strains are involved i n some f o r m i n g processes such as deep drawing, forging,
extrusion etc., the elastic strains can usually be neglected and the material be
regarded as rigid-plastic. O n the other hand, i f small plastic strains are of the
same order of the elastic strains, t h e n elastic-plastic analysis should be
applied to study problems related to the f i n a l profile accuracy. I n application
of plastic theories to analyse various f o r m i n g processes, i t is common practice
to choose a yield criterion and the associated flow rule. I n general, the
mathematical problems presented by a complete analysis of a material's
properties and the f o r m i n g conditions w i l l be very complex to solve, sometimes
s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions are required for the standard plasticity theory as
regards the material's behaviour. The assumptions, however, must satisfy
experimentally determined facts. For instance, plastic deformation is usually
assumed to take place at essentially constant volume, which is true f o r most
metals w i t h i n a small fraction o f 1 per cent of the i n i t i a l volume. I t is also
often assumed t h a t a material is isotropic and remains so throughout the
deformation. Isotropy assumes that the material possesses the same yield
stress and strain hardening ability i n a l l orientations and t h a t the current
yield stress depends only upon the total strain up to the point considered, i.e.
the Bauschinger effect is neglected. The widely used Tresca criterion and von
Mises criterion are for isotropic materials, however, there are some i m p o r t a n t
and s t r i k i n g phenomena which cannot be described by the standard theory of
plasticity. The assumptions of isotropic materials and no Bauschinger effect
are satisfactory approximations that become less good as the deformation
continues or reverse straining is encountered. Since metallic materials are
subjected to a wide variety of loading conditions i n deformation, i t is not sur-
p r i s i n g t h a t the materials react i n different ways depending upon the v a r y i n g
circumstances.

3.1. The Bauschinger effect

The plastic behaviour of a material is usually evaluated by tensile test. For

most metals, the elastic section gradually merges into the plastic section of the
tensile curve, so sharp yield rarely occurs. The yield point is often determined
a t a n offset strain of 0.2%. I f a specimen is d r a w n , unloaded and redrawn, i t is

9
k n o w n f r o m the experiment that the stress-strain curve on reloading is a
continuation of the previous curve. I f the specimen is unloaded and reloading
i n compression, t h a t is, the plastic straining is reversed, the yield stress w i l l
not necessarily have the same value as that reached i n tension. The reduction
i n yield strength d u r i n g reverse loading after plastic pre-straining was first
observed and reported by Bauschinger (1886). This strength loss can be o f
practical significance for some forming processes such as bending, high
strength pipe manufacturing, deep d r a w i n g and so on, i n t h a t reverse
straining is involved. I n fact, the Bauschinger effect is more complex and
concerns not only the i n i t i a l reverse yield strength but also the subsequently
obtained entire stress-strain relation. Reviews on certain aspects o f the
Bauschinger effect (B.E.) have been made by Sowerby et al. [18] and Abel [19].
According to Abel's comments on the present state of research of the effect

"One hundred years later, the yield lowering aspect of the Bauschinger effect
does not cause too much concern, although it is now widely appreciated. An
understanding of the rest of the effect is still unfolding today and its comp-
lexities are more than appreciated by those working in the field. Bauschinger
opened up an area for research which is extremely important. Most of the
existing knowledge of working hardening has been obtained from uni-
directional loading experiments, but theories of work hardening will not be
complete unless and until they can account for the plastic behaviour observed
during reverse deformation."

Because of the importance of the B.E., considerable effort has been devoted by
many researchers to gain better understanding of the effect. Amongst the most
outstanding works i n this field have been those by Woolley [20], Ivey [21],
Abel [22], W i l l i a m s and Svensson [23], A n a n d and G u r l a n d [24], Chang and
Asaro [25], and Chung and Abel [26]. I n the early explanation of the B.E.
i n t e r n a l stresses and macroscopic residual stresses, developed due to non-
homogeneous deformation of individual grains i n particular, were believed to
be the m a i n causes of the phenomenon. Thompson and Wadsworth [27]
thought t h a t d u r i n g plastic deformation non-uniform distribution would cause
residual stresses responsible for the yield-lowering effect upon unloading. A
better explanation of the B.E. based on dislocation theory was given by
Orowan [28] and Brown et al. [29-34], both combined continuum theories and
dislocation mechanics to quantitatively evaluate the phenomenon.

10
3.2. Experimental measurement of the Bauschinger effect

The most common and simplest experimental techniques f o r revealing the B.E.
is cyclic torsion or unidirectional tension-compression. I n this study, the latter
was chosen. One of the factors that make the experimental study of the B.E.
unattractive is the d i f f i c u l t y to conduct the tension-compression test, f o r sheet
metals especially, and to measure the u n i f o r m compressive strain. Crafoord
[35], i n his previous studies, made use of headed specimens w i t h a length-to-
diameter ratio of 1.5 to 2. Considering the shape of the test specimens, i t is
clear t h a t the state of the stress i n such a specimen is not u n i a x i a l , and the
end effect w i l l cause a considerable inhomogeneity i n the s t r a i n .

A l l methods of m a k i n g compressive tests of sheet metals have one problem i n

common, t h a t is the problem of overcoming the tendency of the specimen to
become increasingly misaligned w i t h increasing load and f i n a l l y to f a i l by
instability. A n ideal solution to the problem is perhaps the provision o f simple
and easily applied supports that prevent buckling, w i t h o u t introducing large
f r i c t i o n between the supports and the specimen and w i t h o u t introducing
restraint to lateral expansion of the specimen as the axial load is increased. A
f i x t u r e was designed and used i n the study, that had two highly polished slip
guides to support the specimen. To provide necessary lubrication and tolerance
between the sheet specimen and the guides, Teflon films w i t h a total thickness
of about 0.4 m m were p u t on each of the two specimen surfaces. A n
extensometer w i t h the gauge length of 10 m m was set on the side surface of
the specimen to measure the compressive and tensile strains. B y using the
device, i t is possible to carry out compression on sheets. For sheets of 1 m m i n
thickness, the compressive strain is l i m i t e d to 2-3%, but f o r sheets of 3-5 m m
i n thickness, larger compressive strains can be obtained.

Unidirectional compressive tests were carried out using the f i x t u r e , and the
compressive curves are compared w i t h the unidirectional tensile curves, as
shown i n F i g . 5. One can see t h a t the compressive stress-strain curves are
almost consistent to the tensile curves. This suggests that f r i c t i o n between the
specimen and the fixture supports is negligibly small. A compressive stress-
strain curve obtained by loading, unloading and reloading unidirectionally is
shown i n Fig. 5(b). As we know, unloading and reloading w i l l result i n a slight
disparity f r o m the ideal mechanism, but i t is negligible i f no reverse straining
is involved.

11
 800

o
Q-
~ 400

Vi

m -400-
ta
Q.
E
o Domex350
o
-800-
-0.08 -0.04 0.00 0.04 0.08
Compressive/tensile Strain e

(a)

300

o 200
Q.
-

100
-

in
o

u-
> -100-
tn -
I -200-
o
o SS1147
-300- r i i i i - r t 1 T " l l l l • • n i r T T T T "I 1 '1 T ~
-0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
Compressive/tensile Strain &

(b)

Fig. 5 Umdirectional compressive/tensile curves obtained by using the fixture,

materials (a) Domex350; (b) SS1147.

12
The B.E. is observed w h e n a specimen is plastically prestrained i n tension,
t h e n unloaded and reloaded i n compression or vice versa. I n the Uterature, the
effect has been denned i n a variety of ways, some of the definitions are
ü l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 6. However, the definitions are not standardised and some
are open to question; the d e f i n i t i o n of Bauschinger strain, ß , f o r instance, is f l

not always definite.

Relating to stress
B E F = C? a t 0 . 1 % ß / O f a t 0 . 1 % e
r f l p [36]

BEF = a r at 0 . 1 % ß / O*f [37] B

ß =(a +a )/a
a / r / [38]

B E F = (ay —O )/(Gf—Gy) r [39]

Relating to strain
[ 2 0 ]
e at O.7507
t

ß e =ß /E
B p 138]

E i . a t 0 . 5 O / [40]

Relating to permanent softening

Aa p = 07-0% [41]

Fig. 6 The Bauschinger effect defined i n various ways, after Abel [19].

The experiment conducted by the author shows t h a t ß B , defined i n F i g . 6, may

or may not be measured f r o m the f o r w a r d and reverse flow curves of some
materials, therefore, i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t to use the definitions given by Welter
[36], M i l l i g a n et al. [37], Abel and M u i r [38]. Most of the definitions, moreover,
can not describe the combined effects of strain hardening i n f o r w a r d loading
a n d the yield reduction manifested on reverse loading. The current question of
p r i m a r y importance is whether the B.E. can be approximated by a simple
constitutive relationship, w h i c h must be more appropriate t h a n those given i n
the references. Therefore, a new parameter defined as the Bauschinger effect
factor B has been proposed b y the author as

(3.1)

13
£ is an experimentally determined parameter, w i t h a and a measured f r o m / r

the f o r w a r d and reverse f l o w curves by the offset method, respectively. Notice

that a and a
r f are opposite i n sign, so the sign of absolute value is used i n E q .
(3.1) I f the B.E. is absent, then 5 = 0. I t has been found that, up to rational
prestrains, an empirical f u n c t i o n

B = a\a\z \p +b (3.2)

gives the best fit of the B values f o r the materials tested. The plot of the
measured values of B of some tested materials against the prestrain, £ , is p

shown i n Fig. 7, the higher the value of B, the stronger the Bauschinger effect.

A A A A A Damex590 a=0.078 b>0.645

0.8 * * * * * Domex3Sfl a-0.030 t>-0.360
SS4120 a-o.oio 0=0.199
SS1147 a- -0.040 b-0.006
AAAAA SS2333 a«0.125 brf.913
0.6 4

™ 0.4

0.2

0.0 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111•1111111111111)
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
2
PRESTRAIN |e„| x 10~

Fig. 7 The Bauschinger stress factor B as a f u n c t i o n of prestrains e p

The Bauschinger effect factor B measures quantitatively the yield reduction

d u r i n g reverse loading, b u t the hardening ability of a material can not be
explicitly expressed by the parameter B. IS Ludwik's l a w , a = a + te", f o r the 0

stress-strain relation is used, regarding (|cr^|—|cr |) as the f o r w a r d hardening,

0

and (|o7|-|a |) as the reverse softening, then the ratio of the reverse softening
r

to the f o r w a r d hardening is defined as the Bauschinger parameter ß

14
 (3.3)

where B has been denned i n Eq. (3.1). The parameter ß is therefore explicitly
expressed as a f u n c t i o n of B, the prestrain e p and the material strain hard-
ening parameters k and n.

The Bauschinger effect parameter ß evaluates the combined effects of work

hardening and softening i n response to the B.E. of a m a t e r i a l under f o r w a r d
and reverse loading. I f the strain hardening ability, indicated by k and n , and
the Bauschinger factor B, are known, the parameter ß gives an analytic
description of the B.E at any prestrain.

25n

ox

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

J
PRESTRAIN pp) x 10"

Fig. 8 The Bauschinger effect parameter ß plotted against the prestrain.

F i g . 8 shows the measured and predicted ß values versus prestrains, e . For

p

hot-rolled sheets Domex350 and Domex590, ß values are very large f o r small
prestrains, this is due to the sharp yielding of these materials. These sheets

15
have the feature t h a t at small prestrain the work-hardening, ( | o 7 | - | a | ) , is 0

relatively small i n comparison w i t h the softening, (|<r^-|—|cr j), and this results
r

i n large value of ß. For a l l tested materials, however, the Bauschinger effect

parameter ß decreases w i t h increasing prestrain.

3 3 . Simplified models for the Bauschinger effect

H a r d e n i n g rules are generally mathematical expressions using one or two

hardening parameters to describe the stress state under which a material
flows plastically. For an isotropic material, a generalised f o r m of hardening
rules is
F(aJ-ff( ,)= 0
E j (3.4)

where F can be looked upon as a loading function, and £ denote the stress
tf

and s t r a i n tensor, respectively, and i f is a s t r a i n hardening function d e f i n i n g

the s t r a i n hardening properties. Theoretically, the yield locus i n the stress
space is assumed to expand w i t h strain hardening b u t r e t a i n the same shape
as i n i t i a l l y . Since the B.E. is present whenever there is a reversal of straining,
a n analytical account of the B.E. is required for a correct description of the
strain hardening behaviour of materials w i t h complex loading histories.
Assuming an i n i t i a l yield condition exists and this is expressed by a certain
yield locus i n the stress space, the i n i t i a l strain hardening and the lowering of
yield strength due to the B.E. on reverse straining can be modelled by a n
expansion, distortion and translation of the locus i n stress space. There are
several simplified models generally used for describing the B.E. and they are
illustrated schematically by a uniaxial tension-compression diagram i n F i g . 9.
A l l the simplified models can be well specified by the Bauschinger parameter
ß defined by Eq. (3.3). A t one extreme, there is isotropic hardening (ß = 0),
t h a t asserts t h a t the i n i t i a l yield surface expands u n i f o r m l y i n the stress space
d u r i n g plastic deformation and the yield stress is independent of the direction
of straining, The von Mises criterion is the simplest of the theories, t h a t
requires the precondition for a simple tensile-compressive curve t h a t

o = -G,

16
 o

a=ai-2o 0

o=-o 0

a=-o,

Fig. 9 Some simplified models for the Bauschinger effect.

A t the other extreme is the kinematic model (ß = 2). According to the kinematic
hardening r u l e , the yield surface does not change i t s i n i t i a l shape and
orientation b u t translates i n stress space like a r i g i d body, so t h a t the elastic
h m i t is assumed to be always double the i n i t i a l yield stress [42]. I f the i n i t i a l
stress i n tension is a , Q then the specimen w i l l yield on reverse loading i n
compression, after being stressed i n tension to a = under the condition t h a t

0 = 05—200

This is the case of so-called 'ideal Bauschinger effect'. The theory predicts that
the total elastic range of the material remains constant, the consequent com-
pressive yield reduced by the same amount as the i n i t i a l tensile stress is
raised.

Between these theories is a hardening model o f constant reverse yield strength

[35, 43]. T h i s model assumes t h a t the prestrain has no effect on the reverse
yield stress, and t h a t the reverse yield stress is constant a n d equal i n
magnitude to the original yield stress of the material (ß = 1), t h a t is:

17
 o = -o-o

In principle, the above simplified models can be interpreted by the

Bauschinger effect parameter ß w i t h specific values (ß = 0, 1, 2). Expansion of
these simple concepts has resulted i n a new model presented i n paper C.

I n quest for a more general continuum model for the Bauschinger effect, a new
hardening model t h a t incorporates the parameter B, for plane stress, has been
proposed as

2
of + a\-o a -a,B(a
1 2 i + a ) = (l-B)a
2 (3.5)

where a, is the f o r w a r d stress i n tension, measuring the strain hardening on

the f o r w a r d straining, and B is defined by Eq. (3.1), evaluating the B.E. on the
reverse straining. This model allows the continuous expansion, distortion and
translation of the yield locus. When 5 = 0 the B.E. is absent and the hardening
rule defined by Eq. (3.5) reduces to the von Mises criterion for plane stress.

2.5

1.5

0.5
b
\
b
-0.5

-1.5 B = 0.13
Isotropic
Mises
Kinematic
—2.5 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 >< i 1111111111111111111111111
-2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
at/ff 0

Fig. 10 Comparison of yield loci given by different hardening models f o r sheet

SS1147. The Bauschinger stress factor B is measured at e = 0.034, a, = 220. p

18
W i t h B and CT, measured for SS1147, a comparison of the yield loci given by
various hardening models is shown i n F i g . 10. F r o m inspection of the figure, i t
can be said t h a t the proposed model is more realistic t h a n the other simplified
models.

3.4. Plastic anisotropy

The theory of plasticity for isotropic materials is valuable i n most engineering

applications. For some materials, especially cold-rolled sheet metals t h a t have
different mechanical properties i n different directions, the simplified macro-
scopic theories are inadequate to describe the plastic anisotropy. Various
theories of plastic anisotropy have been developed. The theories which have
been most useful i n engineering applications are those modified f r o m the von
Mises yield criterion and i t s associated flow rule [ 1 , 44, 45]. While H i l l ' s theory
[1] has the advantage of rigor w i t h i n the basic assumptions adopted and i t is
perhaps the simplest to understand. A review of texture and anisotropy i n
relation to metal f o r m i n g has been given by Sowerby and Johnson [46]. The
anisotropy is regarded as being due to mechanical fibering or preferred
crystallographic orientation and is assumed to have three m u t u a l l y orthogonal
planes of symmetry at every point. The line of intersection of the planes are
termed as the axes of anisotropy. The axes of anisotropy lie i n the direction of
rolling, transversely i n the plane of the sheet and normal to the plane. I t is
f u r t h e r assumed t h a t the anisotropy is u n i f o r m l y distributed i n magnitude
and direction. The theory assumes t h a t there is no Bauschinger effect and that
hydrostatic stress does not affect yielding. The validity of anisotropic theories
has been discussed by Mellor [47].

I n sheet metal forming, the ratio of w i d t h strain to thickness strain of a

specimen i n a tensile test is a measure o f the anisotropy and is k n o w n as the
R-value. I n applying the R-value, i t is assumed that the strain ratios remain
constant throughout plastic straining. The R-values are determined by
u n i a x i a l tensile test on specimens cut at 0°, 45° and 90° w i t h respect to the
r o l l i n g direction. I t is assumed that the strain ratios do not v a r y w i t h plastic
strains and t h a t the anisotropy defines the characteristics of d i f f e r e n t yield
strength i n d i f f e r e n t orientations. I f a tensile specimen is cut f r o m a sheet
l y i n g i n the x, y plane whose r o l l i n g direction is aligned w i t h the x-direction,

19
Fig. 11, measuring the strains i n w i d t h and thickness i n tensile test yields the
R-value.

Fig. 11 Strip tensile specimen cut f r o m a sheet, the R-value is defined as the
ratio of the width-to-thickness strains [48].

The R-value i n r o l l i n g direction is denned according to Hill's theory as

Ro=h =— (3.6)
e, e,

Similarly f o r a tensile specimen cut i n y-direction or transverse direction

9 0
E £
^90 - pj5" - ~~ (3.7)

20
4. Bending of Sheet Metals

Bending is a most frequently encountered process i n sheet metal f o r m i n g . I n

some other f o r m i n g processes, such as deep drawing, stretch flanging, b u l g i n g
etc., bending is also involved although i t is not a major feature. I n the f i e l d of
sheet metal bending, one can f i n d literature on pure bending, V-die bending,
simple f l a n g i n g and so on. Most materials can be bent to quite a small radius.
Failure may be a problem i n bending of high-strength, less ductile sheets, b u t
a greater problem is control of the shape of a bent workpiece. The bent
workpiece w i l l recover elastically i.e. springback on unloading and the bend
q u a l i t y is heavily dependent on the springback. The springback itself,
however, is a f u n c t i o n of material properties and process parameters such as
Young's modulus, yield stress, strain hardening abilities, thickness and die
geometry.

V-die bending is a non-steady process w i t h a very complex stress-strain state.

The bending force applied by a punch varies w i t h the punch motion; at a
certain punch position, the bending moment acting on different cross-section is
different, w i t h the m a x i m u m moment underneath the punch. The stress-strain
distribution varies across the thickness and along the plate, simulation o f the
process is, therefore, extremely difficult. I n order to achieve the final profile of
a bend, overbending is generally practised i n V-die bending to compensate for
the springback. This requires precise control of the punch insertion depth. The
punch position which corresponds to the proper overbending is not generally
k n o w n a priori, b u t i t can be determined by t r i a l and error (paper B).

To gain a better understanding of mechanics of bending, a simplified bending

process, pure bending, has been intensively studied by means of elementary
theory. Provided t h a t the final radius of curvature is not less t h a n 25 times the
thickness of the sheet, the bending is elastic-plastic. Due to non-homogeneous
plastic deformation across the thickness, springback w i l l result i n residual
stresses i n a bent specimen. The residual stresses may have a n i m p o r t a n t
effect on the mechanic behaviour of the material (paper D). When bending
radius of curvature is much smaller, elastic deformation can be neglected, i n
this case the Bauschinger and anisotropic effects on the rigid-plastic bending
are the most i m p o r t a n t (paper E).

21
4.1. Springback in elastic-plastic bending

A study of the Uterature on elastic-plastic bending shows much work concer-

n i n g the stresses and bending moments involved (see references i n paper D ) ,
b u t relatively l i t t l e has been done i n analysing of the springback and residual
stresses. This is surprising since the springback and especially residual
stresses are the major problems i n the elastic-plastic bending. Consider t h a t a
plate is bent by a moment M into a cylindrical f o r m , strain i n the w i d t h being
neglected, the bending is under plane strain conditions. When the radius of
curvature is large i n relation to the thickness t, the induced stress normal to
the thickness i n analysis can also be neglected. The neutral fibre is supposed
to coincide w i t h the mid-surface of the bend. I f the neutral fibre is bent into a
circular arc of radius r by the applied bending moment M, on unloading, the
material w i l l recover elastically or spring back, and the resultant bending
radius r' w i l l be slightly larger t h a n r. The change i n curvature, Ap, is a
measurement of the springback, as illustrated i n F i g . 12, and the moment-
curvature relation is derived as

P d/r)

Fig. 12 The moment-curvature relation showing the change i n curvature on

unloading.

