The Radio Tuner

In the transistor radio receiver set that we have at home, the radio tuner is
the section that intercepts and collects the radio signals coming from the radio
broadcasting or transmitting station.
Basically, there are two types of radio tuners. One is the amplitude modula-
tion (AM) radio tuner and the other is the frequency modulation (FM) radio
tuner.

In the amplitude modulation, the frequency of the signal is constant but

the amplitude or height of the signal varies. On the other hand, in the frequency
modulation, the frequency of the signal varies but the amplitude or height of the
signal is constant.

Parts of the AM Radio and the Works of Each

1. Antenna. The function of the antenna in the radio tuner s to intercept
and collect the radio signals coming from the radio broadcasting or
transmitting radio stations., All the radio signals from the transmitting
radio station are collected by the antenna,

The antenna we refer to here is the receiving antenna, so called be-

cause it is used by the radio tuner section of the transistor radio receiver
set we have at home. The antenna used by the radio transmitting station
or radio broadcasting station is called the transmitting antenna.
Basically, the receiving antenna found in transistor radio receivers
is made up of a coil of small wires. These wires are wound around the
ferrite core. There are two wire windings around the ferrite core. One
winding is called the primary winding, while the other is called the
secondary winding.

So that the antenna can collect the signals effectively, the terminal
ends of the wire windings should be thoroughly cleaned with sandpaper
before soldering them in the printed circuit board of the radio tuner.

2. Tuning Capacitor or Tuning Condenser. The work of the tuning capa-

citor is to select which of the collected radio signals at the antenna
should enter the radio tuner/ We must remember that the antenna inter-
cepts and collects all the radio signals. But not all of these collected radio
signals should enter the radio tuner at the same time. Only one radio
signal should enter the radio tuner, and that radio signal is the one
selected or tuned-in by the tuning capacitor.

Block Diagram of the AM Radio Tunner

Basically, the tuning capacitor* is composed of metal plates. The
plates are separated by insulators. Tuning capacitors are also called
variable capacitors. The capacitance or capacity of tuning capacitor
is varied or changed verytime we turn its knob to select which radio
signal from the radio station should enter the radio tuner.
 The plates of the tuning capacitor that is adjustable is called the
rotor plates. The plates that is not adjustable is called the stator plates.

The terminals of the tuning capacitor that is connected to the circuit

should be cleaned first before soldering firmly on the printed circuit
board, (PCB). This should be done so that effective tuning of the radio
signal is attained.

3. Local Oscillator. The work of the local oscillator is to produce the osci-
llator signal. This signal is called local oscillator signal.
The local oscillator is located in the radio receiver set and is local to
the radio receiver. There is also an oscillator in the radio transmitting
station, and this is called radio frequency (RF) or radio carrier frequency
Oscillator.
The local oscillator is made up of two small wires. These small wires
are wound around the adjustable ferrite core. One wire winding is called
the primary winding and the other is called the secondary winding.
The local oscillator is usually enclosed in a metal shield to prevent the
local oscillator signal from radiating to other circuits in the radio tuner.
To identify it, the top portion of the local oscillator is usually painted
with red color.
So that the local oscillator would work efficiently, its connecting
terminals should be cleaned first and soldered firmly in the radio tuner
circuit.

4. Mixer-Converter Transistor. As the name implies, the function of this

transistor is to mix the signals coming from the antenna which is tuned-
in by the tuning capacitor and the signal that comes from the local
oscillator,/After mixing, these two signals are converted to a new signal
which is known as the intermediate frequency (IF signal). The standard
frequency of the IF signal for amplitude modulation (AM) radio tuner
is 455 KHZ, (KiloHertz), or 455,000 Hertz, (Hz). This is the same for
all AM radio tuner.
The process of mixing two different signals to produce a new signal
or. signals is called heterodyn process or heterodyning process. This
process is used in all radio receivers, and this is why all radio receivers
are often called superheterodyn radio receiver,*
So that the mixer-converter transistor will work efficiently, its elec-
trodes such as, emitter, base and collector should be cleaned before
soldering it firmly in the tuner circuit.

5. Intermediate Frequency (IF) Section. The IF section of the radio tuner

is like an electronic gate.When the 455 KHz IF signal arrives, it automa-
tically opens to permit this 455 KHz IF signal to pass through and enter
the radio tuner.

