Capitulo 5

CAPÍTULO V
EFECTOS DE LA MALA CALIDAD

DE SUMINISTRO ELÉCTRICO
1
Laboratorio De Calidad de 1
Dr. Luis Morán T. Suministro Eléctrico
General Comments
Electric power loads are designed to operate with sinusoidal

voltage (constant amplitude and frequency) within certain
tolerance defined and accepted by different standards.
Not all suppliers follow the same standards, specially with

electronic type of loads.
2
 Most of electrical and electronics loads are
sensible to voltage fluctuations (sags, swells,
outage) and voltage distortion.
 The basic problem is to know how much each

load can tolerate these fluctuations and
distortions without being damage and
without affecting their operation.
3
 The reliability of electronic loads is much more
closely tied to the quality of the power supply, as
compared to older or more traditional equipment
that may have had relay controls, or electrical
contactor controls.
4
Voltage concern for electronic type of loads.
(The CBEMA Curve).
5
IEEE Transactions of Power Delivery, July 1990, pp. 1501-
1513
“Power Quality – Two Different Perspective”
 None of these curves have been truly scientifically

generated in the sense that they were created from the
theory of power disturbances.
 The question of validity of these curves, their use in power

distribution assesment, and their appropriateness for
different types of loads are largely unknow and
uncorrelated to actual field evaluations.
6
The:
 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).

 The Canadian Electric Association (CEA).
 National Power Laboratory (NPL).
Combined and assembled their data on voltage sags, spikes

and interruptions.
7
Power Field Data.
19 per year
Percent of Nominal Voltage
> 700
Events per year
110 %
0 - 200 Events per year
106 %
ANSI C84.1 - 1989 Steady State Voltage Range
87 %
> 240 20 - 140Events per year

Events per year 70 %
0 - 16 Events per year
0 - 10/yr
0.01 s 0.02 s 1s 3s
Duration
8
In 1996, based on this study, the Information Technology
Industry Council (ITIC), formerly the Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), modified
the well-know CBEMA curve to the shape shown in next
slide.
9
Modified CBEMA curve; Actual ITIC/IEEE 1100
250
Change in Bus Voltage (%)
200 Overvoltage Conditions
150
0.5 Cycles
100
50
Aceptable Rated
0 Voltage
Power
8.33 ms
-50
Undervoltage Conditions
-100
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time (s)
Laboratorio De Calidad10
de 10
Applicability:
The curve is applicable to 120 V nominal voltages

obtained from 120 V, 208 Y/120 V, and 120/240 V 60 Hz
systems. Other nominal voltages and frequencies are not
specifically considered and it is the responsibility of the
user to determine the applicability of these documents for
such conditions.
de 11
 For all conditions, the term “nominal voltage” implies
an ideal condition of 120 VRMS , 60 Hz.
 Seven types of events are described in this composite

envelope.
• Steady state tolerances.

• Line voltage swell.
• Low frequency decaying ringwave.
• High frequency impulse and ringwave.
• Voltage sags.
• Drop out.
• No damage region.
• Prohibit region.
de 12
Typical Voltage Tolerance Curve for Computers
de 13
Tolerance for Power Equipment.
 Most of the tolerance for power equipment, such as

motors, cables, transformers are specified by different
standard.
 Most of these standards dealt with classical voltage and

current limits.
 News analysis and studies have shown more concern about

the operation of power equipment with distorted voltages
and currents.
de 14
TRANSFORMERS
Harmonics applied to transformers may result in increased

audible noise  the effects on these components usually
are those arising from parasitic heating.
The effects of harmonics on transformers are the following:
i) Current harmonics cause an increase in copper

losses and stray flux losses.
ii) Voltage harmonics cause an increase in iron losses.
The overall effect is an increase in transformer heating, as

compared to purely sinusoidal operation.
de 15
IEEE C57.12.00-1987 proposes a limit on the
harmonics in transformer current.
 The upper limit of the current distortion factor is 5% at

