PS01CQPM52 Database Management System (DBMS)

Unit - I
Introduction
 File processing systems

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 Data base systems and the evolution of database technology.
 Aims and importance of database technology
 Data independence
 Data sharing
 Data integrity
 Data redundancy control
 Data Modelling:
 Conceptual model, Logical Model
 Physical model, External model
 Terminologies
 Data : Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words,
measurements, observations or just descriptions of things.
 Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
 Qualitative: It is descriptive data (it describes something)

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 Your favorite holiday destination
 Behaviour of a person
 Describe the smell of a perfume
Quantitative: It is numerical data (numbers)
Discrete data is counted, Continuous data is measured. Continuous data varies
over time.
 Petals on a flower (Discrete)
 Customers in a shop (Discrete)
 Height (Continuous)
 Website traffic (Continuous)
 Water temperature (Continuous)
 No. of players in a team(Discrete)
 Terminologies
Entity : Real world object that can be easily identified.
 Student, Product, Book, Department etc.
Attribute : Properties of an entity.
 Student ( Id, Name, Address, Email, Birth date, Mobile)

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 Product ( Product Id, Name, Price, Unit, Colour )
 Book ( Book Id, Author, Publisher, No. of pages, Price,Edition)
 Department (Dept Id, Name, Location, Pin code )
Information : Data is processed for meaningful to the end users.
 Attendance report, Product Stock, Subject wise Book details, Dept. list etc.
Data Types : Data having predefined characteristics.
E.g. Integer, Real (Float), Character, String, Date, etc.
 Integer Values: 1, 2, ……….
 Real (Float) Values: 1.1, 2.9, 3.85, …………
 Character Values: A … Z, a ….z , # , @ , …………
 String Values: Aakash, Harsh, Gujarat, India, …………..
 Date Values : 01-JAN-80, 12-AUG-23 , …………
 File Processing Systems
• File Systems:
– Store large amount of data
– Store data over long periods of time

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• However :
– No guarantee that data is not lost, if not backed up
– No support to query languages
– No efficient access to data unless the location is known
– Application depends on the data definitions (Structures)
– Separate files for each entities
– Limited control to multiple accesses
 File Processing Systems
• In a File System, data is directly stored in set of files.
It contains flat files that have no relation to other
files.

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 Terminologies
 Database
 It is a computerized record-keeping system.
 It is a collection of coherent and meaningful data.
E.g.

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University Database: Student, Faculty, Course, Subjects, Result etc.
B2C Database: Customers, Products, Orders, Suppliers etc.
 DBMS (Database Management System)
 A system that allows creating, inserting, deleting, updating and
processing of data.
E.g. XML, Dbase, FoxPro etc.
 RDBMS (Relational Database Management System)
 It was invented by Edger. F. Codd at IBM in 1970.
 A DBMS that is based on relational model and stores data in the
form of related tables.
E.g. Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, Sybase, SQL Server, IBM’s DB2
DBMS manages interaction between End users and Database.

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 Aims & Importance of Database Technology
• Controlling Redundancy : Redundancy can be reduced.
– E.g. Students Data with Admin Level, Department Level,
& Printing Dept.

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• Restricting Unauthorized Access
– Each user must follow authentication process.
– Each user have the specific rights (Authorization) to
access the resources.

• Providing Persistent Storage for Program Objects

– Objects like (Table, Procedure, Functions etc.) are stored
in flash or non-volatile memory to protect against the
power failure.
 Aims & Importance of Database Technology
• Providing Storage Structures for Efficient Query Processing :
– Indexes : It is used to quickly locate data without having
to search every row in a database table. First column is
index field & second column is pointer to the physical

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storage of the record.
– Optimization : To determine the most efficient way to
execute a given query by considering the possible query
plans. The parameters like CPU Time, No. of Input /
Output, No. of joins used for optimization.