However., when other signals whose frequency is not 455 KHz

attempts to enter, the IF section automatically blocks this signal. With
this action the IF section prevents interferring signals to enter the radio
tuner when it is tuned to one radio station.
Normally, there are three intermediate frequency transformers
(IFTs) used in the IF section, To identify them the IFTs are painted on
their top portions. The first IFT is painted yellow, the second IFT is
painted white, while the third IFT is painted black.
Transistors are also used in the IF section. Located between the first
IFT and second IFT is the first IF amplifier transistor. Between the
second IFT and third IFT is the second IF amplifier transistor.
However, although there are three IFTs used and two IF amplifier
transistors in the IF section, their functions are basically the same;
they prevent interference.
The basic construction of the IF transformers is the same. They
are made of two small wires wound around the adjustable ferrite core
and enclosed in a metal shield. The adjustable ferrite cote are adjusted
during the aligning process of the radio tuner.
Care must be observed when connecting the IF transformer and IF
amplifiers transistors in the circuit. Their terminals should be cleaned
first before soldering them firmly on the radio tuner circuit.

6. Detector. The detector is also called the demodulator, Its work is

detect and recover the audio informations from the radio' signal received
by the radio tuner.
The radio signal that comes from the radio station contains the audio
information or audio signal. This audio information is the equivalent of
the voice of the radio announcer or the voices that comes from the
record being played at the radio station.
When the radio signal is received by the receiving antenna, it contains
this audio informations and it is the detector that detects and recovers
this audio informations. In simple words the detector separates the audio
informations from the received radio signals. The separated and
recovered audio informations or signal is then fed to the audio amplifier
where it is amplified or strengthened sufficiently.
The detector is usually made of a small crystal diode. In rare cases,
transistors are also used as detector. The detector should be soldered
correctly and firmly in the radio tuner circuit so that it will work effi-
ciently.
How the Radio Signal Flows in the Radio Tuner
The signal from the radio transmitting station has two parts: the radio
frequency carrier signal (RF carrier) and audio frequency signal (AF signal).
The RF carrier signal comes from the RF oscillator and the AF signal comes
from the booth of the announcer at the radio transmitting station. These two
signals are mixed before they are transmitted. The mixture of these two signals
is called modulated radio signal. For convenience the modulated radio signal
is simply called radio signal.
At the receiving antenna of the radio receiver set, radio signals from all
stations are accumulated. However, not all of these accumulated radio šignals
enter the radio tuner at the same time. Only one of these signal should enter
 the radio tuner.

By means of the tuning capacitor, one among the collected radio signal is
selected and tuned-in to enter the mixer-converter transistor. At the same time,
the local oscillator signal enters the mixer-converter and mixes with the radio
signal tuned-in by the tuning capacitor.
With this mixing, heterodyning process takes place and new signals are
produced. Out of these signals, the one having a frequency of 455 KHz, (kilo-
Hertz) or 455,000 Hertz (Hz) is coupled to the first intermediate frequency trans-
former, (1st IFT). This signal is called intermediate frequency signal, (IF signal).
From the first intermediate frequency transformer (1st. IFT), the IF signal
goes to the first IF amplifier transistor. Then it is coupled to the second IF trans-
former and on to the second IF amplifier transistor. Again it is amplified by this
transistor. After amplification this signal goes to the third intermediate frequency
transformer, (3rd IFT). From this point the IF signal is finally coupled to the
detector, where the original audio informations or audio signals are separated
from the IF signal. The separated and recovered audio signal is then coupled by
the detector to the volume control of the audio amplifier.
The radio tuner that we have just discussed can be connected to the audio
amplifier given in the next chapter. In this case, if we connect the radio tuner to
the audio amplifier, we have a complete radio receiver set.
The radio receiver set is composed of two important sections: the radio
tuner section and the audio amplifier section. As a guide in our trouble shooting
work in any radio receiver set, the audio amplifier section is from the volume
control up to the speaker, and the radio tuner section is from the detector up to
the antenna. This is moving backwards.
We must always remember that the work of the radio tuner section is only
to intercept and collect radio signals from the radio transmitting station. On the
other hand the work of the audio amplifier section is only to amplify or
strengthen the recovered or detected audio informations or audio signal.

Trouble Shooting Guide for Radio Receiver Set.

Identify first which section of the radio receiver set is defective. For
example, if the trouble symptom is that no sound from the radio station is heard
in the speaker although the supply voltage has been switched on, the first thing
we should do is to rotate the volume control back and forth, If a hissing or crack-
ing sound is heard in the speaker as we rotate the volume control, it means that
the audio amplifier section is good. So the trouble is in the radio tuner section.
Now if by rotating the volume control, no eracking ot hissing sound is heard
in the speaker, it means that the trouble is in the audio amplifier section. So the
radio tuner in this case is good.