rated current.
 Maximum rms overvoltages that the transformer

should be able to withstand in steady state 5% at
rated load and 10% at no load.
de 16
K – Factor Transformers.
To protect against transformer overheating caused by
harmonics, designers can specify:
 derated equipment, that is oversized transformer that will

run at a fraction of this rated capacity,
 or K-factor transformer specially designed to accomodate

harmonics currents.
de 17
K-factor transformer have additional thermal capacity
of known limits:
 Designed features that minimize harmonic current losses.
 Neutral and terminal connection sized at 200 % of normal.
 Allow operation up to nameplate capacity without

derating.
de 18
 Underwriters Laboratory (UL) recognized the potential
safety hazards associated with using standards
tranformers with non linear loads and developed a rating
system to indicate the capability of a transformer to
handle harmonic loads.
 The ratings are described in UL 1561 and know as K-

factors.
 K-factors is a weighting of the harmonic load currents

according to their effect on transformer heating, as
derived from ANSI/IEEE C 57.110.
 The K-factor indicates the multiple of the 60 Hz winding

eddy current losses the tranformer can safety dissipate.
de 19
Typical Tranformer Derating Factor
(for nonlinear loads)
de 20
The higher the K-factor, the greater the harmonic
heating effects:
K-Factor = (I
h
h
2
) h 2
Ih is the load current at harmonic h, in (º/1) bases such

that the total RMS current equals to 1 p.u.
de 21
 Some K-factors use up to 15th harmonic, others 25th
harmonic, and still others include up to the 50th
harmonic.
 Based on the underlying assumptions of C57-110, it

seems reasonable to limit the K-factor calculation to
harmonic currents less than the 25th component.
de 22
K-Factor Calculation for a Typical Nonlinear Load
h (harmonic Ih (nonlinear load (Ih)2 ih = (Ih)/(S(Ih)2)1/2 (ih)2 (ih)2h2
number) current)
1 100,00% 1,000 0,792 0,626 0,626

3 65,7 0,432 0,52 0,27 2,434
5 37,7 0,142 0,298 0,089 2,226
7 12,7 0,016 0,101 0,01 0,495
9 4,4 0,002 0,035 0,001 0,098
11 5,3 0,003 0,042 0,002 0,213
13 2,5 0,001 0,02 0,000 0,06
15 1,9 0,000 0,015 0,000 0,051
17 1,8 0,000 0,014 0,000 0,059
19 1,1 0,000 0,009 0,000 0,027
21 0,6 0,000 0,005 0,000 0,01
23 0,8 0,000 0,006 0,000 0,021
25 0,4 0,000 0,003 0,000 0,006
Total - 1,596 - 1,00 6,33
de 23
 In establishing standards transformers K-factor ratings,
UL chose ratings of 1, 4, 9, 13, 30, 40 and 50.
 Office areas with non linear loads and large computers

rooms normally have observed K-factors between 4 to
9.
 Areas with high concentrations of single-phase

computers and terminals have observed K-factors of 13
to 17.
de 24
Overcurrent protection Limits.
de 25
CURRENT IN AMPERES
1000
TRF-1
52A-D01
A9
220 kV
A8 Propuesto
D6AM
150:5
50/51 52A-D01
100 KCGG-140
34.68 TRF-1
A9 00A
TRF-1 11/14.63/18.37 MVA
220/6 kV
Z=11%
10
D6AM 51 A9
TIME IN SECONDS
2000:5
IRI1-I5E5HD
A1
1
Siemens
50/51
7SK88
1000:5
52A-D01
A8
TX Inrush 51G IRI1-E5HD
0.10 50:5
A8 Propuesto
0.01
100 1K 10K 100K
2.tcc Ref. Voltage: 13200 Current Scale X 10^0

de 26
Motors.
 Motors can be significantly impacted by the harmonic voltage
distortion.
 Harmonic voltage distortion at the motor terminals is translated