22
Since the bending moment M is a f u n c t i o n of both process and material
parameters, determining the bending moment requires correct f o r m u l a t i o n of
the process and choice of the material model. F r o m Eq. (4.1), springback is
k n o w n as being directly proportional to the bending moment M, t h a t is
determined by the strain hardening properties, thickness and bending radius
of curvature, and being inversely proportional to Young's modulus E of the
material.

A'

Fig. 13 Residual stress induced by plastic bending: (a) the i n t e r n a l stress

resisting the applied moment M; (b) the residual stress on unloading.

A f t e r elastic springback, considerable residual stresses, caused by the non-

u n i f o r m plastic deformation across the thickness, are l e f t i n the bend. These
residual stresses may have a strong effect on the material's mechanical
properties or on subsequent f o r m i n g processes. A comprehensive analysis of
residual stress i n a bend is generally a very complicated problem. Consider the
tangential stress resisting the applied bending moment M. T h i s stress is
tensile on the top surface and compressive on the bottom surface, F i g . 13(a).

23
The tangential stress i n the plate varies i n magnitude and sign across the
thickness. Under the action of Af, plastic flow takes place i n the outer portions
of the plate, w i t h an elastically deformed core i n the middle. When the applied
moment is removed, the i n t e r n a l stresses t r y to relieve themselves by
straightening the plate. The i n t e r n a l stresses do not necessarily disappear b u t
change to such an extent t h a t the unloaded plate contains residual comp-
ressive stress i n its top outer portion and residual tensile stress i n its lower
outer portion, as indicated i n F i g . 13(b), and the resultant stress state is s t i l l
i n equilibrium.

4.2. Analytical measurement of residual stress

Winkler's bending theory for a curved beam has been modified to analyse the
springback of a plate. The analytical determination of the springback and the
residual stress is achieved by simulating the bending of a plate w i t h s t r a i n
hardening ability. The analysis yields the theoretical basis of a new experi-
mental method to determine the residual stress by measuring strains d u r i n g
layer-removing process.

The X-ray diffraction and hole-drilling are widely used experimental methods
f o r measuring residual stresses. These two methods are not suitable for a bent
specimen, since the X-ray diffraction is restricted to surface stresses and the
hole-drilling method to u n i f o r m l y distributed stresses. The residual stresses i n
a bent specimen, however, change significantly i n magnitude and sign across
the thickness. To measure the stress distribution across the thickness, the
layer-removing method is often applied to uncover new surfaces f o r the X-ray
d i f f r a c t i o n measurement. Suppose t h a t t h i n slices of material are removed
f r o m one surface of a bend, and t h a t the layer-removing process itself does not
introduce any additional residual stresses, disturbance of equilibrium o f the
i n t e r n a l stresses w i l l result i n f u r t h e r springback, which causes v a r i a t i o n i n
the residual stresses. The variation due to the removal of material layers has,
however, not been considered by other researchers i n applying the X-ray
d i f f r a c t i o n measurement, the resultant residual stresses, instead of the i n i t i a l
residual stresses being reported as their measured results. The theory
presented i n paper D predicts this difference caused by the removal of layers
i n the X-ray diffraction measurement.

24
Consider t h a t material layers being successively removed f r o m a surface of a
bent plate to uncover new surfaces, the residual stress d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the
remainder is no longer t h a t i n the i n i t i a l state. I f the i n i t i a l residual stress i n
the tangential direction, o ^ , and the change due to the removal of material
layers have been analytically determined, then the resultant residual stress is

a>ov-rc4 (4.2)

A new method to measure the residual stress i n the i n i t i a l state has been
developed, w i t h the analysis presented i n paper D as the theoretical basis. B y
m a k i n g use of a strain gauge, one can measure strain on one surface d u r i n g
layer-removing f r o m the another surface. I f a slice of material of thickness At
is removed f r o m the convex surface, the current thickness of the remainder
w i l l be 2a = (t-At). I f the strain, e' , is measured on the concave surface at a
z

distance of -a f r o m the current mid-surface located at y = 0, the residual stress

i n the i n i t i a l state, a^, on the newly uncovered surface is derived as

(-a)
o „{<*) = • (4.3)
a
Ar _ L + J _ _
+ 2
2a 2r' (r'-a)h

2
where h is the same as t h a t used i n Eq. (4.1), f is the unloaded radius before
removing the material layers. I t is reiterated that a„ (a) is the i n i t i a l residual
stress equivalent to the constraint supplied by the slice on the convex surface
at y = a, notice t h a t the s h i f t of the mid-surface of the remaining m a t e r i a l after
removal of a slice has been taken into account. The sWfting of the mid-surface
is clearly shown i f the i n i t i a l residual stress o , , and the change i n residual

stress a' due to removal of the slice, are plotted separately as i n F i g . 14

x

F r o m F i g . 14, one can see that the changes i n residual stress, a ^ , due to
removal of material layers are relatively large and should be taken into
account. The value measured by applying the X-ray diffraction and the layer-
removing method is not the i n i t i a l residual stress b u t that superimposed
w i t h CT^..

25
 -150 -50 50 150
Residual Stress a„ (MPa)

Fig. 14 Change i n the residual stress caused by removal of m a t e r i a l layers.

4.3. Plastic bending of anisotropic sheets

The problem of rigid-plastic bending has been intensively studied, and the
general theories presented by many researchers (see the references i n paper
E). A l l these solutions have i n common assumed t h a t materials are isotropic.
Though the anisotropy has long been recognised to have strong effect on sheet
metal forming, very l i t t l e work concerned w i t h the bending of anisotropic
materials can be f o u n d i n the Uterature. I n those analyses, the Bauschinger
effect seems to be the m a i n concern i n simulation of the bending process.

I n the analysis of pure bending of sheet metal, the thickness is usually divided
into layers, as schematically shown i n Fig. 15. The relative movement of these
layers across the thickness d u r i n g the plastic bending is of particular interest.
A layer or surface t h a t divides the tensile and compressive zone is defined as
the neutral surface r , t h a t i n i t i a l l y coincides w i t h the middle surface w i l l
n

approach the inner surface d u r i n g the bending. Some layers overtaken b y the
neutral surface wiU be elongated after prestraining i n compression. A m o n g
these layers, there must be a surface which has been compressed and then
elongated the same amount to regain its i n i t i a l length, and this is k n o w n as
the unstretched surface, r . Due to the Bauschinger effect, material layers
u

being elongated after plastic prestrain i n compression w i l l exhibit a reduced

yield strength.

26
 o

F i g . 15 Schematic diagram of the bent sheet metal under applied moment M.

I n the numerical solution, i t was found convenient to use a dimensionless

parameter, (r/r„), together w i t h some other dimensionless parameters such as
the relative curvature, K, and the relative thickness r\. The volume f r a c t i o n of
the m a t e r i a l layers contained between the fibre whose current radius is r and
the inner surface of radius r is defined as X. B y using the dimensionless
t

parameters and assuming constant volume, the relationship of the relative

thickness and curvature may be expressed by the differential equation:

1-k /4
2

.JL -1 (4.4)
dK 2k TlV
where

relative curvature:

t
relative thickness: Tl = —

relative curvature of the neutral layer: p=—

Eq. (4.4) is the constitutive equation governing the thickness change of a sheet
being bent, and the equation incorporates a l l the material and process
parameters. F r o m the geometric analysis by assuming plane s t r a i n and

27
volume constancy, the following relationship exists between the dimensionless
parameters and the dimension of a sheet being bent

n =r ( l - / 2 )
m K

r =r (l + K/2)
y m

r = r T\p
n m

r
u = VI

For various theories, the geometric analysis of a plate under pure bending is
almost the same, the difference lies i n the modelling of the B.E. and specifying
the s t r a i n hardening property.

H i l l [1]
Proska[50]
Crafoord [35]
Verguts & Sowerby [51]
Dadras & Majlessi [52]
Model I
Model H

F i g . 16 Schematic i l l u s t r a t i o n of some simplified models f o r the Bauschinger

effect i n the reverse s t r a i n i n g zone IJJ.

28
The Bauschinger effect should be considered since reverse s t r a i n i n g of layers
i n zone III between r and r„ is involved, however, different materials respond
u

to the Bauschinger effect i n different ways. Generally, i t is impossible to

describe the behaviour of a l l materials i n response to the Bauschinger effect by
a single model. I n order to give a better account of the B . E . f o r different
materials, two models were presented i n paper E . Model J is f o r materials i n
t h a t the B . E . can be neglected, whilst model II interprets the B . E . b y the
kinematic hardening theory. F i g . 16 shows schematically some models that
include the Bauschinger effect, b u t which are either too simple or lack an
experimental basis. Weinmann et al. [49] carried out a n experimental study of
the Bauschinger effect i n cyclic pure bending, b u t they f a i l e d to incorporate
the Bauschinger effect i n t h e i r analytic modelling of the bending process.

The theoretically predicted thickness change is largely determined by the

d e f i n i t i o n of a material responding to strain hardening and the Bauschinger
effect. F i g . 17 shows the comparison of the moving of 10 original layers of an
ideally plastic material and a strain hardening material. B y H i l l ' s model the
thickness o f a non-strain-hardening material was predicted to remain un-
changed w i t h the unstretched surface coinciding w i t h the mid-layer, F i g 17(a).
The combined effects of the strain hardening properties a n d the Bauschinger
effect on t h i n n i n g was investigated by using model II, F i g . 17(b).

29
 O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

K
(b)

Fig. 17 V a r i a t i o n i n the fibre position versus the relative curvature K , bending

of (a) a rigid-perfectly plastic material; (b) a rigid-strain-hardening material.

Fig. 18 The relative thickness n as a f u n c t i o n of the relative curvature K f o r

different & /fc,by model II.
2

30
The Bauschinger effect is more significant t h a n that of s t r a i n hardening
parameters on the relative thickness. I f the strain hardening a b i l i t y is defined
by k and n, L u d w i k ' s l a w a = a„ + te" for rigid-perfectly plastic materials, we
n+1
have it, = C a and k = kC
0 2 /(n + 1) defined as the constants f o r specifying the
combined material strain hardening properties by model II i n paper E . For
given n and ft, the higher the yield strength, a , the less the reduction i n
0

thickness. I f the quantity of n and a remains unchanged, increasing k would

0

result i n greater t h i n n i n g as would lowering n over the range of 0 . 8 - 0 . 1 . The

more the stress-strain curve deviates f r o m that of a n idealised non-strain-
hardening m a t e r i a l the greater the t h i n n i n g , as shown i n F i g . 18.

Anisotropy is a n important parameter to be considered w h e n modelling the

bending process, since the anisotropic properties of a m a t e r i a l affect yielding
a n d plastic hardening of the material d u r i n g the process. I n practice, bending
of sheet metals perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction yields a more desirable
bend profile, which is especially important for sheet metals of h i g h strength.
The theoretical analysis i n paper E gave a process constant specifying the
plane bending of anisotropic sheets. I t was found that the effect o f anisotropy
on material t m n n i n g i n a bend is small b u t has a significant effect on the
bending moment. Since the springback is proportional to the bending moment,
the effect of anisotropy on the springback is, therefore, considerable.

The experiment showed t h a t sheets posses slightly less resistance to t h i n n i n g

when the bending axis is aligned w i t h the rolling direction of the specimen, as
was predicted by the anisotropic model. To investigate this effect, two possible
cases were discussed. The f i r s t w i t h the bending axis parallel to the r o l l i n g
direction, has the w i d t h aligned along the rolling direction of the sheet. The
second w i t h the bending axis perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction, has the
w i d t h perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction. Since a condition of plane s t r a i n
has been assumed, no strain i n the w i d t h is expected to exist i n either case.

I n the case w i t h the bending axis parallel to the r o l l i n g direction, the

equivalent stress, Ö, and the equivalent strain, é , may be derived f r o m H i l l ' s
theory of plastic anisotropy as:

1+ ^ 0 + ^90
a = (o- -a )
6 r (4.5)
(Ro+l)(l+R +R /R )
90 90 0

31
and

(4.6)
I + Rq +Rgo

Similarly, when the bending axis perpendicular to the rolling direction, the
equivalent stress a n d strain are

1 + ^0+^90
(4.7)
(^+i)(i+* +/y/?0 9 0 )

and

I + Rq+Rqq
(4.8)

As expected, the equivalent stress and the equivalent strain differ i n the two
cases due to anisotropy. I t is only for isotropic material, Rq = ä 9 0 = 1, t h a t the
orientation of the plate has no effect on the bending process.

32
5. Conclusions

D i f f e r e n t topics concerning the appUcation of the continuum theory of

plasticity to solve practical problems i n sheet metal f o r m i n g were discussed
and presented i n this work. I t was clearly shown that the analytical modelling
of the bending process could provide a n detailed insight into the f o r m i n g
mechanism and the effects of various parameters on the process.

Analysis o f the Bauschinger effect is p a r t of a wider problem i n the theory of

plasticity. Experimental and theoretical study of this problem was performed
to provide a better description and understanding of the Bauschinger effect.
The parameters for quantitative measurement of the Bauschinger effect were
defined and a hardening rule, based on the continuum theory of plasticity, was
proposed to formulate complex hardening behaviour of a material d u r i n g
reverse flow. The hardening rule expressed by Eq. (3.5) is not a priori predic-
tive, however, given access to experimental data, the model could i n principle
provide an analytical description of the flow characteristics of a rigid-plastic
material i n complex deformation. The presented hardening rule is important,
since most of the existing knowledge of work hardening has been obtained
f r o m unidirectional loading experiments. Plastic theories w i l l not be complete
unless and u n t i l they can account for the plastic behaviour observed d u r i n g
reverse deformation. Correct modelling of bending processes, deformation of a
sheet passing draw beads i n deep drawing and material's fatigue l i f e requires
f u r t h e r study of the Bauschinger effect.

The accuracy of profile is important for h i g h quahty of sheet metal workpiece.

This, however, is largely determined by material and process parameters and
residual stresses. Residual stresses which exist i n a material free of external
load may be introduced i n many f o r m i n g processes where non-homogeneous
plastic deformation is involved. The effect of residual stresses on mechanical
properties of materials must be considered, particularly for a f o r m i n g process
including bending. Analysis of the problem by s i m u l a t i n g the pure bending
process provided a good theoretical basis f o r analytical determination o f the
residual stresses i n a bent workpiece. M u c h work remains to be done to
develop the theory into an easily appUed measuring procedure by using a
strain gauge instead of relatively expensive X-ray diffraction method.

33
I n the analysis of the pure bending of strain hardening materials, different
assumptions about the Bauschinger effect were discussed and two models
presented. I t is possible by the models to gain insights i n t o interactive effect o f
some i m p o r t a n t parameters such as strain hardening properties, anisotropic
effect, thickness and bending curvature on the bending processes. The
numerical solutions f r o m the two models were compared w i t h test data. I t was
recognised t h a t the overall accuracy of the solution was not grossly affected by
the approximation of the material hardening properties, b u t largely affected
by the proper modelling of the Bauschinger effect, to which various materials
respond i n d i f f e r e n t ways. A n y a priori model of the Bauschinger effect
w i t h o u t experimental verification of the material would yield misleading
results.

I n view of the complexities i n real bending processes, the present analysis can
only be regarded as an i n i t i a l step toward the development of a comprehensive
system of analytical tools needed i n practice. I t is entirely possible to extend
the present work to other operations of practical interest.

34
References

1. R. H i l l , Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Press, London, 1950.

2. S.P. Keeler, Proc. Auto. Engr. Cong., Detroit, M i c h . 1968, p. 1.

3. G . M . Goodwin, Proc. Auto. Engr. Cong., Detroit, M i c h . 1968, p. 380.

4. D . N o r t h , I D D R G (Cong, proc), Amsterdam, 1972, p. 24.

5. J.R. Newby, Mechanical W o r k i n g and Processing X I , 1973, p. 167, Met.

Soc. A . I . M . E .

6. A . K . Ghosh, J. of Eng. Matls. and Tech., Trans. A S M E , 1977, Series H , 99,

p. 264.

7. A.C. Eringen, Nonlinear Theory of Continuous Media. M c G r a w - H i l l , New

York, 1962.

8. L . E . M a l v e r n , Introduction to the Mechanics of Continuous Medium,

Prentice-Hall, New York, 1969.

9. C Y . Choi and T.C. Hsu, J. Strain Analysis Vol. 6, No. 1,1970, p. 62.

10. R. Sowerby, E . C h u and J.L. Duncan, J. S t r a i n Analysis, V o l . 18, No. 2,

1982, p. 95.

11. R. Sowerby and P.C. Chakravarti, J. S t r a i n Analysis, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1983,
p. 119.

12. E . H . Thompson, Photogrammetria Vol. 23, No. 2, 1968, p. 67.

13. E . H . Thompson, Photogrammetric Record, V o l . 7, No. 37, 1971, p. 39.

14. W. N e w m a n and R. Sproull, Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics,

M c G r a w - H i l l , New York, 1973.

15. F. I . Parke, Computer & Graphics, Vol. 1, 1975, p. 5.

16. D.F. Rogers and J. A . Adams, Mathematical Elements of Computer

Graphics, M c G r a w - H i l l , New York, 1976.

17. E. L . H a l l , Computer Image Processing and Recognition, Academic Press,

New York, 1979.

18. R. Sowerby, D . K Uko and Y. Tomita, M a t r . Sei. Eng., V o l . 4 1 , 1979, p. 43.

19. A. Abel, Materials Forum, Vol. 10, 1987, p. 1 1 .

20. R.L. Woolley, Philos. Mag., 44,1953, p. 597.

35
2 1 . H . J . Ivey, J. Mech. Eng. Science, 3, 1961, p. 15.

22. A . Abel, PhD. Thesis, University of JJlinois, Urbana, USA, 1969.

23. J.F. W i l l i a m s and N . L . Svensson, J. Strain A n a l . 5,1970, p.128.

24. L . A n a n d and J. Gurland, Acta M e t a l l u r g i e s 24,1976, p. 901.

25. W.Y. Chang and R.J. Asaro, Met. Sei., June, 1978, p. 277.

26. Y.S. Chung and A. Abel, ICSMA 7, Montreal, V o l . 2 (Pergamon Press),

1985, p.1453.

27. N . Thompson and N . J . Wadsworth, Advances i n Physics, (Inst, of Metals),

1958, p . 4 7 .

28. E. Orowan, Causes and Effects of I n t e r n a l Stresses — I n t e r n a l Stresses

and Fatigue i n Metals, Symposium, Detroit, (Elsevier), New York, 1959.

29. L . M . B r o w n and W . M . Stobbs, Philos. Mag., 23, 1971, p. 1185.

30. L . M . Brown, Acta M e t a l l . 2 1 , 1973, p. 879.

3 1 . J.D. Atkinson, L . M . B r o w n and W . M . Stobbs, Philos. Mag. 30, 1974, p.

1247.

32. L . M . B r o w n and D.R. Clarke, Acta Metall., 23,1975, p. 821.

33. L . M . B r o w n and W . M . Stobbs, Philos. Mag. 34,1976, p. 351.

34. L . M . B r o w n , Ser. Metall., 11, 1977, p. 127.

35. R. Crafoord, PhD. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,

1970.

36. G. Welter, Metallurgia, 1948, part I , p. 287; part I I , p. 328; p a r t m , p. 13.

37. R. V . M i l l i g a n , W . H . Koo and T.E. Davidson, A S M E , J. Basic Eng., V o l . 88,

1966, p. 480.

38. A . Abel and H . M u i r , Philos. Mag., 1972, Vol. 26, p. 489.

39. N . I b r a h i m and J.D. Embury, Mater. Sei. Eng., Vol. 19, 1975, p. 147.

40. R.E. Stoltz and R . M . Pelloux, Ser. Metall., Vol. 8, 1974, p. 269.

4 1 . F.A. McClintock and A.S. Argon, Mechanical Behaviour of Materials,

Addison-Wesley, 1966.

42. W . Prager, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 169, 1955, p. 4 1 .

43. R. Sowerby and Y. Tomita, I n t . Mech. Sei. Vol. 19,1977, p. 3 5 1 .

36
44. L.R. Jackson, K F . S m i t h and W. T. Landford, Met. Technol. Tech. Pub.
No. 2440, 1948.

45. W.F. Hosford, Met. Eng. Quart., A S M , 1966, p. 13.

46. R. Sowerby and W. Johnson, M a t . Sei. and Eng., Vol. 20, 1975, p.101.

47. P.B. Mellor, Engineering Plasticity: Theory of M e t a l F o r m i n g Processes,

1977, Edited by H . L i p p m a n n , CISM, Udine.

48. W.F. Hosford and R . M . Caddell, Metal Forming: Mechanics and

Metallurgy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1983.

49. K J . Weinmann, A . H . Rosenberger and L.R. Sanchez, Annals of the CIRP,

V o l . 37, 1988, No. 1, p.289.

50. F. Prosca, Der Stahlbau, 28, 1959, p. 29.

5 1 . H . Verguts and R. Sowerby, I n t . J. Mech. Sei., Vol. 17, 1975, p. 3 1 .