• Providing Backup and Recovery

– Export utility for full or partial back up of data stored in
database.
– Import utility recover the data in database.
 Aims & Importance of Database Technology
• Provides Multiple User Interfaces :
– The data should be available to users as per their needs.
– E.g. Admin, Faculty & Press needs students data

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• Admin : Specific student fee collection information.
• Faculty : Specific student attendance sheet & their marks
• Press: All students subjects marks & mark sheet details.
• Enforce Integrity Constraints :
– Data type : Number, Char, Date, Varchar2 etc.
– Field Length : Length of field as per data placed in it.
– Primary Key : To uniquely identify each row in a table.
– Foreign Key : To reference the value from other table.
– Not NULL : Value for the field is compulsory
– Check Constraints : Restricted values in field of a table.
 Aims & Importance of Database Technology
• Reduce Application Development Time
– Once the database up & running, development time is
less.

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• Flexibility
– Change the structure of database.
– Easily add , remove, modify columns in table structure.

• Availability of Up-to-Date Information

– As one user update the data, other users immediately
see the update.
– E.g.
Ticket Reservation, Hotel Booking, Bank Passbook etc.
 SQL (Structured Query Langugar)
• What is SQL?
– SQL is a language that provides an interface to RDBMS.
– SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
language.

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– RDBMS like SQL Server , Oracle, MS Access use SQL as their standard
database language.
• Features of SQL
SQL used to access and manipulate databases. It can
– Creates a new objects in database
– Insert records in a database
– Update records in a database
– Delete records from a database.
– Retrieve records from a database.
• SQL Engine
It is a server side process takes SQL queries from the application and
execute.
 Rules For SQL
• SQL starts with a verb (i.e. A SQL action word)
– E.g. CREATE , INSERT , UPDATE , DELETE

• A comma ( , ) separates parameters.

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E.g. INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (1 , 'HARSH');

• A ' ; ' is used to end SQL statements.

E.g. INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (1 , 'HARSH') ;

• A space separate clauses.

E.g. DROP TABLE EMP;

• Reserve words cannot be used as identifier unless enclosed with

double quotes.

• Character and Data literals must be enclosed within single quotes.

 DDL (Data Definition Language) commands
• It is set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete database
structures but not data.

• DDL commands implicitly issues a commit command to the

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database.

• CREATE – To create objects in the database.

• ALTER – Alters / Modifies the existing structure of the database.

• DROP – Delete an entire object from the database.

• TRUNCATE – Remove all records from a table, but the structure of

table is present.
 DML (Data Manipulation Language ) commands

• Commands of SQL that allows inserting, changing or retrieving data

within the database.

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• INSERT – Insert data into a table.

• UPDATE – Updates existing data within a table.

• DELETE – Deletes records from a table.

• SELECT – Retrieve certain / all records from one or more tables.

 DCL (Data Control Language) command
• Commands of SQL that control access to data and to the database.

• COMMIT – Save work done.

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• ROLLBACK – Restore database to original since the last COMMIT.

• GRANT – Grant permissions to the oracle users.

• REVOKE – Revert permissions from the oracle users.

Data Types

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Data Types

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 Create Statement
• It is used to create a new Table (Entity or Relation) in
database.
• Each table having multiple Columns (Attributes or

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Fields).
• Each Column of contains three things :
• Column-name,
• Data-type &
• Size
• Rules for Creating Tables
• A name can have maximum upto 30 characters.
• Alphabet from A-Z, a-z and number from 0-9 are allowed.
• A name should begin with Alphabet.
• The use of special characters like _ , $ & # signs are allowed.
• SQL reserved words are not allowed.
 Create Statement
• Syntax
• CREATE TABLE table_name
(

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column_name1 data_type(size)
………………………. ………………….
column_nameN data_type(size) );

E.g.
CREATE TABLE STUDENT_MASTER
(Stud_Id NUMBER(2) , Stud_Name VARCHAR2(40),
Stud_Birth_Date DATE, Stud_Mobile NUMBER(10),
PRIMARY KEY Stud_Id))
 To Display Table Structure
• DESCRIBE Table-name

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OR
• DESC Table-name

E.g.
DESCRIBE Student_Master;
DESC Student_Master;
SQL Query Is Not a Case-Sensitive
• Query may be allowed in either

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– Upper case or
– Lowercase or
– Combination of uppercase and lowercase
E.g.
DESC Student_Master;
desc Student_Master;
DesC Student_Master;
DESC STUDENT_MasTer;
Syntax
Insert Statement
• To insert values of all fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name

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VALUES (value1,value2, ...valueN)

