FOC UNIT 2

# buses
a bus (also called data highway) is a communication system that transfers data between
components inside a computer, or between computers.

In computer architecture, a bus is a communication system that transfers data between

components inside a computer, or between computers. This expression covers all related
hardware components and software, including communication protocols.

A bus is a subsystem that is used to connect computer componentsand transfer data

between them. A bus may be parallel or serial. Parallel buses transmit data across multiple
wires. Serial buses transmit data in bit-serial format

In a computer, there are two major types:

1 system Bus:

The system bus, also known as the "frontside bus" or "local bus," is the internal path from the CPU to
memory and is split into address bus and data bus subsets. Addresses are sent over the address lines to
signal a memory location, and data are transferred over the data lines to that location.

System buses transfer data in parallel. In a 32-bit bus, data are sent over 32 wires simultaneously. A 64-
bit bus uses 64 wires.

2.Peripheral Buses:
The peripheral bus is the pathway to the peripheral devices such as a disk or printer. PCI and PCI Express
are widely used peripheral buses. Devices connect to these parallel buses with cables to controller cards
that plug into slots on the motherboard. Another common bus is USB, and devices are cabled to ports on
the computer. USB is a serial bus, in which data travels over one wire.

Bus speeds
A computer or device's bus speed is easured in MHz, e.g., an FSB may operate at a frequency of 100
MHz. The throughput of a bus is measured in bits per second or megabytes per second.
Most popular computer buses :

· eSATA and SATA - Computer hard rives and disc drives.

· PCIe - Computer expansion cards and video cards.
· USB - Computer peripherals.
· Thunderbolt- Peripherals connected through a USB-C cable.
# device driver

a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is
attached to a computer. ... Drivers are hardware dependent and operating-system-specific.
specific.

A device driver is a small piece of software that tells the operating system and other software how to
communicate with a piece of hardware.

For example, printer drivers tell the operating system, and by extension whatever program you have the
thing you want to print open in, exactly ho
how to print information on the page

The same general idea applies to Sound,video

video cards
cards, keyboards, monitors, mice, disc drives,
drives etc.

How Exactly Do Device Drivers Work?

Think of device drivers like translators between a program you're using and a device that that program
wants to utilize somehow. The software and the hardware were created by different people or companies
and speak two completely different languages, so a translator (the driver) allows them to communicate.

In other words, a software program can provide information to a driver to explain what it wants a piece of
hardware to do, information the device driver understands and then can fulfill with the hardware.

Thanks to device drivers, most software programs don't need to know how to work directly with
hardware, and a driver doesn't need to include a full application experience for users to interact with.
Instead, the program and driver simply need to know how to interface with each other.

This is a pretty good deal for everyone involved, considering that there is a nearly endless supply of
software and hardware out there. If everyone had to know how to communicate with everyone else, the
process of making software
are and hardware would be near impossible.

How to Manage Device Drivers

The drivers for each piece of hardware in your Windows computer are centrally managed from Device
Manager, available in all versions of Microsoft Windows
Windows.

Most of the time, drivers install automatically and never need more attention
attention,, This is true for some
drivers in Windows that are downloaded via Windows Update.

When a manufacturer releases a driver update, it's your responsibility to install it. Some companies
provide programs that will check for and install any relevant updates
updates,, but most don't make it that easy.
# Plug & Play devices (PnP)
Plug and Play, sometimes, abbreviated PnP, is used to describe devices that work with a computer
system as soon as they are connected. The user does not have to manually install drivers for the device
or even tell the computer that a new device has been added.

Plug and Play/Pray?

• Purpose: To make computers more user friendly and easier to use

• Definition: The technological standard that automatically configures new devices for use

·How to use a plug and play device.: To use a plug and play device, turn on the computer and wait for it
to load the operating system. Then, connect the cable provided with the device to the appropriate port
or connector on the computer. If the device requires external power, plug the power cord into a surge
protector or wall outlet. The computer recognizes that the device is connected, then installs the
necessary drivers and configures it.

·Plug and play requirements.: For plug and play to operate correctly on IBM compatible computers, they
must have:

· A BIOS that supports plug and play.

· Windows 95 or later or another operating system supporting PnP.
· A peripheral device designed to support PnP.

·Drivers for plug and play devices.: Drivers are required for plug and play devices to work, but they are
automatically installed when the device connects to a computer. The operating system detects the
device and installs the necessary drivers. There is no need to manually install separate drivers for a plug
and play device.

·Examples of plug and play devices.:Today, there are many different plug and play devices available for
computers. Below is a list of some of the more common ones.