into harmonic fluxes within the motor.
 Harmonic fluxes do not contribute significantly to motor torque,

but rotate at a frequency different than the rotor synchronous
frequency  inducing high-frequency currents in the rotor.
de 27
The effect on motors is similar to that of negative sequence
currents at fundamental frequency:
 The additional fluxes do little more than induce additional

losses.
 Decreased efficiency, along with heating, vibration, and

high pitched noises.
de 28
 There is usually no need to derate motors if the
voltage distortion remains below 5% THD, and 3%
for any individual harmonic.
 Excessive heating problems begin when the voltage

distortion reaches 8 to 10% and higher.
 Such distortion should be corrected for long motor life.
de 29
Principal operation characteristics of a motor (TEFC)
connected to a PWM inverter.
 The highest internal surface temperature can generally occur on the
surface of the rotor (including the end rings).
 Rotor temperatures are generally increased when an induction motor

is fed from a PWM inverter instead of a sinusoidal voltage source.
 The difference between the rotor and stator temperature varies with
inverter set up, operating point, and motor design.
 Low flux and low carrier frequency are two conditions that increase
rotor temperature.
 While the highest temperature (for a constant torque load) may occur
at the lowest speeds, the differential between the rotor and stator
tends to be maximum at the highest speed.
de 30
Temp. Rise at normal Flux Level 2-kHz PWM Carrier
Frecuency
Stator Winding (PWM) Rotor (PWM)

Stator Winding (sine) Rotor (sine)
140
Temperature Rise (ºC)
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frecuency in Hz
Temperature rise variation with speed (stator frequency)
de 31
Temp. Rise at normal Flux Level 2-kHz
PWM Carrier Frecuency
Stator Rise @ 75% Load Rotor Rise @ 75% Load
Stator Rise @ 100% Load Rotor Rise @ 100% Load
140
Temperature Rise (ºC)
120
100
80
60
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frecuency in Hz
Temperature-rise variation with speed and load.
de 32
Rotor / Stator Temperature Ratio
100% Load 75% Load
Rotor Rise Divided by Stator 170

160
150
Rise in %
140
130
120
110
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frecuency in Hz
Rotor rise relative to stator rise.
de 33
Motor Life Calculation:
Motor life computation is based on the experimental aging

curves derived by E. Brancato [1] and listed in the IEEE Std.
117. The life of Class F insulation material can be expressed by
the following equation:
L = 6.0exp[0.0815(155 – T)] years

T = Ta + DT
The hot spot temperature of the stator insulation, Ta is the ambient
temperature in ºC, DT is the temperature rise ºC, determined from
the heat transfer model.
[1] E. Brancato, “Estimation of Lifetime Expectancies of Motors,” in
IEEE Trans. Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 8, Nº 3, May/June
1992, pp. 5-15.
de 34
100 HP Motor: Percent Loss of Life vs. Percent
Harmonic Voltage.
For a 6% of 5th voltage harmonic

component motor loss of life is
18%.
For a 0.25% of interharmonic

(h=0.1), the motor loss of life is
18%.
de 35
All motors : Percent Loss of Life vs Percent Voltage
Imbalance (sinusoidal voltages).
The percentage of motor loss of

life is not equal for all type of
motors, since it depends on the
motor rated power.
de 36
100 HP motor with 2% voltage unbalance :
Percent Loss of Life vs Percent Harmonic Voltage.
The motor loss of life increases

if voltage harmonic and
unbalance are combined.
de 37
Temperature at the stator winding.
(Steady state temperature for normal operating conditions 122 ºC)
Case 1:
5% voltage unbalance in the

supply voltage.
Final stator winding

temperature 128 ºC.
de 38
Case 2:
Voltage harmonic distortion of

22% with 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th.
Final stator winding tempe-

rature 126 ºC.
de 39
Case 3:
Voltage harmonic distortion of

30% with 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th.
3% voltage unbalance.
Final stator winding temperature