Possible Causes:
I. Disconnected components in the radio tuner section. Remedy. Inspect
any disconnected components or wire connections in the tuner section,
Z. Loose connection of components or wire connection in the tuner
section. Remedy. Resolder all connections in the tuner section. Be care-
ful when resoldering. You might destroy the printed circuit foil or you
might cause short circuit between the connections.
3. Open or shorted detector diode. Remedy. Disconnect the detector and
check it with an ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
4. Open or shorted mixer-converter transistor. Remedy. Disconnect the
mixer-converter and check it with an ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
When replacing transistors, see to it that its emitter, base, and col-
lector are connected properly.
5. Open or shorted first IF amplifier transistor. Remedy. Disconnect and
check it with an ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
6. Open or shorted second IF amplifier transistor. Remedy. Disconnect
and check it with an ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
7. Open or disconnected antenna coil. Remedy. Disconnect the antenna
and check it with an ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
8. Shorted coupling capacitor at the base of the mixer-converter transistor.
Remedy. Disconnect and check it with an ohmmeter, Replace it if neces-
sary.
9. Shorted ceramic capacitor connected at the emitter of the mixer-con-
verter transistor and oscillator coil. Remedy. Disconnect and check it
with an ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
10. Shorted byp ass capacitor at the base of the first IF amplifier transistor.
Remedy. Disconnect and check it with an ohmmeter. Replace it if
necessary.
11, Shorted bypass capacitor at the base of the second IF amplifier tran-
sistor. Remedy. Disconnect and check it with an ohmmeter. Replace
it if necessary.
12. Shorted tuning capacitor. Remedy. Disconnect and check it with an
ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
13. Open primary winding of local Oscillator coil. Remedy. Disconnect
and check it with an ohmmeter. Replace it if necessary.
14. Open secondary winding of the local Oscillator coil. Remedy. Switch
on and measure voltage at the collector of the mixer-converter tran-
sistor. If voltage is measured here the secondary winding of the local
oscillator coil is good, because the measured voltage passes this coil.
15. Open primary winding of the first IF transformer. Remedy. Switch on.
Measure voltage at the collector of the mixer-converter transistor.
Tf voltage is measured here, we are sure that the primary winding of the

first IF transformer is good, because collector voltage of the mixer-

converter passes at this point.
16. Open secondary winding of the first IF transformer. Remedy. Measure
voltage at the base of the first IF amplifier transistor. Amount of voltage
here is only 0.7 volts or higher. If this is the measured voltage here the
secondary winding is good, because voltage passes this point, If
voltage is measured here, the possible troubles are either open secondary
winding of the said IF transformer or shorted bypass capacitor of 10 uf.
17. Open primary winding of the second IF transformer. Remedy. Measure
voltage at the collector of the first IF amplifier transistor. If voltage is
 measured here, the primary winding is good. If no voltage is measured
nhere, the primary winding is open.
18. Open secondary winding of the second IF transformer. Remedy. Measure
voltage here at the base of the second IF amplifier transistor. If voltage
is measured here, the said winding is good. If no voltage is measured
here, the said winding is open or it might be that the bypass capacitor
0.01 IF is shorted.
19. Open primary winding of the third IF transformer. Remedy. Measure
voltage at the collector of the second IF amplifier transistor. If no
voltage is measured here, the primary winding is open. If voltage is
measured here, the primary winding is good.

Trouble Symptoms: Weak sound, but audio amplifier section is good.