· Computer monitor
· External hard drive
· Keyboard
· Mouse
· USB flash drive

Benefits OfPnp:

· Ease if Installation of New hardware Component’s

· Great Help for Inexperience Users.
· Computer & Devices become more Useable and easer to use.
# Expansion Slot
Defiaton: An expansion slot refers to any of the slots on a motherboard that can hold an expansion card
to expand the computer's functionality, like a video card, network card, or sound card.

anexpansion slot is a connection or port inside a computer on the motherboard. It provides an installation
point for a hardware expansion card to be connected. For example, if you wanted to install a new video
card in the computer

The expansion card is plugged directly into the expansion port so that the motherboard has direct
access to the hardware. The purpose of adding an expansion card or board to a computer's motherboard is
to add or expand some sort of functionality to the computer that it did not have before. Expansion cards
are a way to upgrade a computer.

Computer expansion slots

Below is a listing of expansion slots commonly found in a computer and the devices associated with
those slots. Clicking on any of the links below provide you with additional details.

· AGP - Video card.

· AMR - Modem, sound card.
· CNR - Modem, network card, sound card.
· EISA - SCSI, network card, video card.
· ISA - Network card, sound card, video card.
· PCI- Network card, SCSI, sound card, video card.
· PCI Express - Video card, modem, sound card, network card.
· VESA - Video card.
How many expansion slots & Types does my computer have?

Every computer motherboard is different, to determine how many expansion slots are on your computer
motherboard identify the manufacturer and model of the motherboard. Once you've identified the model
of motherboard, you can find complete information about the motherboard in its manual.

Why do computers have expansion slots?

Computers have expansion slots to give the user the ability to add new devices to their computer. For
example, a computer gamer may upgrade their video card to get better performance in their games. An
expansion slot allows them to remove the old video card and add a new video card without replacing the
motherboard.

What is the most common expansion slot today?

Today, the most commonly used expansion slot used and found on computer motherboards is the PCI
Express expansion slot.

Does a laptop have an expansion slot?

Laptops do not have expansion slots like a desktop computer. However, some laptops do have PC Cards
that can be inserted into the side of the laptop.
# Plug & Play devices (PnP)
Plug and Play, sometimes, abbreviated PnP, is used to describe devices that work with a computer
system as soon as they are connected. The user does not have to manually install drivers for the device
or even tell the computer that a new device has been added.

Plug and Play/Pray?

• Purpose: To make computers more user friendly and easier to use

• Definition: The technological standard that automatically configures new devices for use

·How to use a plug and play device.: To use a plug and play device, turn on the computer and wait for it
to load the operating system. Then, connect the cable provided with the device to the appropriate port
or connector on the computer. If the device requires external power, plug the power cord into a surge
protector or wall outlet. The computer recognizes that the device is connected, then installs the
necessary drivers and configures it.

·Plug and play requirements.: For plug and play to operate correctly on IBM compatible computers, they
must have:

· A BIOS that supports plug and play.

· Windows 95 or later or another operating system supporting PnP.
· A peripheral device designed to support PnP.

·Drivers for plug and play devices.: Drivers are required for plug and play devices to work, but they are
automatically installed when the device connects to a computer. The operating system detects the
device and installs the necessary drivers. There is no need to manually install separate drivers for a plug
and play device.

·Examples of plug and play devices.:Today, there are many different plug and play devices available for
computers. Below is a list of some of the more common ones.

· Computer monitor
· External hard drive
· Keyboard
· Mouse
· USB flash drive

Benefits OfPnp:

· Ease if Installation of New hardware Component’s

· Great Help for Inexperience Users.
· Computer & Devices become more Useable and easer to use.
# Expansion Slot
Defiaton: An expansion slot refers to any of the slots on a motherboard that can hold an expansion card
to expand the computer's functionality, like a video card, network card, or sound card.

anexpansion slot is a connection or port inside a computer on the motherboard. It provides an installation
point for a hardware expansion card to be connected. For example, if you wanted to install a new video
card in the computer

The expansion card is plugged directly into the expansion port so that the motherboard has direct
access to the hardware. The purpose of adding an expansion card or board to a computer's motherboard is
to add or expand some sort of functionality to the computer that it did not have before. Expansion cards
are a way to upgrade a computer.

Computer expansion slots

Below is a listing of expansion slots commonly found in a computer and the devices associated with
those slots. Clicking on any of the links below provide you with additional details.

· AGP - Video card.

· AMR - Modem, sound card.
· CNR - Modem, network card, sound card.
· EISA - SCSI, network card, video card.
· ISA - Network card, sound card, video card.
· PCI- Network card, SCSI, sound card, video card.
· PCI Express - Video card, modem, sound card, network card.
· VESA - Video card.
How many expansion slots & Types does my computer have?
Every computer motherboard is different, to determine how many expansion slots are on your computer
motherboard identify the manufacturer and model of the motherboard. Once you've identified the model
of motherboard, you can find complete information about the motherboard in its manual.

Why do computers have expansion slots?