52. P. Dadras and S.A. Majlessi, Trans. A S M E , Vol. 104, 1982, p. 224.

37
 Paper A

Application of an Image Processing

Technique in Strain Measurement in Sheet
Metal Forming
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 33 (1992) 299-310

Application of an Image Processing Technique in

Strain Measurement in Sheet Metal Forming

Z. Tan, L . M e l i n and C. Magnusson

Department of Materials Science and Production Technology

L u l e å University of Technology, Sweden

ABSTRACT

I n sheet metal forming, strains or strain increments are evaluated usually

f r o m the shape change of grids marked previously on the surface of the
workpiece, the present understanding of formability i n a f o r m i n g process
being based largely on the knowledge gained f r o m the strain measurement.
The theory of square-grid analysis is a great help i n g a i n i n g knowledge of
sheet metal forming. I n the application of this theory, nodal points on a
sheet m e t a l surface etched w i t h square grids have to be measured.
Conventional g r i d measurements are performed manually, which is either
time-consuming or of low accuracy. I t is k n o w n t h a t the image processing
technique is very powerful i n digitising the image of a n object. A newly
developed image processing device w h i c h consists of a video camera, a
momtor and a personal computer, has therefore been introduced into strain
measurement. The computer is equipped w i t h an A D card and w i t h data
processing software. W i t h such a device, the measurement of a gridded
surface can be performed conveniently, w i t h accuracy and efficiency. The
combination of the image processing technique and the theory of square-
g r i d s t r a i n analysis permits r a p i d measurement and s t r a i n analysis over
the surface of a workpiece marked w i t h a large number of nodal points.

1. INTRODUCTION

S t r a i n analysis is performed mostly by means of the g r i d method, i n which

A l
the configurations of a g r i d marked previously on the surface of the
workpiece are measured before and after deformation. The surface g r i d
m a r k i n g reduces the strain determination to a simple two-dimensional
problem. I t is assumed usually that an element of the g r i d over w h i c h the
measurement is taken can be regarded as plane and t h a t one o f the
principal directions is perpendicular to the sheet surface, so t h a t the three
principal strains are determined f r o m the in-plane measurement of a g r i d
by assuming the incompressibility of material d u r i n g plastic deformation.

The circle-grid analysis was proposed first by Keeler and Goodwin [ 1 , 2],
w h i c h has long been applied i n sheet metal forming. The usual method is
t h a t a pattern of fine circles (usually 5 m m i n diameter) is etched on the
surface of the sheet metal before pressing. A f t e r deformation, these circle-
grids w i l l be distorted into ellipses, the major and minor diameters of these
distorted circles then being measured to determine the principal surface
strains i n the workpiece. Circle-grid analysis has been applied p r i m a r i l y to
investigate large strains i n cases where instabihty or fracture is concerned.
For the problem of 'shape fixability', i n which small strains (about 5%
engineering strain) are involved and the strain distribution over a large
portion of a surface is to be investigated, circle-grid analysis is not effective,
since i t is d i f f i c u l t to distinguish the major and minor diameters of slightly
distorted circle-grids.

Sowerby and his co-workers [3-5] have demonstrated that strain

measurement can be simplified substantially i f a square or quadrilateral
g r i d is used i n the strain analysis. I n their theory, i t is anticipated t h a t the
straining w i l l occur by homogeneous deformation w i t h i n every g r i d element.
The homogeneous deformation is a linear process, and the strains can be
determined by measuring the spatial coordinates of the nodal points on the
gridded surface. This theory makes computer-aided strain measurement
and analysis possible, and i t has several advantages, for instance, speed of
measurement, flexibility i n choosing the size of an element of the g r i d and
the a b i l i t y to analyse non-coaxial strain p a t h deformation [ 6 ] , i f the
influence of strain p a t h on the formability is to be studied. Due to its
advantages over circle-grid analysis, square-grid analysis has been applied
by several researchers [7-9].

W h e n the theory of square-grid analysis was presented by Sowerby et al., i t

A2
was pointed out t h a t a f u l l y automatic method of measuring the nodal
points on the surface of a gridded stamping should be found. Since the
strain analysis is performed by evaluating the f i n a l configuration of a
square or quadrilateral g r i d w i t h reference to its i n i t i a l size, to measure the
nodal coordinates of such a g r i d on the deformed metal sheet is therefore
the most i m p o r t a n t task i n the strain analysis. I t is k n o w n t h a t the shape
and position of a surface can be described by massive nodal coordinates, i f
there exist distinguishable nodes on the surface. The image processing
technique is very effective i n digitising such a surface: applications of this
technique i n engineering measurement have been reported [10-14]. Schedin
and Melander [8] have utilised an automatic image analyser i n s t r a i n
measurement by locating the central crosses of circle-grids w i t h a movable
cursor on a digitising table. Sklad et al. [15] have carried out the
measurement w i t h a computerised vision device. The devices used by these
researchers have obvious shortages i n strain measurement, because the
image coordinates, instead of the objective coordinates, of the nodal points
were used f o r s t r a i n calculation. I n this case, image distortion can not be
taken i n t o account and, f u r t h e r , the measuring efficiency is poor. Therefore,
a newly developed image processing device is introduced i n t o s t r a i n
measurement, i t consists of a video camera, a momtor and a personal
computer equipped w i t h an A D card and data deducing software. W i t h this
device, the measurement can be done simply by recording two or more
images of the surface to be measured from different view positions, reading
the image coordinates automatically and calculating the spatial coordinates.

2. STRAIN ANALYSIS

The theory of Sowerby and his co-workers is described b r i e f l y for

completeness. I n t h e i r analysis, a 'pure homogeneous deformation' mode is
assumed. Strains i n a sheet metal f o r m i n g process can be revealed by the
changes i n the shape of the grids. Provided that the i n i t i a l nodal positions
of a g r i d previously marked on the flat blank are k n o w n and the
corresponding spatial positions of the nodes on the deformed surface are
measured, the deformation gradient ratios of the line elements o f the g r i d
can t h e n be evaluated easily. To illustrate the theory o f f i n i t e strain, a
t r i a n g u l a r g r i d , shown i n Fig. 1, is considered as being deformed i n its
plane. Actually, there is no need to restrict the g r i d shape to a triangle or a

A3
square. I t should be reiterated that the theory of strain analysis describes
'in-plane' deformation under the hypothesis of a pure homogeneous strain
mode. I n this mode, the new nodal coordinates (x', y') of a nodal point w i t h i n
each g r i d are a linear f u n c t i o n of the i n i t i a l coordinates (x, y).

Fig. 1. A t r i a n g u l a r g r i d element before and after forming, the origin of the

axes being superimposed w i t h a node of the grid.

The t r i a n g u l a r grid considered consists of the line elements OA and OB,

after deformation, they are elongated to OA and OB', respectively. The
spatial lengths and positions of which can be described by the nodal
coordinates of the t r i a n g u l a r pinnacles. I f a movable local coordinate system
is b u i l t up w i t h i n the element grid, i t is possible always to allow the origin
to coincide w i t h one of the pinnacles and the z-axis to be normal to the g r i d
surface through transformation of coordinates. Suppose that the i n i t i a l and
f i n a l nodal positions are known, and that the two configurations of a grid
before and after deformation are superimposed, the in-plane deformation
w i t h i n every t r i a n g u l a r g r i d can be expressed by the following equations:

f
x
a = i \ a + i23u
F x
y- =
A
f
2i a+Pnyx
A

x
(1)
b = to + F y l3 B y. = F x 21 B + Fy
22 B

where F. are the components of possible deformation gradient or elongation

ratios of the line elements OA and OB' w i t h projection onto the i n i t i a l lines
OA and OB. Equations (1) can be w r i t t e n i n the f o r m of a m a t r i x as

A4
 X X
A B^ (2)
^ A y
B ) F
V 2l F
1l) Ja yß

I n the following deduction, tensor notation is introduced, which makes the

deduction succinct. Eq. (2 ) can be r e w r i t t e n i n tensor f o r m as

x=FX (3)

T r a n s f o r m i n g E q . (3) y i e l d s

F=xX-' (4)

1
where X" is the inverse m a t r i x of X and F is the deformation gradient
tensor w i t h the components F s (i = 2J = 2), which are considered as strains
and evaluated f r o m the i n i t i a l and final nodal coordinates. For finite
strains, the deformation gradient tensor is generally unsymmetric, i.e.
F * F . I n this case, a symmetric deformation gradient tensor, S, for
n a

describing the pure homogeneous deformation is introduced, which

produces the same shape change as does F [4,16], so that F can also be
w r i t t e n as

F=RS (5)

where R is a r i g i d body rotation tensor which relates the respective

deformation gradient tensors i n the homogeneous deformation and the pure
homogeneous deformation. M u l t i p l y i n g F w i t h its transposed tensor F"
yields

t 2
F F=S (6)

T
Since R is orthogonal and S is symmetric, i t must be true that R R = I and
1
S = S i n deducing Eq. (6) f r o m (5), here I is a u n i t tensor.

I t is k n o w n t h a t estabhsbing the principal axes and the principal elongation

ratios i n the homogeneous deformation can be ambiguous. To eliminate the
ambiguity, a symmetric second-order tensor known as the Green
deformation tensor is therefore used. The eigenvalues of this tensor are

A5
identical to the square of the principal elongation ratios arising i n the pure
homogeneous mode. The product of the deformation gradient tensor F and
1
its transposed tensor F is defined as the Green deformation tensor C

(7)

Upon expanding Eq. (7), the components of C are

F\\F\2 + ^21^22 (8)

^22 ~ F\2 +
^22

The components of tensor C are i n v a r i a n t to r i g i d body rotations. The use of

Eqs. (5) and (7) yields the same principal elongation ratios for both the
actual and the pure homogeneous deformation modes mathematically. The
eigenvalues of C are derived as the principal elongation ratios squared,
w h i c h are given by

(9)

where k n and X22 are principal elongation ratios of the f i n a l length to the
i n i t i a l length of a pair of line elements w i t h i n a g r i d i n the principal
directions. I t follows t h a t the principal logarithmic surface strains are

E j , e — ln(A. ,
2 u X)
22 (10)

The t h i r d principal strain e , which is normal to the sheet surface, is

3

obtained by assuming constancy of volume, e +e 1 2 + e =0.

3 The orientation of
the first principal axis w i t h respect to the x axis is determined f r o m

2C 12
tan 26 = (11)
C -C,n 22

A6
 3. MEASURING NODAL POINTS ON A GRIDDED SURFACE

The theory o f square-grid strain analysis makes i t possible to investigate

the principal strains i n a workpiece by measuring, after deformation, the
nodal coordinates o f the square-grid pattern etched previously on the
surface. Measuring massive nodal points on a surface w i t h h i g h accuracy
and efficiency is not an easy task. The existing measuring methods and
tools are not so satisfactory for square-grid s t r a i n analysis. Automatic
methods to measure or digitise a gridded surface are therefore expected. A
powerful image processing technique which is called close-range photo-
grammetry has been introduced into s t r a i n measurement by one of the
authors [17]. U s i n g this technique, a large number of points on a surface
can be measured or digitised simultaneously, w i t h very l i m i t e d h u m a n
interaction.

Fig. 2 The image processing device applied i n the test.

A newly developed image processing device is suggested to be used i n s t r a i n

measurement which, as is shown i n Fig. 2, consists of a video camera, a
monitor and a personal computer. The measuring procedure is: t a k i n g and
storing the images of the gridded surface to be measured; pre-processing the
images; reading the nodal coordinates of the points on the images
automatically; calculating the 3D objective coordinates f r o m the recorded
2D image coordinates by photogrammetric theory; and t h e n calculating the
strains f r o m the objective coordinates by square-grid analysis theory.

A 7
To obtain the 3D spatial coordinates, t r i a n g u l a t i n g a single common point
f r o m two separate images must be carried out, that is, a pair (or more) o f
images of a gridded surface are taken successively f r o m two d i f f e r e n t
camera positions, the images being stored i n the computer for f u r t h e r data
processing. Fig. 3 illustrates schematically the perspective projection of
spatial nodal points on the images through the video camera. A f t e r the pre-
processing of the stored pictures, w i t h the lines thinned, the nodal points
are digitised to read their image coordinates, so that the corresponding 3D
spatial coordinates can be calculated f r o m the stereo image pair.

Fig. 3. Stereo images used for t r i a n g u l a t i n g the spatial coordinates of nodes

on a surface.

The theory concerned is the projective theory of photogrammetry, and the

linear transformation f r o m the 2D image coordinates to the 3D object
coordinates can be described in a homogeneous coordinate system.
Mathematically, the translation, rotation, scaling and perspective projection
is expressed i n a single transformation m a t r i x [18-20]

X
wu A. A 3 A4"
wv = A A y (12)
n n Aw
w A A* L
A n A4.
1

A8
where w may be termed a scale factor; u and v are the 2D image coordinates
of a nodal point; x, y and z are the corresponding 3D coordinates i n the
objective space; and Ay are the coefficients of the perspective projection
transformation m a t r i x defining the r i g i d rotation, scaling and perspective
projection. Expanding Eq. (12) and substituting the expression f o r w into
the first two equations yields

{A -A u)x
n 3J + {A -A u)y
12 32 + {A -A u)z
13 33 = {A u-A )
34 u

(A - A v);t + ( A - A v)y + (A
21 31 22 32 23 - A v)z = (A v -
33 34 )

I n solving Eqs. (13), there are two possible approaches: (1) the image
coordinates u , v and the transformation m a t r i x are known, w h i l s t the
spatial coordinates are u n k n o w n ; or (2) the spatial and image coordinates
are known, w h i l s t components A^ of the transformation m a t r i x are
unknown.

For case (1) , the spatial coordinates x, y and z are the unknowns to be
detennined f r o m k n o w n image coordinates u, v and the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
m a t r i x , so t h a t there are three unknowns i n the two equations: i f two
images f o r the nodal points have been obtained f r o m different view positions
and the 2D image coordinates measured, then four equations (two per
image) are generated, so that any point may have its 3D spatial coordinates
calculated.

For case (2), there are 12 unknowns Ay (i = 3, j = 4) i n the two equations,

then twelve equations w i t h twelve unknowns being needed. To obtain the
twelve components of the transformation matrix, i t is i n this way that the
image system is calibrated. Several methods can be applied i n the
calibration: a f a i r l y simple interactive calibration process can be designed
by choosing six non-coplanar points, called 'control points', which m u s t be
covered on the two images. These points can be measured directly f r o m the
workpiece by a conventional method i n order to obtain t h e i r locations i n the
objective space: by so doing, a n objective coordinate system is defined. W h e n
the images have been digitised and a l l the image coordinates obtained, b o t h
the 3D spatial coordinates and the corresponding 2D image coordinates o f
these control points are t h e n i n p u t i n the computer to calculate Ay. Since
the projection is considered i n a homogeneous coordinate system, one of the

A9
unknowns may be set a r b i t r a r i l y , i t being common practice to set A 34 = 1.
Case (2 ) provides the basis f o r the calibration of the system [19,21].

Provided t h a t calibration has been done and the image coordinates

measured, w i t h as the coefficients of the transformation m a t r i x for

image 1 and as those f o r image 2, i f and Vi are the image coordinates

of a nodal point on image 1 and u, and v are those of the same point on 2

image 2, and the spatial coordinates (x, y, z) of the point can be calculated
f r o m the following equations

( A a - A;3i"i)x+(Ai - A ; 2 3 2 M,)y+(A, 1 3 - A 1 3 3 M,)Z = A 1 3 4 u, - A L 1 4

(14)
(AJ2! — AlJlvl)x + (A 2
12 — A Vi)y+{A
l32 NI — A133v,)z = A 1 3 4 Vi — A 1 2 4

and

(A 2 U A 2 3 1 M )X + ( A
2 2 1 2 —A 2 3 2 M )y + ( A
2 2 1 3 - A 2 3 3 M )Z — A
2 2 3 4 w — A 2 2 1 4

(15)
(A^j — A IV )J:
2 3 2 + (A 2 2 2 — A232v2)y+(A223 — A233v2)z =A 2 3 4 v 2 — A 2 2 4

Eqs. (14) and (15) may be w r i t t e n i n m a t r i x f o r m as

PX = D (16)
where

All — Au m l A12 - Aj^ty A13 - A 1 3 3 M,

«121 -A31V1 A 22 A32 1 _ V

A23 - A 1 3 3 V!
P=
An -
A3l"2 Al2 - A U2
232 Al3 - A 2 3 3 M 2

.Aai - A v 231 2 A22 - A 232 v 2 A23 - A 2 3 3 v 2

-
A34"l A14
jj_ A34 l A24 v -

A34"2 - A l 4
_A 2 3 4 V 2 - A 224 _

Eq. (16) is over-determined, w i t h four equations for three unknowns. To

AIO
solve the over-determined system, m u l t i p l y i n g both sides of (16) w i t h P\
which is a transposed m a t r i x of P . I n this way, a least-squares solution is
utilised

F P X = F D (17)

Finally, the spatial coordinates (x, y, z ) can be obtained from

X = (FP)"'fd (18)

4. STRAIN CALCULATION

A workpiece etched originally w i t h a 10x10 m m square grid, as shown on

the monitor screen i n F i g . 2, has been measured to show the features of the
image processing theory and of the image system. The nodal points are f i r s t
measured w i t h an optical measuring microscope on the surface, the results
of which w i l l be used f o r comparison. Six non-coplanar points among the
measured nodal points are chosen as control points f o r the calibration of the
image system. The acquisition of image coordinates of the nodal points is
carried out w i t h the image processing device, shown i n F i g . 2, the device
being programmed so that the nodal points can be digitised and numbered
automatically. I t takes less t h a n h a l f an hour to complete the image taking,
the pre-processing, and the digitising. A pre-processed image taken f r o m the
monitor screen is shown i n F i g . 4. A f t e r the digitisation of the images, the
image coordinates as well as the spatial coordinates of the control points are
i n p u t into the personal computer to calculate the spatial coordinates of a l l
the points.

Fig. 4. A pre-processed image of the specimen w i t h t h i n n e d lines and

numbered nodes.

A l l
The measured and calculated three-dimensional coordinates are listed i n
Table 1, w h i c h is composed of 10 columns. C o l u m n one, tabled as PN,
denotes the p o i n t number, w h i l s t columns 2, 3, 4 and columns 5, 6, 7
contain the three-dimensional coordinates measured directly on the surface
a n d those calculated f r o m the image coordinates, respectively. The last
three columns give the deviations. F i n a l l y , the root-mean-square errors are
given.

TABLE 1 Comparison of the measured and calculated nodal coordinates

(mm)

PN X y z x' y z' x-x' y-y' z-z'

1 17.463 156.253 1.700 17.465 156.252 1.690 - 0.002 0.001 0.010

2 17.633 165.984 3.948 17.437 165.822 3.778 0.196 0.162 0.170
5 18.603 196.008 6.150 18.878 195.876 6.687 -0.275 0.186 0.537
6 18.798 206.130 5.979 19.137 206.194 6.363 - 0.339 -0.064 -0.384
7 19.280 216.290 4.705 19.279 216.290 4.710 0.001 0.000 - 0.005
8 27.885 216.190 10.530 28.615 216.233 10.634 - 0.730 -0.043 -0.104
13 26.797 165.153 9.023 26.957 164.987 8.770 -0.160 0.166 0.253
14 27.218 155.577 5.274 27.490 155.329 5.377 -0272 0.248 - 0.103
17 55.364 183.308 37.071 55.351 183.328 37.236 0.013 - 0.020 - 0.165
18 56.079 193.875 37.592 56.165 194.015 38.318 - 0.086 - 0.140 - 0.726
19 55.829 204.382 35.979 55.862 204.480 36.515 - 0.033 - 0.098 - 0.536
20 54.877 214.426 31.775 54.939 214.640 31.889 - 0.062 - 0.214 -0.114
21 65.632 214.565 32.465 65.851 214.636 32.269 - 0.219 - 0.071 0.196
23 66.930 193.433 37.335 66.948 193.406 37.128 - 0.018 0.027 0.227
24 66.322 182.825 37.577 66.266 182.961 37.448 0.056 -0.136 0.129
26 63.332 162.121 29.768 63.153 161.599 29.698 0.179 0.522 0.070
34 87.254 204.924 31.899 87.248 204.934 31.974 0.006 - 0.010 - 0.075
37 83.558 160.631 25.146 83.397 160.432 25.525 0.161 0.199 - 0.379
44 90.056 152.089 13.186 90.056 152.088 13.182 0.000 0.001 0.004

RMS error 0.227 0.173 0.296

A 12
A f t e r the 3D coordinates of nodes have been calculated, w h i c h provides a
description of the deformed surface, square-grid strain analysis theory is
applied to analyse the strain values. Since in-plane strain measurement is
assumed i n the theory, additional coordinate transformation f r o m the global
to the local coordinates for each g r i d must be carried out. As i t is k n o w n
t h a t the symmetric Green deformation tensor provides the same principal
strain values w i t h respect to any local coordinates, setting-up of the local
axes can j u s t be i n consideration of convenience. A f t e r the calculation and
transformation of coordinates, square-grid analysis theory is applied to
obtain the strains. Some results of the strain analysis are given i n Table 2,
where é is the equivalent strain at each node calculated f r o m the precisely
measured three-dimensional coordinates, and é„ is the mean value of the
equivalent strains calculated f r o m image coordinates obtained i n two
measurements. I t can be seen that the results calculated f r o m the nodal
coordinates measured w i t h the conventional device and those measured by
means of the image processing device are quite close to each other, b u t t h a t
the measuring efficiency of the latter is much higher. The equivalent strain
is an i m p o r t a n t parameter, the values of which are slightly d i f f e r e n t i n the
pure homogeneous deformation and i n the real one [5]. I n Table 2, only part
of the results are listed.