E.g. INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER

VALUES (1 , 'Amit' , '05-DEC-90', 9422290900)
OR
• To insert values of selected fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2, ..columnN)
VALUES (value1,value2, ..valueN);
– INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER (Stud_Id, Stud_Name)
VALUES (2,'Kalpesh');
 To Insert Records In A Table
• To insert multiple records of all fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name

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(column1,column2, ... columnN)
VALUES
(&column1,&column2, ... &columnN);
E.g.
INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER
VALUES (&Stud_Id1 , ‘&Stud_Name' ,
‘&Stud_Birth_Date', &Stud_Mobile)
 Update Statement
• It is used to change the values of existing records in a table.
Syntax
UPDATE table_name

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SET { column1=value1,column2=value2,...columnN=valueN }
[ WHERE Conditions ]

E.g. Change the name of student id = 2.

UPDATE Student_Master
SET Stud_Name='MAHESH'
WHERE Stud_Id = 2
 Delete Statement
It is used to remove the existing record / records in a table.
• Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE Condition];

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• Remove selected rows from table
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE Condition;
E.g.
DELETE FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Id = 5
DELETE FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Id > 5
DELETE FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Name = 'AMIT'

• Remove all rows from table

DELETE FROM table_name.
E.g. DELETE FROM Student_Master
 ALTER COMMAND
• It is used to change the structure of existing table.
1. To add new COLUMN / COLUMNS into an existing table.
Syntax

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ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD
column_name1 data-type(size),
column_name2 data-type(size),
…………………….
column_nameN data-type(size)) ;

E.g. To add a new column email in Student_Master table.

ALTER TABLE Student_Master ADD email VARHCAR2(60)
 ALTER COMMAND
2. To remove an existing COLUMN / COLUMNS into a table.

Remove Single column

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Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP column_name;

E.g. Remove email column from Student_Master table.

ALTER TABLE Student_Master DROP email;

Remove Multiple columns

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP (column_name_1, column_name_2, ………column_name_N);
 ALTER COMMAND
3. To change the COLUMN / COLUMNS data type or size of an
existing table.
Syntax

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ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY
column_name1 New-data-type(New-size),
column_name2 New-data-type(New-size),
…………………….
column_nameN New-data-type(New-size)) ;

E.g. Change the data type of Stud_Name Varchar and size is 50 in

Student_Master table.
ALTER TABLE Student_Master MODIFY
Stud_Name VARCHAR(50)
 ALTER COMMAND
4. To rename the COLUMN of an existing table.
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name

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RENAME
COLUMN old_name TO new_name;

E.g. To change the name of Stud_Birth_Date to

Stud_Bdate in Student_Master table
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME COLUMN Stud_Brith_Date TO Stud_BDate;
 ALTER COMMAND
5. To add and remove constraint in an existing table.
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name

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ADD PRIMARY KEY (Column_name);

E.g. To add a primary key as Stud_Id in Student_Master table

ALTER TABLE Student_Master
ADD PRIMARY KEY (Stud_Id);
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP PRIMARY KEY;

E.g. To remove primary key from Student_Master table.

ALTER TABLE Student_Master DROP PRIMARY KEY;
 Select Statement
• It is used to retrieve rows select from one or more
tables.
Syntax

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SELECT [ DISTINCT ]

{ *|column_name1, column_name2, .. column_nameN }

FROM table_name

[ Where conditions]

[ ORDER BY { column_name1.., column_nameN [ASC / DESC] } ] ;

 Exercise
• Product_Master ( Product_Id (PK), Product_Name, Price, Quantity)
• Show the structure of Product_Master table.
• Insert new record in Product_Master table.
• Retrieve all records from Product_Master table.

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• Show all products name and price.
• Change the price of product_id = 1 to 450.
• Display product names whose price is equal to 200.
• Remove the product whose quantity is less than 2;
• Change the price to 340 & Quantity to 10 for
product_name=Keyboard.
• Display product name & price whose price greater than 100 and less
than 500.
• Add new column Product_color with data type VARCHAR and size 40.
• Display all product names and It’s price sorted by price.
• Display all product names and price whose price greater than 500.
 GROUP BY Clause
• Syntax
SELECT <columnName1> <columnName2> ……<columnNameN>
AGGREGATE FUNCTION (<Expression>)
FROM Table Name

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WHERE <Condition >
GROUP BY <columnName1> <columnName2> ……<columnNameN>

 The Columns1 …. Columns N are not used within an aggregate

function and must be included in the GROUP BY clause

 Aggregate functions are AVG(), COUNT(), MAX(), MIN() etc.