132 ºC
de 40
Stator temperature rise and percentage motor loss of life.
Unbalance (%) Harmonics (%)

2 5 10 15 5 10 15 20 25
Stator Temp (ºC) 122,7 127,2 141,03 161,2 123,4 123,5 123,7 125,9 126,8
Motor life reduction

4 32,9 80,14 97 9,15 9,89 11,8 26,9 31,6
(%)
A larger unbalance in the supplied voltage increases the final

temperature in the stator winding and therefore reduces the motor life.
Voltage harmonic components slightly increase the stator winding

temperature.
de 41
Voltage fluctuation tolerance in static frequency changers.
Eurotherm Drives ABB ABB ACS 500
Protections
Serie 690+. ACS 600. SAMI GS.
3.75xIn
Overcurrent
Yes 3.5xIn (Instantaneous),
Protection
2.65xIn (rms)
Overload protection n.e. No 1.5xIn (rms)
Dc overvoltage
Si 1.3xUn 1.35xUn
Protection
Dc undervoltage
Si 0.65xUn 0.65xUn
protection
Maximum
Yes 125 ºC 70 ºC
Temperature
Protected against
Auxiliary Voltage < 17 V n.e.
short circuit.
Ground Fault
n.e. Yes Yes
Protection
Protection against
Yes Yes Yes
locked rotor
Overtemperature in
Yes Yes Yes
the motor
13% ripple in dc
Open phase Yes n.e.
bus
de 42
Ejemplos industriales, Planta Inforsa.
Análisis de señales de voltaje y corriente en barras de alta, media y baja tensión
del sistema de distribución de energía eléctrica de la Planta Inforsa de CMPC. Los
puntos de medición en las distintas barras fueron los siguientes:
de 43
Existen perturbaciones transitorias de alta frecuencia y de menos de un ciclo de
duración que exceden los límites establecidos. (1.3 veces el valor máximo a 750 Hz).
• Registros en 220 kV.
Fase Amplitud Frecuencia Duración Fecha

(valor peak) registro
a 141.66 kV 798 Hz 20 ms 15 Julio
17:52:27,73
b 160.97 kV 794 Hz 20 ms 15 Julio

17:52:27,73
c 138.00 kV 791 Hz 20 ms 15 Julio

17:52:27,73
de 44
Registros baja tensión Barra 480 V, máquina 1
Efecto NOTCH provocado por la conmutación.
Formas de onda de un ciclo del Forma de onda del voltaje y de la Forma de onda del voltaje y de la
voltaje y de la corriente (2.5 corriente en el instante del cruce corriente en el instante del cruce
ms/div) por cero de la tensión (50 por cero de la tensión (50
ms/div), canto de bajada del ms/div), canto de subida del
voltaje voltaje.
de 45
Registros baja tension Barra 480 V, máquina 2
Efecto NOTCH provocado por la conmutación.
Formas de onda de un ciclo del Forma de onda del voltaje y de la Forma de onda del voltaje y de la
voltaje y de la corriente (2.5 corriente en el instante del cruce corriente en el instante del cruce
ms/div) por cero de la tensión (50 por cero de la tensión (50
ms/div), canto de bajada del ms/div), canto de subida del
voltaje voltaje.
de 46
Ejemplos industriales, Palas P&H
Cargas en Operación: 2 palas P&H y 1 perforadora (Subestación Móvil de 10 MVA).
Desde Tesoro 23 kV
Circuito Mina
Barra 23 kV
S/E Móvil 2
10 MVA
23/7.2 kV
900 mts 940 mts 1800 mts