T A B L E 2 S t r a i n values obtained by the square-grid analysis theory

PN e e e-e
m m

16 0.1746 0.1664 0.0082

17 0.1398 0.1202 0.0196
18 0.1436 0.1438 -0.0002
19 0.1886 0.1925 - 0.0039
22 0.1641 0.1639 0.0002
23 0.1663 0.1423 0.0240
24 0.1414 0.1434 - 0.0020
25 0.1475 0.1444 -0.0031
26 0.1978 02313 0.0335

RMS error 0.0156

A 13
 5. CONCLUSIONS

I t has been shown, i n some detail, how the proposed image processing
technique can be applied to strain measurement i n sheet metal f o r m i n g .
Compared w i t h other, conventional, measuring methods, this technique is
powerful i n digitising a gridded surface. The results i n the experimental
evaluation indicate that the combination of strain analysis theory w i t h the
computerised vision system provides an effective means of strain
measurement. The effort of measuring does not grow w i t h the number of
points, and the accuracy can be improved by increasing the number of
images taken f r o m extra camera positions. Once a gridded surface has been
digitised and the strains at nodal points have been calculated, the values o f
e, and e may be plotted i n graphical forms, for instance, a bivariate s t r a i n
2

distribution w i t h a f o r m i n g l i m i t diagram superimposed can provide a n

i n t u i t i o n a l graphic tool for investigating the safety of a f o r m i n g operation.

A very important factor affecting the accuracy is the choice of control points
and the parallactic angle. I t is suggested to maintain a parallactic angle
about 60 to 110 degrees and also that there should be a certain amount of
redundancy between the image pair, i n order to obtain results of sufficient
accuracy and reliability.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to t h a n k the Swedish Board of

Technical Development (STU) for the financial support of this work. We are
also g r a t e f u l to Wei-Xing Wang and Stefan Dahlhielm, EPACS Company, for
t h e i r valuable help i n the image measurement.

REFERENCES

1. S.P. Keeler, SAE Congress, Detroit, M I , 1968, Paper 680092, p. 1-9.

2. G . M . Goodwin, SAE Congress, Detroit, M I , 1968, Paper 680093, p.380-

387.

3. R. Sowerby, E . C h u and J.L. Duncan, J. S t r a i n Anal., 17 (1982 ), p.95-

101.

4. R. Sowerby and P.C. Chakravarti, J. S t r a i n Anal., 18 (2), (1983), p.119-

A14
 123.

5. E. Chu, R. Sowerby, R. Soldaat and J.L. Duncan, 13th JJDDRG (Cong.

P r o c ) , Melbourne, Australia, 1984, p.9-21.

6. T.C. H s u , J. Strain Anal., 1 (3) (1966), p.216-222.

7. W.R. Thorpe and T.J. N i b i l l , J. Mech. Work. Technol., 9 (1984), p.5-20.

8. E. Schedin and A. Melander, J. Appl. Metalwork., 4 (2) (1986), p.143-

156.

9. V . K J a i n , L . E . Matson and H . L . Gegel, J. Mater. Shap. Technol., 5

(1988), pp.243.

10. K . W . Wong, Cong. Proc. on Close-range Photograrnmetric Systems,

Champaign, I L , USA, 1975, p.598-61.

11. M.A.R. Cooper, Photogramm. Ree, 9 (53) (1979), p.601-619.

12. T. Bednarski and A. Majde, Soc. Francoise Photogramm. Bull., 42

(1971), P. 55-62.

13. J . L . Posdamer and M . D . Altschuler, Comput. Graphics Image Proc, 18

(1982), p.1-17.

14. C S . Fraser, Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing, 52 (10) (1986), p.1627-

1635.

15. M . P . Sklad, C B . H a r r i s and B.A. Yungblud, 16th JJJDRG (Cong. Proc),

B o l ä n g e , Sweden, 1990, p.63-70.

16. C Y . Choi and T.C. Hsu, J. Strain Anal., 6 (1) (1971), p.62-69.

17. Z. Tan, Licentiate Thesis, L u l e å University of Technology, Sweden,

1990:14L.

18. E . H . Thomapson, Photogramm. Ree, 7 (37) (1971), p.39-45.

19. F . I . Parke, Comput. Graphics, 1 (1975), p.5-7.

20. W . M . Newman, Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, 2nd ed.,

M c G r a w - H i l l , New York, 1979.

2 1 . J . N . Hatzopaulos, Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing, 5 1 (10) (1985),

p.1583-1588.

A 15
 Paper B

An Empirical Model for Controlling

Springback in V-die Bending of
Sheet Metals
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 34 (1992) 449-455

An Empirical Model for Controlling Springback in V-die

Bending of Sheet Metals

Z. Tan, B . Persson* and C. Magnusson

Dept. of Materials Science and Production Technology
L u l e å University of Technology, Sweden

* Volvo Car Corporation, Sweden

ABSTRACT

A process model is presented for V-die bending of sheet metals. This model is
especially valuable to control a press brake equipped w i t h a computer
integrated controlling and planning system. A bent part recovers elastically on
release of load, and the springback varies w i t h both material and process
parameters. A desired bend angle is obtained by controlling the punch
insertion depth so t h a t the springback can be compensated for by r i g h t amount
of overbending. The model combines analytical method w i t h t r i a l and error
work to estabKsh the relationship of punch insertion depths and corresponding
unloaded bend angles. To apply this model, three t r i a l bending tests are
required for a sheet and a die, so that three coefficients i n the h a l f empirical
model can be obtained i n a regressive way. Experiments have shown that
process parameters affect springback more obviously t h a n material properties
do, and the model predicts accurate punch insertion depths f o r desired angles
i n a i r bending. The model is simple, so i t can easily be used for real time
control.

1. BACKGROUND

Bending process has been thoroughly studied and there is plenty of literature
on this subject, among which the most important contribution is H i l l ' s basic

B 1
theory on pure bending of sheet metals [1]. H i l l has derived the complete
solution f o r pure bending of a non-hardening sheet and showed the s h i f t of the
n e u t r a l surface d u r i n g bending. Proska's theory [2] of pure bending of s t r a i n
hardening material has been developed by Crafoord [3]. I n Crafoord's theory,
the Bauschinger effect resulted f r o m the reversal of load has been considered
b y adopting a constant flow stress model f o r fibres undergoing reverse
straining. Verguts and Sowerby [4] have taken the deformation history of the
i n d i v i d u a l fibres into account b u t not the Bauschinger effect.

Pure bending is seldom met i n actual bending process, i n practice, i t is the

desired profile of a bend t h a n the temporal stress and strain d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t
is important. The assumptions made i n pure bending study are generally
different f r o m the real conditions i n V-die bending. U n l i k e pure bending, V-die
bending is not a steady process.

I n V-die bending, a sheet metal is l a i d over a die and bent as the punch inserts
into the die, while the bending moment and curvature vary continuously along
the sheet and d u r i n g the deformation. The sheet is stressed i n tension on the
convex surface and compression on the concave surface, i t is s h i f t of the
n e u t r a l surface d u r i n g bending that complicates the analysis. The V-die
bending process falls into two categories, namely air bending and bottom
bending. This study is l i m i t e d to air bending, i n which the punch does not
f u l l y set i n the die. The springback of a bend on unloading is unavoidable and
the desired angle can be obtained by overbending and then l e t t i n g the
m a t e r i a l recover elastically on release of the load. Both material parameters
and process parameters affect the springback. Parameters such as elastic
modulus, yield strength, strain hardening ability and thickness of the sheet
metal as well as die opening w i d t h , punch radius and so on interfere the
springback i n a very complicated way. Since the f i n a l configuration of a bend
is dependent on the springback, therefore, those parameters affecting the
springback must be closely examined.

Overbending is an effective way to compensate for the springback, this can be

done i n air bending by adjusting the punch stroke. Stelson and co-workers
have p u t f o r w a r d an adaptive control model [5-7] and this model estimates the
m a t e r i a l characteristics of a sheet being bent f r o m the punch force-distance
data taken early i n the bending process, and these in-process measured
parameters are then used i n the calculation of the current f i n a l punch position

B 2
so t h a t the elastic springback can be properly compensated for by overbending
to obtain the desired unloaded angle. According to the model, disturbances i n
operation due to variations i n material characteristics of a sheet w i l l not affect
the modelling results. To predict the loaded shape and the springback of a
sheet being bent, however, strenuous measurement and calculation m u s t be
carried out.

I n theoretical determination of springback i n V-die bending, the curvature of a

sheet metal subjected to bending needs to be k n o w n . I n most analyses, the
i n n e r radius of a bend has been commonly assumed to be the same as t h a t of
the punch. I n fact, the radius of curvature is a f u n c t i o n o f both m a t e r i a l and
process parameters. I t has been found i n the experiment t h a t i f the radius of a
punch is of the same order of the sheet thickness, the radius of curvature
underneath the punch w i l l be larger t h a n t h a t of the punch, w h i l e a
sufficiently large punch w i l l cause a smaller bending curvature [8]. Modelling
of V-die bending process is usually very difficult, since i t is almost impossible
to know the actual curvature of a sheet being bent. I n practice, the springback
is controlled by controlling punch reversal position. A relatively simple method
has been suggested by Gossard and Allison [9], i n applying the method, a
sheet metal was subjected to a series of bending and unloading, each bent
angle and springback angle were measured, and the output signal was fed into
a computer so t h a t the insertion depth of the punch which corresponds to the
proper overbending could therefore be determined i n an iterative way.

I n the last decade, computer integrated control system (CNC) has t u r n e d a

t r a d i t i o n a l press brake into a numerically controlled machine tool. The control
system determines a bend angle by predicting how deep the punch inserts into
the die to bend a sheet metal. A few models f o r computerised numerical
controlling of springback i n V-die bending have been presented i n l i t e r a t u r e .
A n empirical process model presented by Fleischer [ 1 0 ] predicts the punch
insertion depth needed to bend a desired bend angle. The insertion depth can
be analytically divided i n t o two components, one responds to the permanent
bend angle on unload and the other is the component o f overbending w h i c h
compensates for the elastic springback. I n this study, the authors attempt to
investigate the combined effect of material properties, thickness and die
configuration on the springback, and to present a process control model f o r a
computerised press brake.

B 3
 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

I n V-die bending, one of the most important tasks is to control springback. I t is

k n o w n t h a t the springback varies w i t h the material properties and the die
configuration. The combination of various material parameters and process
parameters makes i t extremely difficult to predict springback theoretically
w i t h desirable accuracy. A series of experiments have been carried out to study
the influence of various parameters such as yield strength, thickness, punch
radius and die opening w i d t h on the springback. Fig. 1 shows schematically
the die set-up and the definition of process parameters.

Fig. 1 The schematic illustration of die set-up and the definition of process parameters.

Parameters involved i n bending are punch radius r , die shoulder radius

p r,
d

die opening w i d t h W, sheet thickness t, bend angle 8 and punch insertion

depth H. The bend angle refers to the angle between the two straight legs of a
bend after springback. The springback angle is defined as the difference o f the
bend angles measured on load and unload. Since the press brake used i n the
test is equipped w i t h a computerised controlling system, namely D N C 90/9000,
t h a t allows the h i g h performance of process simulation and directly numerical
control of the press brake. For a desired bend angle, the corresponding
insertion depth is predicted by the D N C system. I n the test, the basic
experimental procedure consists of bending the specimens to different angles,
recording the corresponding punch insertion depth, and measuring the angles
before and after raising punch. Various combinations of die and punch were
chosen to investigate the effect of die geometry on springback. D i f f e r e n t sheet
steels were used, Table 1 shows their chemical analyses and Table 2 t h e i r
mechanical properties as well as thickness.

B 4
Table 1 Chemical composition (Wt %) of the sheet steels tested

material C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Al

SSI 147-32 0.08 - 0.45 0.03 0.03 - - 0.02

SS2333 0.05 —
-
-1.2 0.03 -0.25 17-19 8-11
Domex350 Y P 0.12 0.4
- - 0.05
Domex690 XP 0.16
Boron04
0.4 1.8 0.03 0.25
- - 0.03
0.25-0.3 0.25-0.35 1-1.3 0-0.03 0-0.015 0.4-0.6 —

AI Cu Fe Mg Mn Si Zn

AL4212-02 Rest 0-0.1 0-0.5 0.6-1.2 0.4-1.0 0-0.25 0-0.2

AA5754 Rest 0-0.1 0-0.4 2.6-3.6 0.2-0.5 0-0.4 0-0.2

Table 2 Material properties and thickness of the sheet steel tested

material t (mm) E (GPa) Re (MPa) Rm(MPa) Aso(%)

SSI 147-32 1.0/2.0 200 143/203 298/316 48

SS2333 1.0/1.6 154 210/190 490/690 56
Domex350 Y P 4.0 214 450 520 24
Domex690 XP 3.0 268 690 750 15
Boron04 1.0 408 350 580 22
AL4212-02 1.0 137 71 120 22*
AA5754 2.0 70 90 190 20*

* Aso

I n order to investigate the effect of material properties such as yield strength

and thickness and t h a t of process parameters on the springback, d i f f e r e n t
sheet metals and combinations of die-punch were chosen and a number of
experiments were performed. The measured results are shown i n Pig. 2, from
which, one can see t h a t the combined effect of materials properties and die
combination on the springback of a bend is very complex. I t is k n o w n t h a t the
springback is directly proportional to the yield strength R , b u t inversely E

proportional to Young's modulus E. Compare Boron04 w i t h AL4212, they are

of the same thickness, but AL4212 has much lower yield strength and Young's
modulus, however, the difference i n springback of AL4212 and Boron04 is not
so large. The die combination may affect the springback of a bend to a larger

B 5
extent. For the die opening (W = 80), the ratio of punch radius to thickness,

(r 11), affects the springback more significantly t h a n the yield stress does. The
p

springback increases w i t h r lt,

p as shown i n F i g 2. For most materials, the
springback increases as the bend angle decreases. As the die opening increases
or sheet thickness decreases, the springback becomes more sensitive to the
process parameters t h a n to the material's parameters, say, the yield strength.

85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 105.0 110.0 115.0

Bend angle 4, Deg.

Fig. 2 Springback A6 versus bend angle 9, for various sheet metals and
thicknesses, bent by a die combination of WI r = 80 / 6. p

B 6
Fig. 3 Relationship between unloaded bend angle and punch insertion depth,
plotted f r o m the measured results, (a) the die combination WI r = 80 / 6; (b) the
p

die combination W / r = 24 / 1 .
p

The measured bend angles 9 on unload are plotted as a f u n c t i o n of the punch

insertion depth H for various sheet thicknesses and die configurations, as
shown i n F i g . 3. The corresponding curves predicted by the D N C system are
given i n F i g . 4 for comparison. One can see that the bend angle-punch
insertion depth curve predicted by the D N C system is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t
measured, t h a t means the overbending H predicted by the system for compen-
e

sating f o r the springback is not accurate. I t is therefore needed to find a

process model which specifies the punch insertion position including the
correct overbending. B y combing the theoretic analysis w i t h the t r i a l and error
data, the authors present a semi-analytic model for controlling a press brake.

I n the analysis, a bend is assumed to consist of a curved section and two

straight free sections. The curvature of the curved section which wraps around
the punch tip is not usually the same as that of the punch, i t is affected by the
material's properties and the die configuration. I n case of large punch radius,
the i n n e r radius of a bend can be smaller t h a n that of the punch; i f the punch
radius is i n the same order of the thickness of a sheet metal subjected to
bending, larger inner radius of the bend can be excepted. Since springback is
largely detercnined by the curvature of the curved section, a constant, k, is

B 7
therefore introduced i n order to give a better description of the actual radius o f
curvature of a bend.

U H I SS2333 1mm, Measured

BORON 1mm, Measured
*±***AL4212 1mm, Measured

Punch insertion depth H, mm

Fig. 4 Comparison of results measured and predicted by the D N C system;

The punch insertion depth is analytically divided into two components: H p and
H , shown i n F i g . 1. The former yields the permanent plastic bend angle on
t

unload and the latter is the overbending for the elastic recovery on unload.
The whole punch insertion depth, H, which yields a desired bend angle is

H =H +H
p e (1)

and the punch position corresponding to permanent bending angel is

H =(r +t/2)(l-cosa)+[(W-D)/2-(r +t/2)sma]

p d d tanct+(£>/2)tan(a/2) (2)

where D = 2k[r + t/2)sina,

p and a = (18O-0)/2, which is the angle between the

straight section and the die surface. The value of the adjust constant k can
only be experimentally determined, which tells i f the curvature of the wrapped
section is larger or smaller t h a n t h a t of the punch.

The amount of deeper insertion depth of the punch by which the sheet m e t a l is

B 8
 overbent to compensate for the springback on unloading is f o u n d to be a linear
f u n c t i o n of the bend angle [10], and overbending depth may be expressed as

H =B +K a
e t e (3)

where B and K indicate a linear dependency of overbending component on

t t

bend angle, these constants w i l l vary w i t h material parameters and process

parameters. There are three unknowns k, B and K i n Eqs. (2) and (3), and
e e

they must be calculated by linear regression f r o m values measured i n three

t r i a l bending steps.

Fig. 5 Bending angles plotted versus punch insertion depths, measured and
predicted by the h a l f empirical model.

D i f f e r e n t sheet metals and die-punch combination have been tested i n an

attempt to investigate interaction of various parameters on springback. I n
r u n n i n g the press brake equipped w i t h a D N C system, deviation between a
desired bend angle predicted by the D N C system and the actually measured
one has been f o u n d for some sheet metals tested. The system lacks knowledge
of material properties, since the same punch insertion depth is predicted for
bending sheet metals w i t h same thickness b u t different yield strengths. For
instance, the system predicted the same insertion depth for a certain bend
angle for both Boron04 and AL4212 sheets. I n fact, the springback o f these

B 9
sheets is quite different. The measured results show that even f o r the same
sheet, i f the tool combination is changed, the springback w i l l generally be
different. Low carbon steels may have wide variation i n material properties
t h a t w i l l affect springback, besides, rolling direction, surface q u a l i t y can also
be reasons f o r v a r i a t i o n i n the springback. The punch insertion depth-bend
angle relation predicted by the empirical model i n comparison of t h a t actually
measured is shown i n F i g . 5. The overbending depth is also predicted by the
model and shown i n Fig. 6.

2.00 q
• ' » • • DOMEX 4mm
**É**AA5754
mmoOUEX 3mm
**ÆA» BORON

1.50 :

E :
X
1 1-00 :
« - * O * *
>

o :
« $ e $

0.50 -

0.00 TTTTI I I I T I I I r T IT ft I T [1 I 1 I I I I I I I I ! I I I I I I I II 1 I II I I I I I
80.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 105.0
Bend angle 4, deg.

Fig. 6 Overbending depth H plotted as a function of bend angle.

t

3. CONCLUSIONS

Effect of material properties and tool geometry on springback has been

experimentally investigated. B y combining the theoretical analysis of the
relationship of the bend angle and the process parameters w i t h the t r i a l and
error test, the authors presented a n empirical model for a brake press
equipped w i t h computerised control system to control the springback. B y this
model, the proper punch insertion depth for a desired bend angle can be
predicted. I n the test, i t has been found that the springback increases w i t h : (1)
increasing punch radius and die opening w i d t h and (2) decreasing thickness of
sheet metal.

B 10
F r o m comparison of the experimental results w i t h those predicted by the D N C
system and by the empirical model, i t is clear t h a t the springback i n air
bending can be w e l l controlled by overbending sheet metal to correct amount.
B y this model, deviation between the predicted bend angles on unload and the
desired bend angles measured is w i t h i n 0.5 degree. The shortcoming o f the
model is t h a t the effect of material properties can only be imphcitly indicated
by the constants of the model, and that w i t h o u t t r i a l bending, i t is unable to
know the constants k, B and K e e of the process model, therefore unable to
predict the spring-back corresponding to a bend angle.

4. REFERENCES

1. R. H i l l , The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford University Press,

London, 1950.

2. F . Proska, Der Stahlbau, 28(1959), p. 29-36.

3. R. Crafoord, PhD. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,

1970.

4. H . Verguts and R. Sowerby, Int. J. Mech. Sei., 17(1975), p. 31-51.

5. K A . Stelson and D.C. Gossard, J. of Engineering for Industry, 104(1982),

p. 389-393.

6. S. K i m and K.A. Stelson, J. of Engineering for Industry, 105(1983), p. 45-

53.

7. A . K Stelson, J. of Engineering for Industry, 108(1986), p. 127-132.

8. K J . W e i n m a n n and R.J. Shippell, 6th North America Metalworking

Research, (conf. proc.), Florida, USA, A p r i l , 1978.