 Select Statement :: Grouping
E.g. Add new column city in Student_Master table.
Add City attribute in Student_Master table.
ALTER TABLE Student_Master ADD City VARCHAR2(50);

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• To display citywise total number of students
SELECT city, count(stud_id)
FROM Student_Master
GROUP BY City
 HAVING CLAUSE
• It impose a condition on the GROUP BY clause, which further filters
the groups created by the GROUP BY clause.

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• It filters on fields that used with aggregate function.

• E.g. To display the only those city having total number of students
more than two.
SELECT city, count(stud_id)
FROM Student_Master
GROUP BY City
HAVING count(stud_id) > 2;
 Constraints
Primary Key

• A primary key is one or more column(s) in a table used to

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uniquely identify each rwo in the table.

• A table can have only one primary key.

• A primary key column value is mandatory.

• The data across the column MUST be UNIQUE.

 Constraints
• Primary Key
• Column-name data-type(size) PRIMARY KEY
• E.g.
CREATE TABLE Student_Master

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( Stud_Id NUMBER (2) PRIMARY KEY ,
Stud_Name VARCHAR(20),
Stud_Birth_Date DATE,
Stud_Mobile NUMBER(10) )
/
 Constraints
• Foreign Key
• It defines the relationship between the tables.
• It is a column / columns whose values are derived from the primary
key or unique key of some other table.

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• The table in which the foreign key is defined is called a Foreign Table
or Detail Table.
• The table that defined the primary key or unique key and is
referenced by the foreign key is called Primary Table or Master Table.
• Features:
• Child may have duplicates and nulls but unless it is specified.
• Parent record can be delete provided no child record exist.
• Master table can not be updated if child record exist.
• Record can not be inserted in detail table if corresponding record does not
exist in master table.
 Constraints
•Foreign Key
FOREIGN KEY ( column-name1, column-name2, …….. column-nameN)
REFERENCES table-name (column-name1, column-name2, …….. column-
nameN)

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CREATE TABLE Client_M
(Client_No NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY,
Client_Name VARCHAR2(40))

CREATE TABLE Bill_det

(bill_no NUMBER (5) PRIMARY KEY ,
bill_amt number(6),
client_no NUMBER(3),
FOREIGN KEY (client_no) REFERENCES client_M(client_no))
/
 The evolution of database technology

– Hierarchical Data Model

– Network Data Model
– Relational Data Model

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– Object-Oriented Data Model
 Hierarchical Data Models
• Hierarchy means a pyramid-like structure or the tree data structure in
computers
• Every node must have exactly one parent node except the root node.
– E.g. In an organization, every employee, except the topmost person, has exactly

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one reporting authority
• Advantage:
– Simplicity
– Data Access : Very fast for top in hierarchy.
• Disadvantages:
– Searching data at bottom is slow.
 Network Data Models
• The network data model uses the concept of networks in
Mathematics or the graph data structure in computers.
• Allow more connection between nodes.
• A flexible way of representing entities and their relationships.

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• Performance can be high because of use of pointers for traversal
• Advantage:
– Improved data access.
• Disadvantages:
– Much more complex than the hierarchical date model.
 Relational Data Models
• Developed by Dr. E. F. Codd at IBM during the 1970.
• It is based on the mathematical theory of relations.
• Uses a declarative style of programming.
• Does not use pointers. Performance is low compare to Hierarchy and

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Network model.
• Relationships are expressed using data values in relations (tables)
themselves
• Performance is improved with Indexes & Optimization techniques
• It's an essential part of developing a normalized database structure
• Not as good for other kinds of data (e.g. multimedia)
 Object-Oriented Data Models
• An object-oriented is closely with an application program’s object
model.
• Data and relationships are contained in a single structure.
• OODBMS should be used when

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– Business need,
– High performance required and
– Complex data is being used.
• Inheritance – A class (subclass) inherit the characteristic of another
class (super class).
– E.g. Employee has inherited attributes and methods from person.
 Difference DBMS & RDBMS
DBMS RDBMS

•DBMS stands for Database Management RDBMS stands for Relational Database
System. Management System.