Possible causes:
1. Loose connections in the tuner section. Remedy. Resolder all connec-
tions in the radio tuner section.
2. Shorted coupling capacitor at the base of the mixer-converter transistor.
Remedy, Disconnect and check it with the ohmmeter. Replace it if
necessary.
3. Emitter stabilizing resistor of mixer-converter transistor has increased
in value. Remedy. Replace this resistor.
4. Wealk mixer-converter transistor. Remedy. Substitute or replace this
transistor.
5. Shorted bypass capacitor at the base of the first IF amplifier transistor.
Remedy. Disconnect this capacitor and replace it if necessary.
6. Open bypass capacitor at the emitter of the first IF amplifier transistor.
Remedy. Replace it with a new one.
7. Weak first IF amplifier transistor. Remedy. Replace this with a good
transistor.
8. Weak second IF amplifier transistor. Remedy. Replace this with a good
transistor.
9. Misadjusted antenna coil. Remedy. Adjust the location of the antenna
coil in the antenna bar until you find a spot where the radio signal entérs
the radio tuner in full strength. After you have adjusted the coil, make it
stay in its place by pasting it to the antenna bar with a melted wax or
candle.
10. Misadjusted antenna trimmer capacitor. Remedy. The antenna trimmer
capacitor is found in the tuning capacitor. It looks like a smal! screw on
the tuning capacitor. The antenna trimmer capacitor is the small screw.
like device connected to the antenna. Adjust this slowly back and forth
until the radio signal comes in very loud.
11. Misadjusted intermediate frequency transformer (IFT). Remedy. Adjust
the IFTs until the radio signal comes in very loud. Adjust slowly from
the last IFT (Black) and move backwards to the first IFT (yellow).
12. Weak IF amplifier transistor. Remedy. Replace the IF transistors with a
new one.
13. Weak-mixer converter transistor. Remedy. Replace the mixer-converter
transistor with a new one.
Important: In order to be skillful in radio repairing work you must be indus-
trious and persevering. Of course an adequate knowledge of basic elec.
tronics is a must.
Remember, all technicians became skillful only after years of
constant practice in repair work.
Self-Test Questions
1. What colors are commonly used to identify the following?
5.
a) Local oscillator coil b) First intermediate frequency transformer
c) Second intermediate frequency transformer d) Third intermediate
frequency transformer.
2. What part or component of the radio tuner intercepts and collects the
radio signals?
3. Name the component of the radio tuner that separates the radio carrier
signal from the audio informations or audio signal.
4. What is the main function of the IF section of the radio tuner?
What signal is produced by the local
6. Why is it important that the radio signal should be mixed with the signal
from the local oscillator?
oscillator circuit?
7. Which of the intermediate frequency transformers is connected to the
detector?
8. What part of the radio tuner selects which of the collected radio signal
should enter the mixer-converter transistor
9. Why is the intermediate frequencey
10, From the detector, where does the audio signal go?

Answers for Self-Test Questions

1, The colors of the following are: a) Local oscillator-red, b) First inter-
mediate frequency transformer - yellow, c) Second intermediate fre-
quency transformer - white d) Third intermediate frequency trans-
former -black.
2. The antenna intercepts and collects the radio signals.
3. The detector separates the audio signal from the radio carrier signal.
4. The main function of the IF section of the radio tuner is to prevent
interference.
5. The signal produced by the local oscillator circuit is the local oscillator
signal.
6. The radio signal and the local oscillator signal are mixed so that an inter-
mediate frequency signal of 455 kiloHertz (kHz) is produced.
7. The third intermediate frequency transformer is connected to the
detector.
8. The tuning capacitor selects which of the collected radio signals should
enter the mixer-converter transistor.
9. The intermediate frequency transformer is important because it prevents
interference.
10. From the detector, the audio signal goes to the volume control of the
audio amplifier.
 Phonograph Amplifier Using PNP Transistors
The phonograph amplifier is the type of amplifier that we will frequently
meet when we repair transistorized phonograph amplifier. The basic schematic
circuit of the phonograph amplifier are as follows:

Parts List of the Phonograph Amplifier using the PNP Transistors

2 pcs.
1 pe.
1 pc.
3 pes.
3 pes.
2 pes.
1 pc.
1 pc.
1 pc.
1 pc.
1 pc.
1 pc.
Transistors ED1602 PNP Audio Driver Transistor.
Transistor 9012 PNP Power Output Transistor
Transistor 9011 or 9013 NPN transistor Power Output.
Electrolytic capacitor 10 uf/6 volts or 10 volts.
Electrolytic capacitor 100 uf/6 to 10 volts.
Resistors 18 ohms. 1/4 watt
Resistor 150 k 1/4 watt.
Resistor 150 ohms 1/4 watt
Resistor 330 ohms. 1/4 watt
Resistor 7.5 k 1/4 watt
1 pe.
Resistor 33 k 1/4 watt
Volume control 5 k with switch small
1 meter Hook-up wire stranded
5
1 meter Soldering lead 60/40
3 pcs. Electrolytic capacitors 10 uf/10 volts
3 pes. Electroly tic capacitors 100 uf/10 volts.
2 pcs. Transistors ED1602 or 2SA202 PNP
C, =
1 pc. Transistor C9012 or 2SB22 PNP
Transistor C9013 or 2SD352 NPN
Name and Functions of Each part
C,= Decoupling capacitor. With this capacitor, noise in the sound of the
amplifier is removed and bypassed to the ground. Excessive humming sound that
may radiate (feedback) from power supply section is also bypassed to the ground
by this capacitor. Actually this capacitor works with resistor R,. If this capacitor
is shorted, there will be no sound.
C, = Coupling capacitor and blocking capacitor. As coupling capacitor
it couples or feeds the signal from the volume control to the base of transistor
Q.. As blocking capacitor, it blocks the positive DC voltage from the ground so
that it will not enter the base of transistor Q, and interfere with its bias voltage at
the base. If this capacitor is shorted, it will have very weak sound output of the
amplifier. If this is open or disconnected, the amplifier will have no sound.
Emitter bypass capacitor. This capacitor prevents the degeneration
or weakening of the signal of transistor Q1. If this becomes shorted, the amplifier
will have distorted sound. If this is open, the amplifier will have weak sound.
Cá = Coupling and blocking capacitor. As coupling, it couples the signal
from transistor Q to transistor Q. As blocking, it prevents the positive DC
voltage from the ground from entering the collector of transistor Q, and inter-
fering with its reverse bias at the collector. If this capacitor is shorted, it will have
very weak sound. If open, there will be no sound.

C5 = This capacitor is also the coupling and blocking capacitor. Signal

from the power output transistors Q, and Qa are reproduced in the speaker with
the help of this capacitor. As blocking capacitor the negative DC voltage is pre-
vented not to enter the emitters of the power output transistors and interfere
with their bias voltages. If C, is shorted, the amplifier will have no sound. If Cs
is open, the amplifier will also be soundless.
Cs = This capacitor is also the coupling and blocking capacitor. It blocks
the negative DC voltage from interfering with the reverse bias of the collector of
transistor Qa. With this capacitor, signal from the collector of the power output
transistor Qa is also coupled to the speaker.
If capacitor Cs is shorted or open, the amplifier will have no sound.
(Transistor Q, = This is the voltage amplifier transistor. It amplifies or
strengthens the small input signal voltage that comes from the volume control.
One thing that we must remember is that the voltage amplifier transistor is always
located nearest to the volume control.
If this transistor is weak or is loosely connected, it will give a very weak
sound. If this transistor is shorted internally, there will be no sound.
Transistor Q, =This is the voltage amplifier and driver transistor. It ampli-
fies the signal voltage that comes from transistor Q,, the voltage amplifier tran-
sistor. The output signal of this transistor drives or triggers the bases of the power
output transistor Q3 and A4 into full conduction. This is why this transistor
Q, is called driver transistor.
If Q, is weak or is loosely connected, it will have weak sound. If Q, is inter-
nally open of shorted, there will be no sound.
Transistor Qa and Q= Both of these are the. power output transistors.
With their outputs they drive the speaker. If any of them is shorted or open, there
will be no sound.
Name and Functions of Each Parts in the Phonograph Amplifier
R, = Volume Control, 5k with Switeh. With the volume control, we can vary
or control the loudness of the sound output of the amplifier.
R, = Decoupling Resistor. It minimizes noise and prevents humming sound
that may occur in the amplifier.
 JSual values of this resistor are from 50 ohms to 1.5 k. You remove more
noise from the sound output of the amplifier when you decrease the value of this
resistor.
Loose connection or disconnection that may occur at resistor R, will cause
excessive noise or humming sound in the sound output of the amplifier.
Ra = Collector Load Resistor. With this resistor the output voltage or output
signal of transistor Q, is produced. Also through this resistor, the reversed bias
voltage for the collector of transistor Q, and the forward biased voltage for the
base is applied.