9. D.C. Gossard and B.T. Allison, 8th Manufacturing Engineering Transa-

ctions and North America Manufacturing Research Conference, Rolla, Mo.,
M a y 1980.

10. J. Fleischer, Sheet Metal Tubes Sections, 8(1989), p. 19-25.

B 11
 Paper C

The Bauschinger Effect in Compression-

Tension of Sheet Metals
 The Bauschinger Effect in Compression-Tension
of Sheet Metals

Z. Tan, B . Persson* and C. Magnusson

Dept. of Materials Science and Production Technology
L u l e å U n i v e r s i t y of Technology, Sweden

* Volvo Car Corporation, Sweden

ABSTRACT

I t is important to know how sheet metals behave under complicated loading

conditions, since yielding and hardening of a metal is usually dependent upon
the stress state and deformation history. A n example is the Bauschinger effect,
which is manifested as loss of yield strength d u r i n g reverse loading upon
plastic prestraining. Quantitative analysis of the Bauschinger effect is
required f o r better understanding of this problem. I n this study, the
experiments carried out by subjecting sheet metals to u n i a x i a l compression-
tension tests show t h a t the Bauschinger effect varies w i t h material properties
and magnitude of prestrain. Based on the experiment and the continuum
theory of plasticity, parameters denning the Bauschinger effect are proposed,
w h i c h interpret the combined effects of work-hardening and work-softening of
a material d u r i n g f o r w a r d and reverse straining, and a model revealing the
Bauschinger effect on the subsequent yield surface is f i n a l l y presented.

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the present work is to describe analytically the Bauschinger

effect manifested i n simple compression-tension. The Bauschinger effect (B.E.)
is the phenomenon t h a t after plastic prestraining, a material exhibits a
reduced yield strength on reverse loading i n comparison w i t h that reached on
continued f o r w a r d flow curve. The theoretic study of the problem can be
classified m a i n l y into two categories: continuum plasticity and microscopic
plasticity. The former attempts to describe the stress-strain behaviour of a
continuum on the basis of a postulated yield criterion w i t h o u t regard to the
i n t e r n a l structure of a material, and the latter determines the B.E. affected
strain hardening by looking into i n t e r n a l stresses and microscopic structure
such as dislocations, particles etc. The B.E. is n a t u r a l l y i n consequence of the
i n t e r n a l stresses. The present study, however, is l i m i t e d to the macroscopic
theory of plasticity. A n attempt has been made by the authors to interpret the
B.E. by combining the theory w i t h the parameters obtained f r o m the
compression-tension test.

The continuum theory of plasticity was originally developed to describe the

yielding and f u r t h e r work-hardening of an isotropic material [1], and the
theory asserts t h a t the i n i t i a l yield surface expands u n i f o r m l y i n the stress
space d u r i n g plastic deformation. The von Mises criterion, for instance, is a
well denned and widely used yielding criterion. I n this theory, i t is assumed
t h a t the yield stress is independent of the direction of straining, and the
current yield stress depends only on the final strain, i.e. the B.E. is not taken
into account.

Considerable effort has been paid to the Bauschinger effect. I n order to

account the B.E., Prager [2] proposed the hypothesis of kinematic hardening
for "the ideal Bauschinger effect". According to the hypothesis of kinematic
hardening, the yield surface translates i n stress space w i t h o u t change of its
i n i t i a l shape and orientation d u r i n g plastic deformation. The theory of
kinematic hardening was later developed by Ziegler [3], i n which the yield
surface was assumed to translate l i k e a rigid body i n the direction of the
plastic strain increment. Baltov and Sawczuk [4] developed a hardening rule
accounting for the prestrain associated anisotropy of a n i n i t i a l l y isotropic
material, and they demonstrated t h a t the proposed generalisation of kinematic
hardening could describe the translation, rotation and expansion of the i n i t i a l
yield loci. H a v i n g realised the l i m i t a t i o n of both isotropic hardening and
kinematic hardening rules, Mroz [5,6] presented a model combining the two
hardening rules to determine the material behaviour under complex loading
conditions i n which unloading and subsequent reloading i n a d i f f e r e n t
direction was involved. More complex work-hardening models concerning the
B.E. were proposed, for materials w i t h inherent inhomogeneity of stress and
strain by Williams and Svensson [7], and for materials w i t h i n i t i a l anisotropy
by Shrivastava and Dubey [8].

C 2
Along w i t h these theoretical studies, important experimental work has been
done. Shahabi and Shelton [9] performed tests under combinations of tension,
torsion and i n t e r n a l pressure to investigate the effect of prestraining on
subsequent yield loci. Their results showed that the anisotropic yield loci were
translated to the pre-stress point and the local work-hardening was
accompanied by softening i n both the reverse and transverse directions.
M i y a u c h i [10,11] conducted simple planar shear tests of sheet metals to
experimentally examine the work-hardening and the B.E f o r a shear
deformation, he interpreted the mechanism of work-hardening and work-
softening i n terms of dislocations, and compared the forward and reverse
stress-strain curves w i t h respect to prestraining. Some other researchers have
also made t h e i r contributions to the B.E. [12-17].

2. TEST RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Five sheet metals, SS1147, SS2333, Domex350, Domex590 and SS4120 were
tested. SS1147 is an a l u m i n i u m k i l l e d and cold-rolled steel sheet, SS2333 a
stainless steel sheet, SS4120 an a l u m i n i u m alloy sheet while Domex350 and
Domex 590 are dual-phase, hot-rolled sheets. These materials were chosen f o r
test because of the variance i n t h e i r mechanical properties. U n i a x i a l tensile
tests were f i r s t applied to determine the material properties. The chemical
analyses and mechanical properties o f these sheet metals tested i n this work
are given i n Table I and Table I I , respectively.

A relatively simple way to v e r i f y the B.E. is compression-tension test. I t can be

d i f f i c u l t to make compressive test of sheet metals, due to the tendency o f a
sheet specimen becoming misaligned w i t h increased load and to f a i l by
instability. To overcome this problem, a fixture is used to support the sheet
specimen w i t h o u t introducing significant friction between the supports and
specimen [18,19]. Fig. 1 shows such a fixture used i n the present work. I t has
two h i g h l y polished slip guides to support the specimen. To provide necessary
lubrication and tolerance between the sheet specimen and guides, Teflon films
w i t h a total thickness of about 0.4 m m were p u t on each o f the two specimen
surfaces. A n extensometer w i t h the gauge length of 10 m m was set on the side
surface of the specimen to measure the compressive and tensile strains. B y the
device, i t is possible to carry out compression on sheets of 1 m m i n thickness,
b u t the compressive strain is l i m i t e d to 2-3% by the p o s s i b ü i t y of b u c k l i n g of

C 3
the specimens. I n t h i s study, sheets of 3-5 m m i n thickness were chosen
because larger prestrains were of interest. The monotonic compressive stress-
strain curves were f o u n d to be as consistent as those obtained i n tensile tests,
this suggests t h a t f r i c t i o n between the specimen and the supports of the
f i x t u r e is negligibly small.

Table I. Chemical Compositions of Test Sheets (Wt %)

Sheet Fe Al C S P Mn Si Cr Ni N Mg

SSI147 Rest 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.03 0.45 0.01

SS2333 Rest 0.05 0.03 0.05 2.0 1.0 18 9
Domex350 Rest 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.58 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02
Domex590 Rest 0.03 0.09 0.03 0.11 1.58 0.18 0.02 0.03 0.14
SS4120-14 0.40 Rest 0.5 0.25 0.35 2.5

Table II. Mechanical Properties of Test Sheets *

Sheet Thickness R. k n
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (%)

SSI147 3 158 310 49 759 0.71

SS2333 3 273 630 56 1539 0.81
Domex350 4 470 512 23 1216 1.03
Domex590 5 596 691 18 1228 0.88
SS4120-14 3 182 240 14** 342 0.56

* Ludwik's law C? = O + kz" has been used to fit the tensile true stress-true strain curves.
0

** A

Fig. 1 The f i x t u r e set-up w i t h an extensometer f o r compression-tension test.

C 4
2.1. D e f i n i t i o n of the B . E . P a r a m e t e r s

To evaluate the magnitude of the B.E. i n simple compression-tension, some

i m p o r t a n t parameters need denning. I f a specimen is plastically prestrained i n
compression, then unloaded and reloaded in tension, Fig. 2 shows
schematically such a f o r w a r d and reverse flow curve OCDEF. I n order to see
the difference between the forward flow curve and the reverse flow curve more
clearly, a n i n i t i a l monotonic tensile curve OAB is plotted as the reference, on
w h i c h A is the yield point defined as a , and the reverse flow curve EF is
0

replotted w i t h the prestrains positive as E'F'. Since the i n i t i a l monotonic

compressive and tensile flow curve is supposed to be consistent, the reference
can also be regarded as the f o r w a r d flow curve being plotted w i t h the strain
and stress positive.

Fig. 2 Schematic stress-strain curve. E'F' is the reverse flow curve replotted
w i t h the prestrain positive and OAB is the i n i t i a l tensile curve.

The i m p o r t a n t parameters for evaluating quantitatively the magnitude of the

B.E are defined i n F i g . 2. I n general, the B.E. is measured by the difference
between the f o r w a r d stress a / ( at which the unloading begins, and the reverse
yield stress G . I t has been observed i n the experiment that the reverse f l o w
r

curve of a real material usually has a well-rounded portion, which does not
exhibit a t u r n i n g point distinguishing the elastic region f r o m the plastic
region, so, locating of the yield stress on the reverse flow curve is uncertain. a r

and G , however, can be measured w i t h accuracy at an offset strain 0.2%

f

starting from the prestrain £ . Without the B.E. a

p r and a f should have the
same value.

2.2. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the T e s t R e s u l t s

The compression-tension test was carried out w i t h a computerised tensile test

machine, I N S T R O N , and the stress-strain curves could be digitised and stored
i n the computer. F i g . 3 shows the stress-strain curves obtained i n the u n i a x i a l
compression-tension test, i n which the reverse flow curves i n tension after
various prestrains i n compression have been replotted w i t h the prestrains
positive. The i n i t i a l monotonic tensile curve, as assumed, is plotted as the
reference. The tensile and compressive curves are a l l i n the r o l l i n g direction.
The reverse curves of all the materials tested are commonly characterised by

1. A transient portion, beyond the reverse yield point denned by the offset
method, w i t h relatively h i g h strain hardening rate, which decreases w i t h
the reverse strain;
2. A steady portion i n which the strain hardening rate approaches or equals
t h a t of the i n i t i a l monotonic tensile curve.

Fig. 3 shows t h a t the transient portions of all reverse flow curves obtained are
generally lower t h a n the reference curve, except S S I 147 whose reverse flow
curves intersect and surpass the reference curve at larger prestrains. Steel
S S I 147 is most sensitive to strain ageing, F i g . 3(a), while SS4120 is obviously
affected by dynamic strain ageing, F i g . 3(d). The influence of strain ageing on
the B . E . has been reported by other workers [20, 21]. I t was found i n the
experiment t h a t for the same material the strain hardening rates of the
transient portions at various prestrains are not constant, that is, the s t r a i n
hardening rates of the reverse flow curves v a r y w i t h prestrains. However, a l l
the tested materials exhibit reduced reverse yield stresses i n comparison to the
stresses reached on the reference curves at the strains which are equal to the
prestrains.

C 6
 INITIAL TENSILE CURVE
REVERSE TENSILE CURVE (e,)

0 1 'i M i iii m n i i 'i i i i i iii i i i i i i i i i I ' i i i i i i i iI

0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
TRUE STRAIN t (O

(a)

(b)

C 7
C 8
 800-1
INITIAL TENSILE CURVE
REVERSE TENSILE CURVE (e,)

SS2333

0 111 11 i i 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 i
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

TRUE STRAIN t. (tp)

(e)

Fig. 3 Plotting the reverse flow curves against the prestrains, e

F r o m F i g . 3, the reverse yield stresses are measured and plotted against

prestrains, shown i n Fig. 4. The differences between the forward flow stresses

and the reverse stresses, Acr=|<J J - | a | , are also measured and plotted
r versus

the prestrain e i n Fig. 5. A f t e r transient portions, a l l the reverse flow curves

p

w i l l have smooth continuations of the i n i t i a l monotonic curve. The austemtic

steel SS2333 is different, F i g . 3(e), the steady portions of the reverse flow
curves are nearly parallel to b u t lower t h a n the reference, this is the case of
permanent softening.

C 9
 600
OCCQO SS1147
nrxno SS2333
AAAAA SS4120
o
AAAAft Domex350
500 Tiiünür 0omex590
0-

I 400
o
z
300

Q
200
C/1
OL
1009

0 1111111111111111111111111111111111111 ni 11111111111 n 11111111

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
-2
PRESTRAIN |Cp| x 10'

4 The reverse yield strengths, a , versus the compressive prestrains.

r

Fig. 5 The variation of stress difference, A o , w i t h the prestrains.

C 10
Discussion on the mechanism of the B.E. i n terms of microscopic structure and
i n t e r n a l stresses can be found i n the Uterature [22-30]. To quantitatively
measure the magnitude of the B.E., MilUgan et al. [13] defined the ratio o f the
reverse stress to the f o r w a r d stress, ( c / a ) , as the Bauschinger stress factor.
r f

This factor is, however, not directly related to the magnitude of the B.E., so
t h a t a new parameter f o r quantitative measurement of the B . E . is suggested
as

l 1
B= 7 (1)
N
The Bauschinger effect factor B is an experimentally determined parameter,
with a f and a r measured f r o m the f o r w a r d and reverse flow curves by the
offset method. B varies w i t h the prestrain. For SS1147, the B value may be
strongly affected by the offset strain at w h i c h the f o r w a r d and reverse stresses
are measured. Notice that a, and a f are opposite i n sign, so the sign of
absolute value is used i n Eq. (1). I f the B.E. is absent, then B = 0. I t is f o u n d
t h a t , up to rational prestrains, an empirical function

B(t )
p = a\n\e \ + b
p (2)

gives best fitting of the B(E ) values f o r a l l the materials tested. F i g . 6 shows
p

the plot of the measured values of B(e ) p against the prestrain, e^.

The l i m i t a t i o n o f appUcation of B(z ) p to analyse the B.E. is that the hardening

a b i l i t y of a material can not be expUcitly incorporated w i t h the parameter.
Therefore, a similar b u t more conceptuaUy defined parameter is f u r t h e r
suggested by the authors. I f Ludwik's empirical hardening l a w [31] is appUed
for describing the i n i t i a l monotonic tensile stress-strain curves

a = ci + 0 te" (3)

regarding (|cJy|-|a |) as the forward hardening and (jcr^l—|<y |) as the reverse

0 r

softening, the ratio of the reverse softening to the f o r w a r d hardening is

denned as the Bauschinger effect parameter ß

C 11
 1°/ -Kl •+1 (4)
k -Kl k\e r

where B has been denned i n Eq. (1). The parameter ß is therefore explicitly
expressed as a f u n c t i o n of material properties and prestrain. I f the work-
hardening ability, indicated by k and n , and softening i n response to the B.E.,
measured by B(e ) p have been k n o w n , then the parameter ß evaluates
analytically the combined effects of work-hardening and softening d u r i n g
f o r w a r d and reverse loading. I f the B.E is absent, both B and ß are zero.

Fig. 6 The Bauschinger stress factor B as a function of prestrains.

Fig. 7 shows the measured and predicted Bauschinger effect parameters

plotted w i t h respect to prestrains. For hot-rolled sheets Domex350 and
Domex590, ß values are very large for small prestrains, this is due to the
sharp yielding of these materials. F r o m Fig. 3(b) and 3(c), one can say t h a t for

hot-rolled sheets the work-hardening, ( | o / | - | o | ) , is relatively small i n

0

comparison w i t h the softening, (jcjyrl—|cr j), and this results i n large value of ß.
r

C 12
For a l l tested materials, however, the Bauschinger effect parameter ß
decreases w i t h increasing prestrain.

2.3. S p e c i f y i n g I d e a l i s e d H a r d e n i n g Models b y ß

The Bauschinger effect parameter ß evaluates the ability of work-hardening

and softening o f a material i n forward and reverse loading. I f the strain
hardening parameters are k n o w n and the Bauschinger stress factor B has
been experimentally determined, the parameter ß gives a n analytic description
of the B.E at any prestrain. Moreover, some idealised hardening models can be
specified by the parameter. For instance, the isotropic [1] and kinematic [2]
hardening models are two simplest rules i n practical application, they are
interpreted by ß w i t h certain values.

(i) Isotropic Hardening Model f ß = 0)

C 13
H a r d e n i n g rules are generally mathematical expressions using one or two
hardening parameters to describe the stress state under which a material
flows plastically. For an isotropic material, a generalised f o r m of hardening
rules is

F(o )-/f(e ) = 0
s # (5)

where F can be looked upon as a loading function, and 8^ denote the stress
and strain tensor, respectively, and K is a stram-hardening f u n c t i o n
depending on the material's strain-hardening properties. This theory,
however, does not take the B.E. or any cross effects into account. I t is assumed
t h a t the i n i t i a l yield surface, expands u n i f o r m l y i n the stress space while
retains its original shape and orientation d u r i n g plastic flow. The most
generally used yield and hardening rule is von Mises criterion i n the f o r m of

2 2 2 2
(o, - o ) + ( a - a ) + ( a - a , ) = 2Y
2 2 3 3 (6)

where Y is the yield stress i n simple tension or compression.

Isotropic hardening hypothesis asserts that the i n i t i a l yield surface expands

u n i f o r m l y i n the stress space d u r i n g plastic deformation and the yield stress is
independent of the direction of straining, i.e. i t requires the precondition for a
simple tensile-compressive curve

k l = H (7)

i n this case, by substituting the value i n Eq. (1) and (4) yields 5 = 0 and ß = 0.

(ii) Kinematic Hardening Model ( ß = 2)

To account for the B.E., Prager introduced the kinematic model [ 2 ] , w h i c h

allows the yield surface to translate i n the stress space b u t the total elastic
range is maintained constant. Such a hardening rule i n a generalised f o r m is

F{o -a )-K
ij il =Q (8)

C 14
where Ct = a (e^) denotes the translation of the i n i t i a l yield surface. B y
y y

setting K equal to a constant, the i n i t i a l yield surface does not change i n shape
and orientation, but translates i n the stress space l i k e a r i g i d body.

I n kinematic hardening model, i t has been assumed t h a t the elastic l i m i t on

urdoading and reloading is always double the i n i t i a l yield stress [32]. This is
the case of so-called "ideal Bauschinger effect", and the precondition f o r this
model is

|o7|+|a | = 2|a |
r 0 (9)

by substituting the f o r w a r d stress given by Eq. (3) into (9), the reverse yield
stress can be expressed as

|o | = |a |-*|e,r
r 0 (10)

For the ideal Bauschinger effect, ß = 2 is obtained by substituting Eq. (10) i n

E q . (4).

(iii) Hardening Model of Constant Reverse Yield Strength (ß = 1)

A simplified model combining the isotropic and kinematic hardening f o r the

B.E. was independently presented by Crafoord [33], Sowerby and Tomita [34].
According to this model, the prestrain has no effect on the reverse yield stress,
so t h a t the reverse yield stress is considered as constant and equal i n
magnitude to the original yield stress of the material. Therefore

Khbol (id

is substituted into Eq. (4), and ß = 1 then obtained.

B y using these specific values of the B.E. parameter ß (= 0, 1, 2), the

preconditions for some of the important hardening models are w e l l specified.
I n more general cases, ß must be experimentally determined to give an
analytical evaluation of the effect of work-hardening and softening i n response
to the B.E. of a material.

C 15
 3. E F F E C T OF B VALUE ON THE SUBSEQUENT YIELD SURFACE

Several simplified hardening models have been discussed. I n seeking a

hardening model f o r better description of the B.E., the translation and
expansion of the yield surface must be taken into account. I f materials are
assumed to be isotropic, the hardening condition may be expressed i n the f o r m

F(a*-<x )-Ary = 0
s (12)

I n case of biaxial stresses, the yield locus can be explicitly w r i t t e n as

2
(o, - cf - (ctj - c)(a - d)+(o
2 2 - df = Y (13)

where c and d are constants indicating the translation of the yield surface, i f
c = d = 0 then E q . (13) reduces to the von Mises criterion.

I t has been k n o w n t h a t prestraining affects subsequent yielding on reversal of

load. Suppose t h a t a specimen is loaded plastically i n tension i n the a,
direction to a stress G„, unloaded, and then reloaded i n compression to o cl in
the same direction, the material w i l l generally be softer i n compression due to
the prestraining. For a n isotropic material, o = a (1 a = o, and o c l =o c 2 =o , c

must be true. S u b s t i t u t i n g these conditions and the value of B, obtained by

replacing a f w i t h o, and o w i t h o i n Eq. (1), into Eq. (13), a new hardening
r c

rule incorporated w i t h the Bauschinger stress factor, B, is given by

2
of + o - O j 0 - o , ß ( o ! + o ) = (1 - B)a
2 2 2 (14)

where o, is the f o r w a r d stress i n tension. When ß = 0, the hardening rule

reduces to the von Mises criterion.