Data is stored as file. Data is stored as tables.

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DBMS deals with small quantity of data. RDBMS deals with large quantity of data.

DBMS supports single user at a time. RDBMS supports multiple users at a time.

E.g. MSAccess. E.g. Oracle , SQL Server etc.

•No much Secure More Secure : Logging at O/S level

Command Level & Object level

•Dose not Support Distributed Databases Support Distributed Databases

• Relationship between two tables or files Relationship between two tables or files can
maintained by programmed. be specified at the time of table creation.
 •Changes in Logical schema may include
•Addition or Removal of attributes

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•Addition or Removal of relationship

•Changes in physical schema may include

•Using new storage device
•Change the data files
•Modifying indexes
 Data Sharing
– Three types of data sharing
• Sharing data between functional units
• Sharing data between different levels of users

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• Sharing data between different location.
Sharing Data Between Functional Units
• The data sharing suggests that people in
different functional areas use common pool
of data, each of their own applications.

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• Without Data Sharing,
– Admission Section Department & Comp. Centre
may have their own data files.
– Each group benefits only from its own data.
• With Data Sharing
– Combined data are more valuable
– Access rights for data
Sharing data between different levels of users
• Three different levels of users :
– Operations
– Middle management and
– Executive

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• Level of Users : Operations
– Its basic characteristics include:
• A focus on data, storage and flows at the operational level.
• Efficient transaction processing.
• Level of Users : Middle Management
• Inquiry and Report Generation
• Integration and Planning of functionality
• Level of Users : Executive
• Managers or Decision makers
• Strategic reports & Quick response
Sharing data between different locations
• A company with several locations has
important data distributed over a wide
geographical area.

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• Two ways of data sharing
– A Centralized Database
– A Distributed Database
• A centralized database
– It is physically confined to a single location,
controlled by a single computer.
A Centralized Database

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 Distributed Database
A set of databases in a distributed system that can appear to applications as a single data
source.

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Difference between Centralised and
Decentralized Database

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 Data Integrity
– It is the assurance that data is always be correct, consistent
and accessible during storage, transfer and retrieval.
– Ways to ensure data integrity
• Domain Integrity

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• Entity Integrity Constraint
• Referential Integrity
• Database consistency
– Domain Integrity
• It means choosing the correct data type and length for a column.
• It ensures that all the data items in a column fall within a defined set
of valid values.
• Each column in a table has a defined set of values, such as
– For Mobile Number , Set of all numbers and length is 10 digit
– For Person Name , Set of all characters and length is 50 char. and
– For Birth Date , Set of all dates and length is 8
 Data Integrity
– Entity Integrity Constraints
• Each row in a relation must be unique identified.
• Primary key shows the uniqueness of a rows, it cannot be NULL
– Referential integrity

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• If a table has a foreign key, then a values of the foreign key
must be exist in the referenced table
• E.g. Each product mentioned in bill must be exist in product
master table .
– Database consistency
• Must be consistent before and after a transaction
• All database integrity constraints are satisfied
 Data Redundancy Control
– Redundancy in DBMS is having several copies of the
same data in the database.

– Redundancy causes insertion, deletion, and updation

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problems.

– Redundancy can be avoided by normalizing the database

 Anomalies
E.g. Company sells household products, The SALES table keeps track of it.
SALES
Customer Customer Cust_Addr Store Product Price
_ID _Name _Id

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1001 Jaya A-3 Diamond Chok Surat Gujarat S1 Soap 20

1007 Kavita E-4 Shiv Soc. Anand Gujarat S2 Comb 50

1010 Shreya G-2 Apex Flat, Baroda, Gujarat S3 Shampoo 80

1001 Jaya 5, Shrey Apt. , Mumbai, Maharashtra S4 Hair Oil 60

Insert Anomaly : Add Conditioner product at a price of Rs.100.