600 mts – 350 MCM 640 mts – 350 MCM 600 mts – 350 MCM
300 mts – 2/0 AWG 300 mts – 2/0 AWG 1200 mts – 2/0 AWG
Pala 1 Pala 2
7.2 kV 7.2 kV 6.9 kV
PV-02
600 V 600 V
de 47
Perfil de Tensión en Puntos de medición
23,6 kV 6,99 V
(a) (b)
7,04 kV 581 V
(c) (d)
Registros de Voltaje en distintos puntos de medición (a) 23 kV Primario S/E (b) 7.2 kV
Secundario S/E (c) Terminales pala primario (d) Terminales pala secundario
de 48
Ejemplos industriales, Palas P&H
Ciclo de Trabajo de la Pala
Etapa Movimiento
1 Se carga el balde con mineral
2 Giro de la tornamesa hacia el camión
3 Frenado de la tornamesa y descarga del balde
4 Giro de la tornamesa hacia el lado del mineral
5 Frenado de la tornamesa y bajada del balde
6 Se baja el balde
Las fluctuaciones de voltaje

asociadas a las fuertes variaciones
de potencia activa y reactiva
asociados al ciclo de trabajo
Ciclo de Trabajo de la Pala de las palas.
Caídas de voltaje en terminales de las palas son atribuibles a la pérdida de

voltaje en las impedancias equivalentes de los transformadores
(S/E móvil y pala) y de la línea (23 kV).
de 49

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CAPÍTULO V

EFECTOS DE LA MALA CALIDAD

Electric power loads are designed to operate with sinusoidal

Not all suppliers follow the same standards, specially with

 The basic problem is to know how much each

 None of these curves have been truly scientifically

 The question of validity of these curves, their use in power

 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).

Combined and assembled their data on voltage sags, spikes

> 240 20 - 140Events per year

0 - 16 Events per year

200 Overvoltage Conditions

The curve is applicable to 120 V nominal voltages

 Seven types of events are described in this composite

• Steady state tolerances.

 Most of the tolerance for power equipment, such as

 Most of these standards dealt with classical voltage and

 News analysis and studies have shown more concern about

Harmonics applied to transformers may result in increased

The effects of harmonics on transformers are the following:

i) Current harmonics cause an increase in copper

The overall effect is an increase in transformer heating, as

 The upper limit of the current distortion factor is 5% at

 Maximum rms overvoltages that the transformer

 derated equipment, that is oversized transformer that will

 or K-factor transformer specially designed to accomodate

 Designed features that minimize harmonic current losses.

 Neutral and terminal connection sized at 200 % of normal.

 Allow operation up to nameplate capacity without

 The ratings are described in UL 1561 and know as K-

 K-factors is a weighting of the harmonic load currents

 The K-factor indicates the multiple of the 60 Hz winding

Ih is the load current at harmonic h, in (º/1) bases such

 Based on the underlying assumptions of C57-110, it

1 100,00% 1,000 0,792 0,626 0,626

 Office areas with non linear loads and large computers

 Areas with high concentrations of single-phase

2.tcc Ref. Voltage: 13200 Current Scale X 10^0

 Harmonic voltage distortion at the motor terminals is translated

 Harmonic fluxes do not contribute significantly to motor torque,

 The additional fluxes do little more than induce additional

 Decreased efficiency, along with heating, vibration, and

 Excessive heating problems begin when the voltage

 Such distortion should be corrected for long motor life.

 Rotor temperatures are generally increased when an induction motor

Stator Winding (PWM) Rotor (PWM)

Temperature rise variation with speed (stator frequency)

Temperature-rise variation with speed and load.

100% Load 75% Load

Rotor Rise Divided by Stator 170

Rotor rise relative to stator rise.

Motor life computation is based on the experimental aging

L = 6.0exp[0.0815(155 – T)] years

For a 6% of 5th voltage harmonic

For a 0.25% of interharmonic

The percentage of motor loss of

The motor loss of life increases

5% voltage unbalance in the

Final stator winding

Voltage harmonic distortion of

Final stator winding tempe-

Voltage harmonic distortion of

Final stator winding temperature