The proposed hardening model i n application to plane stress requires

experimental evaluation o f B, quantitatively measuring the B.E., and O, ,
specifying the expansion of the yield surface. W i t h B and o, measured for
SS1147, the yield loci are shown i n Fig. 8. From inspection of the figure, i t can
be said t h a t the proposed model is more realistic t h a n other simplified models.

C 16
 Isotropic
Mises
— — Kinematic
-2.5
-2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5

0-,/rjo

Fig. 8 Comparison of yield loci given by different hardening models for sheet
SS1147. The Bauschinger stress factor B is measured at E = 0.034, o, = 220. p

4. CONCLUSIONS

The phenomenon that a material exhibits reduced yield stress on reverse of

load, revealed i n simple tension-compression, has been studied. The B . E . is
n a t u r a l l y i n consequence of i n t e r n a l stress. The present work, however, is
l i m i t e d to the macroscopic theory of plasticity. A more general hardening
model is presented by the authors i n quest of better interpretation of the B . E .
B y u s i n g the experimentally determined values B and a, , i t is possible to
predict the combined effects of work-hardening and work-softening d u r i n g the
f o r w a r d and reverse loading i n tension-compression or vice versa. F r o m the
results, conclusions are d r a w n as follows:

(1) For a l l the tested materials, the transient portions of the reverse flow
curves terminate after a plastic strain of about 5-10%, and the following
steady portions can be either of continuance or parallel to the i n i t i a l monotonic
f l o w curve. I n general, the length of the transient portion increases w i t h the
prestrain. The austenitic steel SS2333 shows a strong permanent softening
effect a f t e r moderate prestrains, b u t for other ferritic steels small effects o f
the same k i n d are observed. S t r a i n hardening rates i n transient portions of a
m a t e r i a l d i f f e r w i t h respect to both the reverse strain and the prestrain

C 17
(2) The effect of strain ageing has been found to raise the reverse yield point
and to decrease the rounding of the reverse flow curves. Strain ageing can be
m i n i m i SPH by reducing each interval between the steps of forward and reverse
straining or altering properly the test speed. For SS1147, strain ageing affects
the B.E. to a large extent. Fig. 3(d) shows how the values of the Bauschinger
stress factor B can be influenced by the offset strain, at which the f o r w a r d
stress and reverse stress are measured. W i t h increasing the prestrain, the
Bauschinger stress factor B steadily increases except t h a t of S S I 147. The
Bauschinger effect parameter ß measures combined effects of work-hardening
and work-softening of a material on loading and reverse loading. For
Domex350 and Domex590, the ß values are large when prestrains are small,
because they have sharp yield points. The ß values decrease w i t h increasing
prestrains, still, these materials show more obvious softening t h a n t h a t of the
cold-rolled sheets.

(3) The proposed hardening model, based on the macroscopic theory of

plasticity and experimentally determined parameters, interprets materials
yielding behaviour under complex loading conditions i n which loading,
unloading and subsequent reverse loading are concerned. The model is simple
but useful to describe some general features of consequent yield loci on reverse
loading i n biaxial stresses state.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors w i s h to thank D r . U . Ö h m a n for the h e l p f u l discussions, and M r .

M . Nilsson f o r the laboratory assistance. The research project was sponsored
by the N a t i o n a l Board of Technology and Science, Sweden. Thanks are also
due to the reviewer who made very h e l p f u l suggestions.

REFERENCES

1. R. H i l l , Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univ. Press, (1950).

2. W. Prager, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 169(1955), p. 4 1 .

3. H . Ziegler, Quart. Appl. M a t h . 17(1959), p. 55.

4. A . Baltov and A . Sawczuk, Acta Mechanica, 1(1965), p. 6.

C 18
 5. Z. Mroz, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 15(1967), p. 163.

6. Z. Mroz, Acta Mechanica, 7(1969), p. 199.

7. J.F. W i l l i a m s and N . L . Svensson, Meccanica, June (1971), p. 104.

8. H.P. Shrivastava and R.N. Dubey, Zeitschrift f u e r Angewandte Mathe-

m a t i k u n d Mechanik, Zamm 55, (1975), p. 747.

9. S.N. Shahabi and A. Shelton, J. Mech. Eng. Sei., 17(1975)2, p. 93.

10. K M i y a u c h i , Advanced Technology of Plasticity, (Conf. Proc.) Vol. 1, Japan

Society of Tech. of Plasticity, Tokyo, 1984, p. 623.

11. K M i y a u c h i , Sei. Papers I.P.C.R., Vol. 78, No 3, Sept. 1984, p. 27.

12. H . J . Ivey, J. Mech. Engr. Sei., 3(1961)1, p. 15.

13. R.V. MilUgan, W . H . Koo and T.E. Davidson, T r a n , of the S A M E , June

(1966), p. 480.

14. Y. Tozawa, M . N a k a m u r a and I . Shinkai, The Science and Technology of

I r o n and Steel (Conf. Proc.),Tokyo, Japan, Sept. 1970.

15. T. Taira, T. Osuka and Y. Ishida, 15th Mechanical W o r k i n g and Steel

Processing (Conf. Proc), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Jan. 1973.

16. N . Christodoulou, Acta Metall. 37(1989), No. 2, p. 529.

17. M . Taya, K E . Lulay, K Wakashima and D.J. Lloyd, Materials Science and
Engineering, A124U990), p. 103.

18. A . A . Moore and J. C. McDonald, Proc. A S T M . 45(1945), p. 698.

19. W . Ramberg and J. A. Miller, J. Aeronautical Sciences, 13(1946), p. 569.

20. M . T . M a , B.Z. Sun and Y. Tomota, I S I J International, 29(1989), No. 1, p.

74.

2 1 . K M i y a u c h i , J. M a t . Pro. Tech. 34(1992), p. 195.

22. R.L. Woolley, Philos. Mag., Ser. 7, 44(1953), p. 597.

23. D.V. Wilson and Y. A. Konnan, Acta MetaU., 12(1964), p. 617.

24. D . V . Wilson, Acta Metall., 13(1965), p. 807.

25. L . M . B r o w n and W . M . Stobbs, Philos. Mag., Ser. 8, 23(1971), p. 1201.

26. L . M . B r o w n , Acta MetaU., 21(1973), p. 879.

27. L . A n a n d and J. Gurland, Acta MetaU., 24(1976), p. 901.

28. D.J. Lloyd, Acta MetaU., 25(1977), p. 459.

C 19
29. Y.W. Chang and R. J. Asaro, M e t a l Science, 12(1978), p. 277.

30. D . Gould and P.B. H i r s c h , Philo. Mag. 30(1974) 6, P. 1353.

3 1 . P. L u d w i k , Elemente der Technologischen Mechanik, Verlag von J u l i u s

Springe, B e r l i n , 1909.

32. M . A . Eisenberg and A . Phillips, Acta Mechanica, 5(1968), p. 1.

33. R. Crafoord, Ph.D. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,

(1970).

34. R. Sowerby and Y . Tomita, I n t . J. Mech. Sei., 19(1977), p. 351.

C 20
 Paper D

On Analysis and Measurement of

Residual Stresses in the Bending
of Sheet Metals
 International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, V o l . 36, No. 5 (1994), 485-493

On Analysis and Measurement of Residual Stresses

in the Bending of Sheet Metals

Z. Tan, W.B. L i and B . Persson*

Dept. of M a t e r i a l Science and Production Technology
L u l e å University of Technology, Sweden

* Volvo Car Corporation, Sweden

ABSTRACT

A new method for evaluating distribution of residual stresses i n bent sheet

metals is presented. Due to the non-uniform distribution of strain and stress
across thickness, springback on unloading induces residual stress i n a bent
specimen. The authors have formulated the problem and show that the spring-
back and residual stresses can be expressed as a f u n c t i o n of geometric
parameters and material properties of sheet metals, such as bending
curvature, thickness, Young's modulus, work-hardening index and etc. The
layer-removing method was used to determine the residual stresses i n the
study. B y s i m u l a t i n g the layer-removing process, analytical measurement of
the residual stress was made. The analytical results were f i n a l l y compared
w i t h the experimental data measured, and a good agreement was found.

NOTATION

a half of the current thickness with material layers removed

b width of the plate
E Young's modulus
E' generalised elastic modulus
k constant in Hollomon's law
M bending moment per unit width

D 1
n work-hardening index in Hollomon's law
p force per unit width
r radius of curvature of the neutral layer
t thickness of the plate
At thickness of a removed slice
x, y, z coordinates in direction of length, thickness and width, respectively
e true strain
D Poisson's ratio
G 0 uniaxial tensile yield strength
a true stress
a angle

superscripts

equivalent (strain and stress)

e elastic
p plastic
after springback (as opposed to initial)
after removing material layers
* specified (elastic-plastic interface)

subscripts

0 on the mid-layer
g general
r resultant (stress)

1. INTRODUCTION

Various theories on elastic-plastic bending of sheet metals have been

presented i n the literature. I n an attempt to formulate this problem, some
researchers [1,2] applied the elementary analysis on bending of a beam. H i l l
[3] contributed a general theory and solution for elastic-plastic bending under
the condition of plane strain. L u b a h n and Sachs [4] presented a method of
successive approximation for detenrnning strain and stress distribution across
the thickness of a bent specimen on condition of plane strain and plane stress.
Alexander [5] analysed elastic-plastic bending and springback by assuming

D 2
materials to be of non-work-hardening, and he gave both analytical and
geometrical solution to the problem. Denton [6] developed Alexander's theory
f o r work-hardening materials, by considering the f u l l stress and s t r a i n history
and m a k i n g use o f the change i n curvature on unloading to solve the bending
problem. A l t h o u g h a variety of theories on elastic-plastic bending have been
presented, relatively l i t t l e has been done i n analysis of springback, especially,
of residual stresses. Gardiner [7] represented a generalised and simplified
mathematical analysis on springback i n pure bending, by which the variation
i n radius of curvature before and after springback could be predicted. Queener
and De Angelis [8] carried out both theoretical and experimental analyses on
springback and the residual stress i n bent specimens, and they presented a
quantitative method for predicting the springback behaviour on unloading.
Springback and residual stresses could be expressed as a f u n c t i o n of process
parameters and material properties, analyses of the problem were also
available i n references [9,10]. A n experimental method of determining
residual stresses was reported by Sachs and Espey [11], they determined the
residual stresses i n a round bar f r o m the strains measured by successively
removing layers of material. This method was also applied to sheet metals
w h i c h were i n i t i a l l y straight to determine the residual stresses by measuring
the resulted curvature [12,13].

2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Springback is a common phenomenon i n bending of sheet metal. O n releasing

load, the material w i l l spring back elastically. Due to the non-homogeneous
plastic deformation across thickness, springback w i l l result i n redistribution of
the i n t e r n a l stresses and residual stresses can be observed i n a bent specimen.
The residual stresses may have an important effect on the mechanic behaviour
of the m a t e r i a l . Analysis of the residual stresses i n a bent specimen is
generally very complicated, since the residual stresses induced i n the f o r m i n g
process depend not only on the process parameters b u t also on material
properties, such as work-hardening ability.

I t is the purpose of this work to give a quantitative analysis o f residual

stresses i n a bent plate. Elastic-plastic bending of sheet metals is simulated
f r o m the beginning, and the springback of a bent plate is treated as a curved
plate being bent by a fictitious moment equal and opposite to the applied

D 3
moment. Winkler's theory of curved beam being bent is adopted and modified
by the authors to analyse residual stresses i n a bent plate. The novelty of the
analysis is t h a t not only the curvature change b u t also material properties are
considered. B y this method, i t is possible to assess analytically the residual
stresses at any intermediate stage of the process, that would be practically
impossible by any experimental investigation.

The theoretical analysis presented i n this paper includes: (1) predicting

residual stress resulted f r o m the elastic springback on unloading by the
constitutive equations with bending curvature, thickness and material
properties of sheet metals incorporated; (2) simulating the layer-removing
process to analyse the changes i n the residual stress on removing material
layers, and comparing the analytical results w i t h those measured by the X-ray
diffraction.

3. F O R M U L A T I O N O F T H E P R O B L E M

The analysis is restricted to pure bending, which means the bending is

enforced only by bending moment w i t h o u t any external force acting on the
plate. For simplifying the derivation, some assumptions are made:

(1) the radius of curvature is assumed to be large i n relation to the plate

thickness (r /1 > 25), so that the induced stress i n the direction of thickness can
be neglected. This is true for moderate elastic-plastic bending;
(2) the plate is wide comparing to its thickness ( h / r > 10), so that plane strain
bending is assumed;
(3) a l l plane sections perpendicular to the axis of the plate before bending
r e m a i n plane and perpendicular after bending;
(4) the neutral layer coincides always w i t h the mid-layer d u r i n g the bending
process;
(5) isotropic work-hardening materials obey von Mises yield criterion.

3.1. A n a l y s i s of S p r i n g b a c k a n d R e s i d u a l S t r e s s

Analytical determination of residual stresses requires correct f o r m u l a t i o n of

the bending process. F i g . 1 shows schematically the bending of a plate i n t o a

D 4
cylindrical surface of radius r. I n the formulation, both cylindrical coordinates
and Cartesian coordinates coinciding w i t h the mid-layer are used.

Fig. 1 A schematic representation of a plate bent into a cylindrical surface of

radius r.

B y Hooke's l a w and Hollomon's law, the stress i n the elastic and plastic region
along the direction of plate length, a , z can be expressed as (referring to the
appendix for details)

±E
si (1)
°,00 =
n+11
y
r

2
where E = E/(l-v ) for plane strain, e* is a specified strain, w h i c h makes
Hooke's l a w and Hollomon's l a w continuous at the elastic-plastic interface,
and the other parameters have been defined i n the l i s t of symbols. The
stresses, both elastic and plastic, above the neutral surface are entirely tensile
and those below entirely compressive.

D 5
Elastic-plastic bending of a plate to a cylindrical surface of radius r requires
bending moment M per u n i t w i d t h

(2/V3)" l-v< k t 1

n+1
3(i-v+v r 2 n + 2
v+v

(2)

I f the applied bending moment M is now removed, the stresses t r y to relieve

themselves by straightening the bent plate, this results i n springback and
residual stresses. I n order to control the springback w i t h i n allowable l i m i t s ,
analysis of springback and residual stress is very necessary. I f r and r' are the
r a d i i of curvature of the neutral layer before and after springback on
unloading, respectively, and the i n i t i a l length of an element located at a
distance y f r o m the neutral layer is A/ = (r + v)a, which w i l l change to
Al = (r' + / )a' after springback, then the corresponding elastic strain is given
by

AT-AI yr f l
(3)
AI r + y\r'

I n the derivation, y = / has been assumed, and the condition of ra = r' a' used,
where a and a' are inclined angles of the two sections of the considered
element before and after the springback. Since the unloading is elastic, the
corresponding longitudinal stress, a\ , is

o (y) =
z Fe (y) z (4)

and the moment per u n i t w i d t h , Af', resulted f r o m a can be expressed as

z

(5)

D 6
 u ,2 2, r + t/2
where h =-rt + r h .
r-t/2

The elastic recovery of the specimen on releasing the applied bending moment
is thought t h a t a fictitious moment, Af', which is equivalent b u t opposite to the
applied moment, Af, is applied to the specimen, so t h a t the curved plate is
f u r t h e r bent by this fictitious moment. A f t e r springback, the resultant moment
m u s t be zero, i.e. M + Af = 0. Using this condition and r e w r i t i n g Eq. (5), we
have

F r o m Eq. (6), one can see that the springback, Ap = 1 / r - l / r ' , i n f o r m of

bending curvature variation is l i n e a r l y proportional to the applied moment Af,
w h i c h is a f u n c t i o n of the bending curvature, sheet thickness and m a t e r i a l
properties given by Eq. (2).

Combining Eq. (6), (3) and (4), the elastic stress on springback is expressed as

e
° x(y)=--f^r (7)

A f t e r springback the resultant moment must be zero, i t does not mean t h a t the
i n t e r n a l stresses disappear. The springback w i l l result i n redistribution of the
i n t e r n a l stress, and the longitudinal residual stress, CT^,, can be obtained by
superimposing the elastic stresses given by Eq. (7) on the i n i t i a l stress given by
E q . (1)

o ( y ) = o ( y ) + a (y)
CT I
e
J (8)

3.2. R e m o v i n g M a t e r i a l L a y e r s

The residual stresses i n a bent plate has been analysed above, and theoretic
prediction should be verified by experimental measurement. The X-ray
d i f f r a c t i o n and hole-drilling are widely used experimental methods. The two
methods, however, are not suitable for measuring the residual stresses i n a

D 7
bent plate, since the residual stresses change significantly i n magnitude and
sign across the thickness. The X-ray diffraction is restricted to surface stresses
and the hole-drilling method to a u n i f o r m stress. I n practice, the layer-
removing method is often applied i n the X-ray diffraction measurement. B y
removing u n i f o r m layers of material successively f r o m a surface of a bent
specimen, residual stresses below the original surface can be then measured
on the newly uncovered surfaces. Removing layers f r o m a specimen surface
w i l l certainly cause unbalance i n i n t e r n a l force and moment, this is, however,
neglected by other researchers i n applying the layer-removing method. Under
the effect o f the unbalanced force and moment, the bent specimen w i l l f u r t h e r
deform to achieve a new equilibrium i n the i n t e r n a l stresses and this results
i n the change of residual stresses.

Before removal o f material layers, a bent specimen is free of loading, or there

is no external force, F, i n tangential direction and moment, M, acting on the
specimen, so t h a t the equihbrium conditions of residual stresses must satisfy

(9)

M =
Lii CT
~(y)ydy = o (10)

M"

Fig. 2 Removing material layers i n measurement by the X-ray diffraction.

D 8
 Suppose t h a t an u n i f o r m slice of material is now removed f r o m a specimen
surface, the removal of material layers breaks the balance of the residual
stresses, and that w i l l result i n a n additional force and moment i n the
specimen. I f a slice of material w i t h thickness At is removed f r o m the convex
surface, F i g . 2, the constraint applied by the removed slice to the remainder of
the plate can be replaced by a n equivalent force p' and moment Af', per u n i t
w i d t h , w h i c h are equal and opposite to those obtained by i n t e g r a t i n g the
residual stress across the current thickness 2a (=t- At)

p'=-f o*iy)dy di)

and

Af = - £ CvOOydy . (12)

I n w r i t i n g Eq. (11) and (12), i t is assumed t h a t the removing process itself does
not induce any additional stress to the remainder of the plate. A f t e r removing
the stressed slice, the constraint applied by the slice disappears, and the
remainder of the specimen w i l l deform elastically under the action of the
unbalanced i n t e r n a l stress, u n t i l a new equilibrium i n i n t e r n a l stress is
reached. The elastic stress caused by the removal of a slice is derived as

J _ + y Af (13)
2
If a (r'+y)h

2 2
where r' is the radius o f curvature before the removal, h = -2ar' +r' ]n^—^-.
r'-a

The actual stress across the current thickness of 2a (= t - At) after the removal
can be f i n a l l y obtained by superimposing the elastic stress upon the i n i t i a l
residual stress

<C = C v ( y ) + < ( y ) (14)

A n a l y t i c a l measurement of the i n i t i a l residual stress can also be made by

measuring strain d u r i n g the layer-removing process. I f a slice of material of
thickness At is removed f r o m the convex surface, and elastic s t r a i n on the

D 9
concave surface, e' (-a),
x can be measured w i t h a strain gauge, then the i n i t i a l
residual stress i n the slice is

o,(«)=- (15)
2
1 | 1 a
+ 2
2a 2r' (r'-a)h

2
where a and h are the same as those used i n Eq. (13). I t should be
emphasised t h a t a^ia) expressed by Eq. (15) is the i n i t i a l residual stress
equivalent to the constraint supplied by the slice on the convex surface at
y = a.

4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The analytical solution was apphed to two sheet metals, cold-rolled sheet
metal SS1147, and hot-rolled sheet metal Domex350, w i t h the n o m i n a l
thicknesses 3 mm and 4 m m , respectively. The analytical results were verified
by the X-ray diffraction combined w i t h the layer-removal method. The
material's mechanical properties were determined by the standard tensile test,
the pure bending was carried out w i t h the help of a four-pomt-bending device.

(a)

D 10
 800
0--792E"-'"
E=214.5 GPa

600
o
0-
3

400
C/)
V)

Tensile Curve
uj 200 i Fitted Curve

Ö . Ö 0 0 . 0 5 Ö . ' l ' Ö Ö . ' l 5 0 . 2 0

TRUE STRAIN £

(b)

Fig. 3 Tensile curves of the tested sheet metals w i t h the m a t e r i a l properties

f i t t e d by HoUomon's law, (a) SS1147 and (b) Domex350.

The tensile stress-strain curves f o r the tested sheets are shown i n F i g . 3, and
Young' s modulus and work-hardening index were obtained by fitting the
curves. The Poisson's ratio of 0.33 was chosen. Isotropic materials have been
assumed i n the analysis. The w i d t h of the test plates was 50 m m to guarantee
the condition of plane strain. B y substituting the k n o w n parameters such as
bending curvature, sheet thickness, Young's modulus, work-hardening index
etc. into Eq. (1) and Eq. (8), one can determine the rircumferential stress on
loading and the circumferential residual stress resulted f r o m springback on
unloading, F i g . 4 shows the plotting of the analytical results.