Increasing the value of R,, the output signal of Q, also increases. Reducing
the resistance value of Ra, the output signal of Q. is also reduced. If resistor
R, is disconnected or loosely connected, ), will not operate. There will be no
sound output from the amplifier,
Allowable resistance value of R, in this amplifier is from 1 k to 20 k. This
means that for Ra we can use any value between 1 k and 20k. For example, we
use 1.5k, 1,8k, 2.2k, 2.8k, 3.3k, etc.
R4 = Base Bias Resistor. Through this resistor the forward bias voltage is
applied to the base of transistor Q,. Increasing the resistance value of this resistor,
the forward bias voltage for the base of Q, is reduced. Once the forward bias at
the base of Q, is reduced, current flow at Q, also deereases and subsequently
the output signal of Q, becomes weak. When the resistance value of R4 is re-
duced, automatically the forward bias voltage of Q, increases and current flow at
Q, also increases. With increased flow of current, more output signal is obtained
from transistor Q:
Usual resistance value of R4 in this type of amplifier is from 100k to l meg.
This means that for the resistance value of R4 we can use any value between 100k
to 1 meg. Example, 100k, 120k, 150k, 280k, 370k, etc.
If resistor Ra is disconnected or loosely connected, there will be no forward
bias at the base of Q, and Q, will not operate.
Rs= Emitter Stabilizing Resistor. All the current that flows in the transistor,
any transistor, passes through the emitter. So in this case in figure 13 current that
flows through Q passes through the emitter resistor Rs. If we increase the resis-
tance value of R, current flowing at Q, will be automatically reduced. However
if we reduce the resistance value of Rs, current flowing at Q, will inerease, With
increased current flow at Q 1, the output signal of Q, also inc
Usual resistance values of Rs in this case is from 5 ohms to 820 ohms. For
example values from 5 ohms, 10 ohms, 8.2 ohms, 150 ohms. etc, can be used
for Rs.
Tf resistor Re is loosely connected or disconnected, current could not pass
through the emitter of transistor Q So there would be no current flowing in
Q. and also no output signal from this transistor is obtained.
R and R, = Base Bias Voltage Divider Resistor. The voltage drop developed
oerOss these resistors becomes the forward bias voltage for the base of transistor
o.. Specifically, it is the polarity of the voltage drop across resistor R. that is
applied as forward bias voltage to the base of transistor Q.
Tn this type of amplifier circuit in figure l8 resistance value of resistor
R, is always smaller than the resistance value of R. Usually the value of R6
is 1/4 of the value of R,.
Tf either Re or R, is disconnected or loosely connected, there will be no
current flowing at transistor 2. Wny because with either R. or R. discon-
nected, there will be no forward bias voltage at the base of Q2.

R8 = This resistor has two functions in this type of amplifier. First, acts
as the collector load resistor of transistor Q. Second, it also acts as the base bias
resistor of the power output transistor Q3 and Qa.
The usual value of this resistor is from 10 ohms to 22 ohms. If resistor Rg
is disconnected or loosely connected, there will be no output signal obtained
from transistor Q, and no bias voltages for the bases of transistors Q and Qa.
Ro = Voltage Dropping Resistor. With this resistor, supply voltage from the
power supply section is lowered to a required value before it reaches the bases
of transistors Qa and Q4 and the collector of transistor Q.
If this resistor is disconnected or loosely connected, transistor Q2, Q3,
and Qa will not operate and there will be no output signal from the amplifier,

Trouble Shooting Guide for the Phonograph Amplifier

Trouble Symptoms: The phonograph amplifier has no sound output, not even a
cracking or hizzing sound at the speaker.
Possible Causes
1. Disconnected speaker's connection, Remedy. Check the wire connection
With your eyes or with the help of the ohmmeter. Resolder the wire
connections,
2. Open voice coil of the speaker. Remedy. Disconnect the speaker and
check the voice coil of the speaker with the ohmmeter.
3. The batteries maybe old and worn-out. Remedy. Check the battery
holder such as its contact spring. If it is rusty, clean it with the sand-
paper.
4. Open or loose wire connection from the battery holder to the amplifier.
Remedy. Resolder the wire connections. Check the wire connections
with an ohmmeter.
5. Open-off-on switch, Disconnect the off-on switch and check it with an
ohmmeter. Also check the wire connection from the off-on switch in
the amplifier.
6. If the power supply used is the converter or adapter. Remedy. Check
the converter if it has an output voltage with the voltmeter.
7. Shorted Power Output Transistor. Remedy. Switch the phonograph
amplifier. After two minutes feel with your fingers the power output
transistors. If either of the two power output transistors is shorted,
you will feel that it is excessively hot. In this case, replace the two
power output transistors. This is the usual practice of skilled techni-
cians because in cases where one power output transistor is shorted
the other automatically becomes weak. So the best remedy is to replace
the two,
8. One of the Power Output Transistor is Internally Open. Remedy. Dis-
connect the power output transistors and then check them with an
ohmmeter.
9. Loose Connections of Components in the Amplifier. Remedy. Resolder
all the components connections. Make sure that the printed circuit foil
will not be short-circuited with a nearby printed foil.
10. Open Volume Control. Remedy. Disconnect the volume control and
check it with an ohmmeter.