You can’t insert this data to the SALES table until a customer buys Conditioner.
Update Anomaly: Update the address of Jaya must update the two rows.
Actually Jaya address should be changes only at single row but here it should
update all rows where Jaya name comes. Update is not properly.
Delete Anomaly : Delete the record with customer with id = 1001
Deleting one fact (Customer 1001 bought Soap), you also delete another
fact(Price of Soap and Price of Hair Oil from the database.)
 Normalization
• Normalization is the process of splitting relations into well structured
relations that allow users to insert, delete, and update tuples (rows)
without introducing database inconsistencies.
• Step-by-step process : At each step, a test (called a normal form) is

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applied to the current database design. If the design passes the test,
it is said to confirm to the normal form.

• 1NF (First Normal Form):

• “A relation R is in First Normal Form (1NF) if it contains only atomic
values. “
OR
• “The domain of an attribute must include only atomic
(simple, indivisible) values and the value of any attribute in a tuple
must be a single value from that domain. “
 Anomalies

SALES

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Customer Customer Cust_Add Cust_Add Cust_Add Store Product Price
_ID _Name r1 r2 r3 _Id
1001 Jaya A-3 Surat Gujarat S1 Soap 20
Diamond
Chok
1007 Kavita E-4 Shiv Anand Gujarat S2 Comb 50
Soc.
1010 Shreya G-2 Apex Baroda Gujarat S3 Shampoo 80
Flat
1008 Jaya 5, Shrey Mumbai Maharasht S4 Hair Oil 60
Apt. ra
Normalization : 2NF (Second Normal Form)
– A relation R is in 2NF if
• R is in 1 NF (Atomic)

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• Non-key attributes are fully functional
dependent on Primary key.
 Normalization – 2NF
PRODUCT CUST_SALES Store_Id
Product_id Product_Name Price Customer_ID Product_id Store_id
P1 Soap 20 1001 P1 S1

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P2 Toothpaste 50 1007 P2 S2

P3 Shampoo 80 1010 P3 S3

P4 Hair Oil 60 1008 P4 S4

P5 Conditioner 100

CUSTOMER
Customer_I Customer_Nam Cust_Addr1 Cust_Addr2 Cust_Addr3
D e
1001 Jaya A-3 Diamond Surat Gujarat
Chok
1007 Kavita E-4 Shiv Soc. Anand Gujarat
1010 Shreya G-2 Apex Flat Baroda Gujarat
1008 Jaya 5, Shrey Apt. Mumbai Maharashtra
 Data Model
• “It defines how data is connected to each
other and how they are processed and stored
inside the system.”

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• “Describe the relationships between different
parts of the data.”

• Four Types of Data Model

– External Data Model
– Conceptual ( High Level ) Data Model
– Logical (Internal) Data Model
– Physical ( Low Level ) Data Model
Data Model

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 Conceptual Data Model
• A conceptual data model identifies the
highest-level relationships between the
different entities.

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• Features of conceptual data model include:
– Includes the important entities and the
relationships among them.
– No attribute is specified.
– No primary key is specified.
 Logical Data Model
• A Logical data model describes the data in as
much detail as possible, without regard to
how they will be physical implemented in the

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database.
• Features of a logical data model include:
– Includes all entities and relationships.
– All attributes for each entity are specified.
– The primary key for each entity is specified.
– Foreign keys are specified.
 Logical Data Model
Time

Date
Day
Month

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Year
Month_Name
Day_Name
 Physical Data Model
• A physical database model shows all table
structures, including column name, column data
type, column constraints, primary key, foreign
key, and relationships between tables.

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• Features of a physical data model include:
– Specification of all tables and columns.
– Foreign keys to identify relationships between tables.
– Physical data model will be different for different
RDBMS.
• For example, data type for a column may be different
between MySQL, Oracle and SQL Server.
 Physical Data Model
Time

Date : Integer
Day : Integer

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Month : Integer
Year : Integer
Month_Name : VARCHAR(30)
Day_Name : VARCHAR(30)
 External Data Model
• It gives the user endpoint of view of the database.
• There may be a constraint within a database about
certain information it presents.

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• For example, one user is not interested in the data
of another users data.
• An HR dept data is not interested in seeing data
based on sales.
• The external model subdivides the requirements
and constraints that can be examined within their
external model framework.
• This means it divides between Hr dept and sales.