I n the X-ray diffraction measurement, layer-removing method needs to be

applied f o r uncovering new surfaces. Suppose that a slice of material, w i t h
thickness At, is removed f r o m the convex surface by electropolishing, even the
layer-removing process itself does not cause any additional residual stress, the
measured value of residual stress differs f r o m that i n the i n i t i a l state. To
prove t h a t , the removing process is simulated. Since the residual stress is a n t i -
symmetrical to the mid-layer, only h a l f the thickness was used i n analytical
solution and experimental measurement. I n solving Eqs. (11) and (12), one has
to apply numerical methods.

D 11
 a,
o-„

i i i i
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600

STRESS (MPa)

(b)

Fig. 4 The predicted distribution of residual stress across the thickness after
springback, (a) SS1147; (b) Domex350, the convex surface is on the top.

D 12
 At » 0.00 m m
At — 0.41 m m
At — 0 . 9 5 m m
H-H X - r a y measured

-150 -50 50 150

Residual Stress a„ (MPa)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5 The comparison of the X-ray measured results and the analytically
analysed resultant residual stresses, (a) S S I 147; (b) Domex350. The shces
were removed f r o m the convex surface of the bent specimens.

D 13
The predicted resultant residual stresses, obtained by superposing and a' ,
x

are compared w i t h the measured data X-ray diffraction, shown i n Fig. 5, and
the good agreement is found. The texture i n S S I 147 sheet caused relatively
large v a r i a t i o n i n the X-ray measured results (the maximum relative error of
the X-ray measured data is about ±30% on the surface), but for Domex350, the
results are satisfactory ( w i t h the m a x i m u m relative error less t h a n ±10%).

A theoretical basis has been established by the authors i n an attempt to

determine the distribution of residual stress i n a bent sheet metal and to
predict the residual stress difference resulted i n removal of material slices.
Moreover, Eq. (15) relates the residual stress on the convex surface i n a n
i n i t i a l sample w i t h the strain measured on the concave surface at y = -a
d u r i n g the removing process. I t is possible, theoretically, by m a k i n g use of a
relatively sensitive strain gauge to carry out continuous measurement of the
strain induced i n the removing process, hence to have the i n i t i a l residual
stress calculated. By this method, assessment of the residual stresses
d i s t r i b u t i n g across the thickness can be completed by measuring continuously
the s t r a i n on the surface opposite t h a t where the material layers are removed.
Being l i m i t e d to the length of this paper, this point w i l l described i n detail i n a
separated paper.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors w i s h to t h a n k Professor C. Magnusson for supervising, and to D r .

U . Ö h m a n f o r many valuable suggestions i n the research work. The authors
would l i k e to express their appreciation to the National Board of Technology
and Science, Sweden, for the financial support of this work.

REFERENCES

1. A . N a d a i , Flow and Fracture of Solids, M c G r a w - H i l l , New York, (1950).

2. B.W. Shaffer and E.E. Ungar, Mechanics of the Sheet-Bending Process,

Trans, of the A S M E , M a r c h 1960, p. 34.

3. R. H i l l , The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford U n i v . Press, London

(1950).

D 14
 4. D.J. L u b a h n and G. Sachs, Bending of an Ideal Plastic Metal, Trans, of
the ASME, 72(1950), p. 201.

5. J . M . Alexander, Analysis of the Plastic Bending of Wide Plate, and the

Effect of Stretching on Transverse Residual Stresses, Proc. Instn. Mech.
Engrs. 173(1959)1, p. 73.

6. A . A . Denton, Plane Strain Bending w i t h W o r k Hardening, J. of Strain

Analysis, 1(1966)3, p. 196.

7. F.J. Gardiner, The Spring back of Metals, Trans, of the ASME, 79(1957),
p.l.

8. C A . Queener and R.J. De Agelis, Elastic Springback and Residual

Stresses i n Sheet M e t a l Forming by Bending. Trans, of the ASM, 61(1968),
p. 757.

9. O . M . Sidebottom and C.F. Gebhardt, Elastic Springback i n Plate and

Beams Formed by Bending, Expr. Mechanics, Oct. 1979, p. 371.

10. L . Ingvarsson, Residual Stress Phenomena due to Cold-Bending of Steel,

Proc. of 16th Biennial Congress, Borlänge, Sweden, June 1990, p. 93.

11. G. Sachs and E. Espey, Trans. oftheAIME, 14(1942), p. 348.

12. R.G. T r e u t i n g and W.T. Read Jr., A Mechanical Determination of B i a x i a l

Residual Stress i n Sheet Materials, J. Applied Physics, 22(1951)2, p. 130.

13. L . E . Hornberger and K . L . Vries, Measurement of Favourable Residual

Stresses i n Polycarbonate, Proc. SEM Spring Conf., New Orleans, L.A.,
1986.

APPENDIX

For most metals, the u n i a x i a l tensile stress-strain relation can be described

respectively by the well-known Hooke's law and Hollomon's law i n elastic and
plastic range

if a <a 0

(Al)
// o>a 0

Notice t h a t Hooke's law and Hollomon's law are usually discontinuous at the
yield point, so a specified stress which eliminates the discontinuity is defined
as

D 15
 1
=*l - I " "
E

Since we are considering moderate bending, i n which the bending radius is

relatively large, the stress component i n thickness direction has been assumed
to be zero, i.e. a = 0. I n case of plane strain, both the elastic and plastic strain
y

i n w i d t h direction can be negligible, t h a t is, e' = E* = 0, according to the

generalised Hooke's law, the stress and the strain has the relationship

a = E ( A 3 )
* T-V >

I n elasticity theory, u = 0.33 is generally used for metals. I n plasticity theory,

however, u = 0.5 is required for the constancy of volume. Discrepancy w i l l be
met i n locating the elastic-plastic interface due to the difference i n values of
Poisson's ratio, to avoid that, a specified strain is introduced [8]

«;. 4 ^ 1 f # 2
(A4)
Vl-v+v v£

Let Al = ra be the length of a n element on the neutral layer, and AI = (r + y)a

0

be the length of a n element at distance y f r o m the neutral layer, according to

the assumption (3), i f y I r «1, the corresponding true strain is

ra

For the sake of convenience i n derivation, the elastic and plastic strains are
separated. Since the bending is supposed to be a simple f o r m i n g process, the
deformation theory is valuable. The equivalent total strain i n plastic range is
i n f o r m of

2 2 2
:= £ [ ( E ) H e ) H e , ) ]
x y CA6)

D 16
The equivalent stress, o, for a von Mises material is

f f + 2 2
° =^[( x - °,Y ( S -<Ü -c^x) ] (A7)

B y assuming plane s t r a i n and the volume constancy f o r plastic bending,

e + z = - e = 0, then the equivalent strain and equivalent stress defined by
x y z

Eqs. (A6) and (A7) can be simplified as e = 2z IV3, and ö = -Jlo, x 12.

To bend a specimen into a cylindrical surface of radius r, i t is required a

bending moment per u n i t w i d t h

M = 2JJ (y)yrfy + 2_|? o j (y)ydy (A8)

where y* (= re*) is the distance of the specified elastic-plastic interface f r o m the

n e u t r a l layer.

Winkler's theory of curved beam is modified for a general case i n w h i c h the

strain change may result f r o m springback on unloading or removal of material
layers. Consider a general case where a curved plate is f u r t h e r bent b y an
external force p g and moment M . L e t R and A/ (=/? a ) be respectively the
g x 0 1 1

radius and length of an element on the mid-layer before adding the external
force and moment, Rj and Al (= R a ) 2 2 be the corresponding values after, then
the elongation of the element w i l l be

A / - A / 0 = : f e _ 1

Al 0 ÄjOt,

_ ( i + ; ((»)*,<»,
e ( A 9 )
or a, =
R
2

I f the lengths of any other element taken at a distance y f r o m the mid-layer

before and after applying the external force and moment are AL = 0 (R +y)a l l

and AL = (R + y ) a , respectively, the corresponding elongation is given by

2 2

D 17
 l+ej(Q)
fy (AIO)
R R
y2 \ j

The corresponding stress, a' (= E t' ), resists the external force p and moment
x x 8

M , per u n i t w i d t h , so t h a t
f

P, = J., 0 » * - el (0) + (l + e; (0))[^ - j;f fty A

(All)

and

^ = L < ( v ) ^ = £ ( l + e : ( 0 ) ) ^ - - - J J _ ^ (A12)

where A is the h a l f thickness of the plate. I t can be proved t h a t

(A13)

Substituting Eq. (A12) into ( A l l ) and r e w r i t i n g the equation yields

f
1 * 0
ei(0)= (A14)
2AE

Combining E q . (AIO), (A12) and (A13) leads

e*(y)=e'(0)+7—^TT—
1 1 2
• (A15)
{Ri+yjh E

2 2
where A = | —-—<fy = -2AÄ, + Ä , l n — . The corresponding elastic stress
>-AR +y
y ' R —A l

due to the external force p t and moment M is obtained by substituting Eq. t

(A14) into (A15) and m u l t i p l y i n g E' to both sides of the equation

2
(A16)
2AR l (R y)h )
l+

D 18
I n the case of springback on unloading, the neutral layer coincides w i t h the
mid-layer, so that e£(0) = 0, let R =r, l A = t/2, p =0,
s and M =-M.
g Under
these conditions, Eq. (7) i n the t e x t is derived f r o m E q . (A16).

Consider removal of a slice w i t h thickness of At f r o m the convex surface of a

bent specimen after springback, the removal is equivalent to adding a
fictitious force p' and moment AT to the remainder. Substituting p' for p , t Af

for M , g a ( = r / 2 - A r / 2 ) for A and r' for R i n Eq. (A16) gives Eq. (13) i n the
x

text.

The restraint of a slice w i t h thickness At to the remainder of the plate is

equivalent to p and Af, which are equal and opposite to p' and Af', are
approximated as

p = a„At = -p'
(A17)
M = aa„At = -Af

B y substituting p' for p , A f ' for M , a (= t / 2 - At / 2) for A and r' f o r Æ,, i n Eq.
t g

(A16), one can have Eq. (15) i n the text.

D 19
 Paper E

Plastic Bending of Anisotropic

Sheet Metals
 Plastic Bending of Anisotropic Sheet Metals

Z. Tan, B . Persson* and C. Magnusson

Dept. of Materials Science and Production Technology
L u l e å U n i v e r s i t y of Technology, Sweden

* Volvo Car Corporation, Sweden

ABSTRACT

The effect of anisotropy on pure bending of sheet metals has been studied.
Anisotropy is the v a r i a t i o n of mechanical properties w i t h respect to orientation
i n sheet metals due to preferred crystallographic orientation or f i b r i n g .
Anisotropy is an important parameter to be considered i n f o r m u l a t i o n o f the
bending process. A constant specifying the plane bending of anisotropic sheets
has been defined and is incorporated i n two models. I t was f o u n d t h a t the
effect of anisotropy on material t h i n n i n g i n a bend is small b u t has a large
effect on the bending moment. The Bauschinger effect is also considered. The
model incorporating this effect predicts greater t h i n n i n g t h a n t h a t predicted
w i t h o u t considering the Bauschinger effect.

INTRODUCTION

F o r m i n g of sheet metals by bending is an important m a n u f a c t u r i n g process.

Considerable effort has been made to gain an understanding of t h i s process.
H i l l [1] presented a complete solution for pure bending i n which deformation
of a sheet metal is achieved b y a couple apphed along i t s length. I n his
analysis, H i l l predicted the movement of the neutral surface b u t no change i n
thickness f o r rigid-perfectly plastic materials under plane strain bending.
L u b a h n and Sachs [2] analysed the cases of plane stress and plane s t r a i n i n a
similar manner to Hill's, b u t they predicted material t h i n n i n g based on the
improper assumption t h a t the surfaces, including the n e u t r a l surface, would
r e m a i n at f i x e d positions d u r i n g small increments of bending curvature. B y
assuming a constant yield stress on reverse straining for fibres overtaken by

E 1
the neutral surface, Crafoord [3] considered the Bauschinger effect i n solving
the pure bending of rigid-strain-hardening materials under plane strain
condition. Verguts and Sowerby [4] on the other hand, took the s t r a i n p a t h or
the accumulative strain experienced by the fibres underwent reverse s t r a i n i n g
into account. Kudo et al. [5] studied the effect of pre-straining on bending
moments by considering variations of the yield stresses determined f r o m
u n i a x i a l tension and biaxial compression tests. Dadras and Majlessi [6]
conducted an analysis on the bending of rigid-strain-hardening materials and
presented two models, one based on a linear stress-strain approximation for
fibres i n reversed loading and the other a modification of t h a t given by Proska
[7]. W e i n m a n n et al. [8] carried out an experimental study of the Bauschinger
effect on sheet metals under cychc reverse pure bending i n an attempt to
establish a plastic stress-strain relationship. However, t h e i r model d i d not
incorporate the Bauschinger effect as expected.

The difference between the various theories of pure bending lies i n choosing
strain-hardening models or considering the Bauschinger effect. A l l these
theories, however, are confined to isotropic materials. A n isotropic material
has the same yield stress and strength i n a l l directions. Sheet metals, mostly
manufactured by cold rolling, have mechanic properties t h a t v a r y w i t h
direction either due to preferred crystallographic orientation or mechanic
fibring. This is k n o w n as anisotropy. The theories for isotropic materials are
inadequate to describe the anisotropic characteristics of sheet metals.

THEORY

A schematic diagram of a sheet metal under pure bending is shown i n F i g . 1. I f

cylindrical coordinates are chosen, the equation for stress equilibrium is:

da _
r CT -a
e r ^
dr r

whereCT and 0% are tangential and radial stresses, respectively.

9

E 2
 o

F i g . 1 Schematic diagram of the bent sheet metal under applied moment M.

Following Hill's w o r k [1], the thickness change d u r i n g bending is:

f 2 \
dr r
da
(2)
t r
i yjr 2a

H i l l ' s general theory of pure bending shows t h a t the neutral surface, r„, w h i c h
i n i t i a l l y coincides w i t h the middle surface, r , approaches the inner surface, r ,
m i

d u r i n g bending. Some layers overtaken by the neutral surface w i l l be

elongated after pre-straining i n compression. Amongst these layers, there
m u s t be a surface which has been compressed and then elongated by the same
amount to regain its i n i t i a l length. This is k n o w n as the unstretched surface,
r . The t r u e tangential strain of an element located at radius r is defined as:
u

, r
e„ = ln — (3)

For plane s t r a i n bending, the w i d t h of the sheet metal is assumed to be

significantly greater t h a n its thickness, so changes i n w i d t h can be neglected.
B y using the dimensionless parameters proposed by Proska [7] and assuming
constant volume, Eq. (2) may be expressed i n the f o r m :

dr, .JL f l - K / 4
2
)
2 2 (4)
dK 2K

E 3
where

relative curvature: K = — = ——-

r T
m 'm
relative thickness: r| = —
f
o

relative curvature of the neutral layer: p= —

1

The relative curvature K can be regarded as a measure of the extent of

bending. B y using the dimensionless parameters and the current radius of the
middle surface r , the geometry of a bend can be denned by:
m

r = ( l + K/2)r
y m

r,.=(l-K/2)r M

B e n d i n g of A n i s o t r o p i c S h e e t M e t a l s

I n the analyses of bending by other researchers, materials have been assumed

to be isotropic and r e m a i n so throughout deformation. However, sheet metals
are anisotropic. H i l l [1] presented a theory of plastic anisotropy by t a k i n g
account of the characteristics of different yield strength i n different
orientations. I n sheet metal forming, the ratio of w i d t h strain to thickness
s t r a i n of a specimen i n a tensile test is a measure of the anisotropy and is
k n o w n as the R-value. I n applying the R-value, i t is assumed t h a t the strain
ratios r e m a i n constant throughout plastic straining.

The anisotropic properties of a material w i l l affect yielding and plastic

hardening of the material. To investigate this effect on bending, two possible
cases are discussed. The first w i t h the bending axis parallel to the r o l l i n g
direction, has the w i d t h aligned along the r o l l i n g direction of the sheet. The
second w i t h the bending axis perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction, has the
w i d t h perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction. Since the condition of plane strain
has been assumed, no s t r a i n i n the w i d t h is expected to exist i n either case.

E 4
I n the case where the bending axis is parallel to the r o l l i n g direction, the
equivalent stress,CT,a n d the equivalent strain, é , may be derived f r o m H i l l ' s
theory o f plastic anisotropy (Appendix for details) as:

l + Rp+Rgg
-I (Äb + l K l + Äoo + ÄHj/Äo)
K-Or) (5)

{Ro+lKl + Rgo+Rgo/Ro)
-I 1 + ^0+^90
(6)

S i m i l a r l y , w h e n the bending axis is perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction, the

equivalent stress and s t r a i n are:

I + ^0 + R90 (7)
{Rgo + l^l + Ro+Ro/Rgo)

( Ä o o + l X l + Äo+VÄoo) (8)
I+RQ +Ä90

As expected, the equivalent stress and the equivalent s t r a i n differ i n the two
cases due to anisotropy, since R * R^. 0

I n bending, the fibres near the convex surface are elongated and those near
the concave surface compressed, w i t h the n e u t r a l surface, r , as the boundary
n

between the tensile and compressive zones. I f the equivalent stress CT is

expressed by-X", the u n i a x i a l tensile stress i n r o l l i n g direction, Eq. (1) becomes:

'+" r>r„
= ±CX (9)
dr '-" r<r

where "+" indicates tensile and "-" compressive strain, and C is an anisotropic
constant f o r plane s t r a i n deformation. W h e n the bending axis i s p a r a l l e l to the
r o l l i n g direction, C is replaced by C and i t is defined by:
0

E 5
 ( l + ÄoX/Coo/ÄQ+Äoo)
C =
0

and w h e n the bending axis is perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction, Con is:

'(1 + ÄoXl + ^ o )
Con -
1 + RQ +R90

I f isotropic materials are assumed, t h e n R =R

Q GO = l and C = 2/V3.

W h e n describing tensile stress-strain curves, empirical laws are commonly

used to specify the strain-hardening characteristics of materials. According to
L u d w i k [9] and Voce [10]

Ludwik (10)

Voce a = B-(B-A) exp(-/i e)

v (11)

whereCTand e are true stress and t r u e strain, respectively, and n and n L v are
the strain-hardening parameters i n Ludwik's l a w and Voce's law, respectively.

The Bauschinger effect should be considered since reverse s t r a i n i n g of the

layers l y i n g between r and r is involved. Generally, i t is d i f f i c u l t to describe
u H

a l l materials i n response to the Bauschinger effect by a single model. For some

materials, ST05 for instance, the Bauschinger effect can be negligible [11].
Two models are therefore presented by the authors, the first model is f o r
anisotropic materials w i t h o u t the Bauschinger effect, and the second one
interprets the Bauschinger effect by the kinematic hardening theory [12, 13].

Modell

Y i e l d stress i n compression a n d tension is assumed to be the same i n

magnitude i f the Bauschinger effect is neglected. Substituting Voce' l a w f o r
the stress-strain relationship i n E q . (9) yields a the differential expressions f o r
the r a d i a l stresses, o,, i n three zones:

E 6
 rda r
Zone I : r <,r<r
u y = C B-(B-A)exp -n C]nv —
dr 'uj

rdo r
Zone TJ: r <r<r
t n = -C B-(B-A)cxp[ -n C\n^-
v (12)
dr

rdo r
Zone I H : r„<r<r u = C B - ( 5 - A ) e x p -n Cto-ä- v

dr r

A t any stage of the bending process, the following boundary conditions must
be satisfied

kVk"),=°
M r = (*/"),

(°r"\ = (*/"),

Integrate Eq. (12) and make use of the boundary conditions, to obtain

' r ^~ " C V -Cn v

In-2—ta— \+K.

( f \ * Cn
( \Cn
r A
v
r

a" =
r K l +K 0 (13)
V r
u r
u

/// _ ln-^-ln — H 2-

w h e r e AT, = C B , K =(B-A)/n
2 v

7 /
F r o m the boundary condition t h a t a / and a / must be continuous at r , by
n

using the second and t h i r d equation of Eq. (13):

l n - 5
- = —* ^ | -2- (14)

E 7
I f r/r
u is regarded as a dimensionless parameter, by w h i c h the numerical
process can be greatly simplified, and replacing the dimensional parameters
w i t h the corresponding dimensionless parameters i n Eq. (14), we have:

_ P V _ - e A (15)
2
1-K /4

r v
l-K/2f
A _= * 2
c v
where + 2p " -2-
K,

substituting E q . (15) into Eq. (4) gives

*l _JL( -A_ )
= e 1
(16)
dK 2K V ;

Eq. (16) is therefore the constitutive equation governing the thickness change
of a sheet being bent, and i t incorporates a l l the m a t e r i a l a n d process
parameters.

Combining E q . (1), (12) and (13), the tangential stresses, a , i n the various 6

zones are given by:

a '=C\
a ß - ( 5 - A ) e x p —n C\n — v

u _ B-(B-A)exp -n C ln
v + cr r
(17)
r

///
o'" = C\ B - ( 5 - A ) e x p + CT

The bending moment per u n i t w i d t h can be obtained by i n t e g r a t i n g a 9 across

the thickness w i t h respect to the current centre of curvature

r r
M = j Ja 'rdr+j "a '"rdr
e B + J'" a "rdr
e

= M'+M"'+M" (18)
where

E 8
ModelU

A simplified model incorporating the Bauschinger effect is the so-called

kinematic hardening model. I f Ludwik's law is applied, then

a= a -k\e
0 p (19)

t h i s specifies the reverse yield stress i n the reverse loading zone 777, where e p

is the compressive pre-strain [11].

M a k i n g use of Eq. (10) and (19), and r e w r i t i n g the differential equation (9) for
the r a d i a l stresses o , we have:
r

L
( rX '
Zone I : r < r < r„
u
.ffEt = C a +k0 C h -
dr < «J r

Zone JJ: r < r < i r—^=-C (20)

dr

( \"t
Zone U I : r<r<r. r ^ = C a -k n
Cln^.
dr r
v J

A d o p t i n g the same method used i n deriving E q (13), the radial stresses i n

three zones are:

E 9
 L + l
n +\
L

( rX
Cv'=-*i ln^-ln — ln —
V u uJ r r

f \ n +lL
( \
V r >
ln^-ln^- — to i (21)
T T: \ n) r
\ 'J k. /

to^+ta^- "*2 In-*- to^

L+l
where k = C o and ^ =
x 0 kC /(n +l) L

7 / ;
U s i n g the condition t h a t o / = a / at r = r , the thickness equation for model
n

II is i n the f o r m of:

(22)
die 2K V 7

where

l + K/2)
A= ln ln-
l-K/2

The tangential stresses i n the three zones can be obtained by combining Eq.
(1), (20) and (21). The explicit expression of Af f o r model II is not given here,
because its complexity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Material properties

Five sheet metals were tested to v e r i f y the models presented. A tensile test
was carried out to determine the material properties; the specimens being cut
at 0° , 45° and 90° w i t h respect to the r o l l i n g direction. The Nelder-Meade
simplex a l g o r i t h m f o r non-linear optimisation was used to obtain the R-value
and other parameters. The values obtained f r o m the tensile curves are given
i n Table I . Since the tested materials are anisotropic, t h e i r R-values and

E 10
stram-hardening characteristics v a r y w i t h orientation. The v a r i a t i o n of Re-
value w i t h orientation of the materials tested is shown i n F i g . 2. I n general,
Voce's l a w f i t s the tensile curves of the tested materials better t h a n Ludwik's
law. F i g . 3 shows a comparison of tensile stress-strain curves and fitted curves
i n the r o l l i n g direction.

Table I Materials properties f r o m the tensile test

Sheet Thickness A R k B A
« L
n
v
(mm) (MP.) (MPa) (%)
L 2.98 273 637 56 0.76 1539 0.81 1142 280 3.1
X5CrNil810 D 2.96 270 620 57 1.05 1375 0.79 935 284 4.2
T 2.96 280 637 55 1.04 1281 0.74 739 292 6.7

L 2.89 141 296 49 1.71 668 0.61 363 148 13.2

ST05 D 2.89 150 311 48 1.16 640 0.57 367 158 15.8
T Z89 146 298 51 1.90 691 0.63 342 144 16.6

L 3.02 182 240 13» 0.60 342 0.56 278 180 25

D 3.02 187 236 14' 1.03 227 0.50 278 175 20.5
AA5052
T 3.02 189 241 14* 1.02 315 0.56 281 178 25.2

L 3.98 402 512 29 0.71 489 0.44 740 453 6.0

QSTE340 D 3.98 372 523 24 1.09 577 0.48 809 440 4.1
T 3.99 378 523 20 0.97 583 0.49 624 407 13.4

L 4.85 553 690 23 0.59 917 0.64 819 526 15.9

QSTE550 D 4.89 583 681 22 1.08 667 0.71 839 554 15.9
T 4.88 543 702 22 0.72 1070 0.51 819 560 13.9

2.00

1.50

1.00

O O O O O X5CrNil810
0.50
*AjÜS AA6052
• • • • • QSTE340
00000 qsTEsso
0.00 111 i I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I I I I I I I

0.00 30.00 60.00 90.00

Angle from rolling direction (0°)

Fig. 2 Variation of R-values w i t h orientation.

E 11
800

ö • • • n

Ludwik
• • • • • Voce
Experimental

ST05

iiii i iii i ii ii i t i ii ii ii ii i iii i ii ii ii ii

Ö.Ö0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
True Strain s
(b)

22
BS

Ludwik
• m m Voce
Experimental

QSTE 340

300-t-TTT I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I > I I I I I I I |
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
True Strain s
(0

E 12
 1000

S. 8a°| fi 3 • ° D

» « « Ludwik
• • • • o Voce
Experimental

S 4001

Q S T E 550

200 i iit iiiiiii I I iii I

0.Ö0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
True Strain e
(d)
400

t£. 3001
fi a • a • •

Ludwik
•nnnn Voce
Experimental
3 1001

AA5052

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii I
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
True Strain E
(e)

Fig. 3 Experimental and fitted tensile stress-strain curves i n the r o l l i n g

direction.

N u m e r i c a l solution

A d i f f i c u l t y w h e n solving differential equation (16) is that the current position

of the relative curvature of n e u t r a l layer, p , is not yet k n o w n , so numerical
methods, such as Runge-Kutta must be apphed. AppUcation of numerical
methods requires t h a t the i n i t i a l and boundary conditions are k n o w n .
According to geometrical analysis, the i n i t i a l conditions are expressed by
dimensionless parameters as K = 0, T\ = 1 and p = l . The theoretical m a x i m u m

E 13
value of K is 2, w h e n /; = 0. I t has been found that i n the pure bending test
t h a t K hardly ever exceeds 1.5.

To calculate p , i t is best to resort to the incremental approaches by comparing

the r a d i a l stress i n Zone 77 and Zone 777, given by Eq. (13) for model 7 . A small
constant step length, A K , of the relative curvature was chosen to ensure
accuracy i n the calculation. F i g . 4 shows the calculation scheme of model I .

D i f f e r e n t models take account of the Bauschinger effect i n different ways. For

the same material, the predicted reduction i n thickness of a specimen can be
quite different w i t h different models. Model 77, which includes the
Bauschinger effect, predicts much larger reductions i n thickness t h a n model 7.
Fig. 5 shows the differences i n the predicted relative thickness and relative
curvature of the neutral layer given by the two models for AA5052. The
differences i n T| and p at K = 1 are 4% and 6%, respectively.

Anisotropy affects material t m n n i n g i n a rational way, F i g . 6 shows the

predicted t h i n n i n g of sheet QSTE 340 by model 77 for various C-values. The
effect of strain-hardening properties on t h i n n i n g is investigated by using
model 77. The results are shown i n F i g . 7. I f ^ = 0 the material is assumed
to be rigid-perfectly plastic (k = n = 0), and no tm'miing is predicted. T h i s is i n
good agreement w i t h Hill's analysis. T h i n n i n g is largely determined by the
combined material strain-hardening properties. For a given value of n and k,
the higher the yield strength, a , the less the t h i n n i n g . I f the value of n and
0

O"o remains unchanged, increasing k would result i n greater t h i n n i n g o f the

thickness, while lowering n over the range of 0.8-0.1 would lead to a s i m i l a r
result. The more the stress-strain curve deviates f r o m that of a n idealised non-
strain-hardening material the more the great t h i n n i n g . A comparison between
Fig. 7 and F i g . 6 shows t h a t the combined effect of strain-hardening
parameters k, n and the yield strength o , measured by k / k
0 2 v on the relative
thickness is more significant t h a n t h a t of the anisotropic constant C.

E 14
 ( Start )

Initial
Condition
L
p=l

/ K M = K, + AK

Calculate %n from
K,*, and p, byEq.(16)

Calculate a , " , a f byEq.(13)

1=1+1
?

Yes

Output
K, T), p

( End )

Fig. 4 Computational scheme for model I .

E 15
 _ _ Y

Model 1
Modal II

\ \
V \
\ \

AA5052

0.00 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.20 1.50 1.80

K

Fig. 5 Comparison of the relative thickness T) and the relative curvature of

neutral layer p versus the relative curvature K, by model I and model II.

1.00

^*

C = 1.0 v \
Isotropic \v,
C - 1.5 \\s
V
V
\ \
Model II V

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Fig. 6 The relative thickness T| as a f u n c t i o n of the relative curvature K f o r

different C values by model II.

E 16
E 17
 (b)

Fig. 8 Distribution of the radial stressa, and the tangential stressa across a 8

section of AA5052, bent to different relative curvature K , (a) model 7; and (b)
model 77.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of radial stress, a , and tangential stress, a , against r/r

r 9 u at
d i f f e r e n t relative curvatures, K , predicted by model 7 and model 77 f o r AA5052
is i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 8. The stresses increase due to strain-hardening a n d the
n e u t r a l layer shifts inwards towards the inner surface as K increases. No large
difference i n the predicted radial stresses given by the two models is f o u n d ,
b u t higher tangential stresses i n the reverse straining zone are suggested b y
model 7. For model 7, both the tangential stress and the r a d i a l stress a t t a i n
t h e i r m a x i m u m values on the neutral surface. For model 77, however, the
m a x i m u m tangential stress is obtained on the inner surface.

Test Results

The experiments showed t h a t the sheets posses slightly less resistance to

t h i n n i n g when the bending axis is aligned w i t h the r o l l i n g direction o f the
specimen, as was predicted by the anisotropic models, (Fig. 9). The m a x i m u m
value of K obtained i n the test is about unity, which corresponds to a
tangential true strain of about 0.5 on the convex surface.

E 18
E 19
 1.00

0.95
10*.
/WWS90'
Co-1.33
CM-1.31

0.90 H

ST05

0.85 I i " i i i i i"» i i i i TT—i—i—i' i i i—i—i—r—r—

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50

(d)

1.00 -T-B

0.95 -i
/YWA90°
Co-1.23
C -1.13
M

0.90

X5CrNil810

0.85 - f - i — i i i i i i i i—i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50

(e)

Fig. 9 Theoretical and experimental relative thickness r\ versus relative

curvature K, ST05 and X5CRNI1810 by model / , the rest sheets by model 27.

A test apparatus similar to t h a t used by Marciniak and Duncan [14] was used
to apply and measure the pure bending moment. The m a x i m u m relative
curvature, K , available was about 0.5. Fig. 10 shows t h a t the effect of the
anisotropic constant C on the bending moment is relatively large, (model 7 f o r
ST05 and X5CRNI1810, and model 77 for the remaining sheets). I n the range
of measured bending curvature, the analytical results are i n close agreement
w i t h experimental data. The bending moment increases w i t h the bending
curvature, K , because of strain hardening, but at the same time the m a t e r i a l
reduces i n thickness. The combined effect of the two factors produces the

E 20
r e s u l t i n g m o m e n t - c u r v a t u r e curve, a n d i n s t a b l e b e n d i n g at u l t i m a t e m o m e n t
i s l i k e l y to occur u p to a r e l a t i v e l y large K.

E 21
 100H
«9
-O
0*
/NAAAAOn*
50 H C =1.33
0

C =1.31
M

ST05

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50

K
(e)

Fig. 10 Comparison of theoretical and experimental bending moments per

u n i t w i d t h , w i t h bending axis parallel and perpendicular to the rolling
direction.

E 22
 CONCLUSIONS

The proposed models predict the behaviour of an anisotropic sheet i n plane

s t r a i n bending f r o m experimental parameters obtained i n a simple tensile test.
Model J describes the bending process i n which the Bauschinger effect is
absent. Model II describes maximum strain-softening on reverse straining.
D i f f e r e n t materials respond to the Bauschinger effect i n different ways, a
specific model should be applied w i t h caution. The reverse yield stresses of
most materials w i l l probably f a l l i n the i n t e r v a l denned by model I and model
II [11].

T h i n n i n g d u r i n g bending is m a i n l y due to strain hardening of the material. I n

general, the higher the strain hardening rate, the greater the reduction i n
thickness. The anisotropic constant C has a very l i m i t e d effect on t h i n n i n g ,
(Fig. 6), but causes variation i n the bending moment of about 1 1 % for QSTE
340 at K = 0.5, Fig. 10(c).

The u l t i m a t e moments predicted by model / / appear at relatively large

curvature, since Ludwik's l a w over estimates strain hardening at large
strains. Even larger reductions i n thickness are predicted by model II which
takes into account the Bauschinger effect. This is due to t h a t the effect of
s t r a i n hardening offsets the material t h i n n i n g to some extent.

Acknowledgements Thanks are due to U l f K u m m u and Tore Silver f o r their

assistance i n the experiment work. The work was completed w i t h f u n d i n g f r o m
the N a t i o n a l Swedish Board for Technical Development ( N U T E K ) .

REFERENCES

1. R. H i l l , The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford, (1950).

2. J.D. L u b a h n and G. Sachs, Trans, of the A S M E , 72(1950), p. 201.

3. R. Crafoord, PhD. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg,

(1970).

4. H . Verguts and R. Sowerby, I n t . J. Mech. Sei., 17(1975), p. 3 1 .

5. H . Kudo, Y. Tozawa, N . Kanetake and A . Honda, Annals of the CIRP, 29

(1980), 1, p. 163.

E 23
6. P. Dadras and S.A. Majlessi, Trans, of the A S M E , 104(1982), p. 224.

7. F. Proska, Der Stahlbau, 28(1959), H e f t 2. 29-36.

8. K J . Weinmann, A . H . Rosenberger and L . R. Sanchez, Annals of the CIRP,

37(1988)1, p.289.

9. P. L u d w i k , V e r l a g von Julius Springer, Berlin, 1909.

10. E . Voce, J. Inst. Metals, 74(1948), p.537.

11. Z. Tan, B . Persson, and C. Magnusson, The Bauschinger Effect i n

Compression-Tension of Sheet Metal, accepted for publication i n Materials
Science and Engineering, 1994.

12. W. Prager, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. 169(1955), p.41.

13. M . A . Eisenberg and A . Phillips, Acta Mechanica, 5(1968), p . l .

14. Z. M a r c i n i a k and J.L. Duncan, Mechanics of Sheet M e t a l Forming,

E d w a r d Arnold, 1992.

APPENDIX

P l a n e S t r a i n F o r m i n g of A n i s o t r o p i c Sheet Metals

Hill's theory for anisotropic materials is most used i n engineering applications.

I f the x, y and z axes are chosen to be coincident w i t h the axes of anisotropy,
the anisotropic yield criterion is expressed i n the f o r m

2 2 2
2f{a^) = F{a -a f
y 2 + G{a - o j
2 + H{C - a f + 2Lx
x y yi + 2Mx a +2m% = 1 (Al)

where F, G, H, L, M and N are constants of anisotropy. Eq. ( A l ) reduces to von

Mises yield criterion when anisotropy is neglected, i.e. F = G = H, and
L = M = N = 3F. The corresponding flow rule for anisotropic material, s i m i l a r
to the Levy-Mises equations, can be expressed by:

<fe,=^-dX (A2)

E 24
where is the stress tensor and dk is a positive constant w h i c h may v a r y

throughout the loading history.

I t is assumed t h a t the material undergoes rigid-plastic deformation, so t h a t

the s t r a i n increments are obtained by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g E q . ( A l ) as:

de = [H{C - a ) + G{a
x x y x - o )]dk,
2 dy^ = Lx^dk

d£ =[F{o -o )
Y y z + H{o -a )]dk,
y x d =Mx dk
Jzx zx (A3)

de =[G(O -C )
z Z X + F{O -c )]dk,
z y dy^ ^Nx^dk

where de z , dz y and dz are the plastic strain increments i n l o n g i t u d i n a l , w i d t h

l

and thickness direction respectively. Note t h a t Eq. (A3) satisfies the condition
of volume constancy, de + de + de = 0. x y z

I f a u n i a x i a l tensile specimen cut along the rolling direction is subjected to

tension i n the x-direction, then the stress components are 0% and a = a = 0, y z

and f r o m E q . (A3), the ratios of the plastic s t r a i n increments are:

dz :dz :dz
x y z = ( G + H):(-H):(-G) (A4)

I n sheet metal f o r m i n g , the ratio of the strain i n the w i d t h to the s t r a i n i n

thickness s t r a i n is defined as the R-value and is a measure of the anisotropy of
the sheet metals. Since the x-direction is taken as the r o l l i n g direction, the R-
value is expressed as

R (A5)

S i m i l a r l y f o r a tensile specimen cut i n the y-direction, or 90° f r o m the r o l l i n g

direction, the R-value is given by

d£ :dE :de =(-H):(F

x y Z + H):(-F),

E 25
and (A6)

F r o m H i l l , expressions for the equivalent stress, a, and the equivalent strain

increment, di., are i n the f o r m :

•4 F(ay -a f
2 + G(o - a j
2
2
+F+H+G
H(a - a f +2Lx +2Mx
x y
2
yi
2
x +2/VT , 2 (A7)

and

F(GdE -Hd£,f+G(Hd£,-FdE Y
y s + H{FdE -GdE )
x y | 2<r£ | 2 rfyL , Y »
2d

di + G)
(FG + GH + HF)

(A8)

Consider the case of simple tension along the rolling direction, a = X , x

a =a =0,
y z and T >2 =T Ö = x^ - 0, by assuming t h a t there is no change i n s t r a i n
ratio throughout the deformation, Eq. (A7) and (A8) can be expressed as

(A9)
1+ Ra+Rv/Rn]
and

-II l+Rg+Rg/RgQ
1 + Äo
(AIO)

where X and e 0 are the u n i a x i a l stress and strain i n the r o l l i n g direction,

respectively.

E 26
 (a) (b)

Fig. A I Sheet metal under plane strain deformation, (a) de = 0. (b) az = 0. z y

I f plane s t r a i n deformation is assumed, i.e., the ratio of w i d t h to thickness of

the sheet metal is greater t h a n ten, strain i n the w i d t h can be neglected. F i g .
A l shows two possible orientations of r o l l i n g direction w i t h respect to the
w i d t h of a plate.

Case I

Suppose t h a t the w i d t h is parallel to the r o l l i n g direction, then, dz = 0, F i g .

x

A l ( a ) . The condition of volume constancy gives de =-de . y z By substituting this

into Eq. (A7) and (A8), the equivalent stress, Ö, and the equivalent strain, é ,
i n case of plane strain are, respectively:

1 + RQ + Rg
o=. (/? +l)(l + / ^ + Ä
0
0

9 0 /Ä )
0
(o,-<0 (All)

( Ä + l ) ( l + Ä,o+*9o/*o)
0
(A12)
I + ÄQ+ÄOQ

Replace the equivalent stress and the equivalent strain i n Eq. ( A l l ) and (A12)
w i t h the u n i a x i a l tensile stress X and e , by Eq. (A9) and (AIO), thus
0

(l + Ro^Rgo+Rn/Ro)
(<*>-<*.) =
(A13)
1+RQ+RQQ

1 + Rp + ^90
£
y = (A14)
( I + ^ X ^ + Z V ^ )

E 27
Case II

I n the case where the w i d t h is perpendicular to the r o l l i n g direction, and

de = 0, F i g . A l ( b ) . I n the same way as that used to derive Eqs. (A13) and
y

(A14), we have:

(»,-»,) = (A15)
1 + RQ + Rg 0

1+RQ +R9Q
(A16)
(l + / O ( l + *90)

E 28
 ISBN 1994:142 D
HÖGSKOLAN I LULEA ISSN
Q348-837T

LULEÅ U N I V E R S I T Y , S W E D E N ISRN H T . T T - T H - T — 1 A 7 - T I — SE

Institution/Department Upplaga /Number of copies

M a t e r i a l - och p r o d u k t i o n s t e k n i k 300
Avdelning /Division Datum /Date

Bearbetninqsteknik 1994-03-18

Titel/Title

A n a l y s i s and M o d e l l i n g o f P l a s t i c Bending Processes

Författare/Author(s)

Zheng Tan

Uppdragsgivare/Corrurrissioned by Typ/Type

© Doktorsavhandling/Ph.D. thesis
O Licentiatuppsats/Licentiate thesis
O Forskningsrapport/Resarch report
O Teknisk rapport/Technical report
O Examensarbete/Final project report
O Ö v r i g rapport/Other report

Språk/Language

O Svenska/Swedish ® Engelska/English O .

Sammanfattning, h ö g s t 150 ord/Abstract, max 150 words

It is well known that anisotropic properties of material affect the forming of sheet metals and that non-
homogeneous deformation across thickness of a bend gives rise to residual stresses. The interaction of
the material and process parameters determines, in a complex manner, the formability of material.
Analyses of some problems related to bending processes were carried out by the incremental theory of
plasticity in an attempt to achieve a better understanding. Study was also made of the Bauschinger
effect that is generally manifested on reversal of straining. The analysis showed that the stronger the
Bauschinger effect on a material, the greater the thinning in thickness. I n simulation of pure bending
process, it was found that the effect of anisotropy on material thinning in the bend is small but has a
large effect on the bending moment Since the springback is proportional to the bending moment, the
anisotropic effect on springback is considerable.
N y c k e l o r d , h ö g s t 8 / K e y w o r d s , max 8

Sheet m e t a l , b e n d i n g , s t r a i n hardening, a n i s o t r o p y , springback, r e s i d u a l stresses

U n d e r s k r i f t av granskare/handledare / Signature of examiner/supervisor