Computers have expansion slots to give the user the ability to add new devices to their computer. For
example, a computer gamer may upgrade their video card to get better performance in their games. An
expansion slot allows them to remove the old video card and add a new video card without replacing the
motherboard.

What is the most common expansion slot today?

Today, the most commonly used expansion slot used and found on computer motherboards is the PCI
Express expansion slot.

Does a laptop have an expansion slot?

Laptops do not have expansion slots like a desktop computer. However, some laptops do have PC Cards
that can be inserted into the side of the laptop.
# Programming Language
A programming language is a set of commands, instructions, and other syntax use to create a
software program. Languages that programmers use to write code are called "high "high-level
languages."
." This code can be compiled into a "low
"low-level language,"
," which is recognized
directly by the computer hardware.

· high-level language : A high-level

level language has a higher level of abstraction from the
computer,, and focuses more on the programming logic. Eg are: Python, Visual Basic,
Basic Perl,
PHP, Ruby, C#, Java
· Machine language : Machine language is a language that has a binary form. It can be
directly executed by a computer.
· Assembly language : assembly language is a low
low-level
level programming language that
requires software called an assembler to convert it into machine code.
# Program Language Translators
Defination:

· A translator is a programming language processor that converts a computer program

from one language to another. It takes a program written in source code and converts
it into machine code.
· A programming language translator is the piece of software that translate a computer
program written in some specific programming language into another programming
language.

A program written in high-level language is called as source code. To convert the source
code into machine code, translators are needed.

A translator takes a program written in source language as input and converts it into a
program in target language as output.

It also detects and reports the error during translation.

Roles of translator are:

• Translating the high-level language program input into an equivalent machine language
program.

• Providing diagnostic messages wherever the programmer violates specification of the high-
level language program.

Different type of translators

The different types of translator are as follows:

Compiler

Compiler is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to low-level

language. It translates the entire program and also reports the errors in source program
encountered during the translation.

 There are also decompilers which perform the reverse operation.

Interpreter

Interpreter is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to low-

level language. Interpreter translates line by line and reports the error once it encountered
during the translation process.

It directly executes the operations specified in the source program when the input is given by
the user.

It gives better error diagnostics than a compiler.

Assembler

Assembler is a translator which is used to translate the assembly language code into machine
language code.

Programming Paradigms

Definition.

A programming paradigm is a style, or “way,” of programming. Some languages make it easy to write in
some paradigms but not others. Never use the phrase “programming language paradigm.” A paradigm
is a way of doing something (like programming), not a concrete thing (like a language).

Paradigms are important because they define a programming language and how it works.

· Imperative: The language provides statements, such as assignment statements , which

explicitly change the state of the memory of the computer.

· Logic: In this paradigm we express computation in exclusively in terms of mathematical

logic

· Object-Oriented: In this paradigm we associate behaviour with data-structures called "

objects " which belong to classes which are usually structured into a hierarchy.
# Programming Language Paradigms
Defination:
§ A programming paradigm is a style, or “way,” of programming.
§ The term programming paradigm refers to a style of programming. It does not refer to a
specific language, but rather it refers to the way you program.

Programming Paradigms
Let us go on a whirlwind tour of 4 different programming paradigms – Procedural, Object-Oriented,
Functional and Logical. This article will give you a better understanding of the various programming
paradigms.

v Imperative programming paradigm

Procedural programming can also be referred to as imperative programming. It is a programming
paradigm based upon the concept of procedure calls, in which statements are structured into procedures
(also known as subroutines or functions). They are a list of instructions to tell the computer what to
do step by step, Procedural programming languages are known as top-down languages.Most of the
early programming languages are all procedural.

The paradigm consists of several statements, and after the execution of all of them, the result is stored.
It’s about writing a list of instructions to tell the computer what to do step by step.

In an imperative programming paradigm, the order of the steps is crucial, because a given step will have
different consequences depending on the current values of variables when the step is executed.

It is one of the oldest programming paradigm. It features close relation relation to machine architecture.It
performs step by step task by changing state. The main focus is on how to achieve the goal. The
paradigm consist of several statements and after execution of all the result is stored.

Advantage:

1. Very simple to implement

2. It contains loops, variables etc.

Disadvantage:

1. Complex problem cannot be solved

2. Less efficient and less productive
3. Parallel programming is not possible

Examples of Fortran C and Cobol. Here is a sample code in COBOL.

IDENTIFICATIONDIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID.HELLO.
PROCEDUREDIVISION.
DISPLAY‘Hello World!’.
STOPRUN.

Features of Procedural Code

· Procedural Programming is excellent for general-purpose programming

 · The coded simplicity along with ease of implementation of compilers and interpreters
· A large variety of books and online course material available on tested algorithms, making it easier to
learn.
· The source code is portable
· The code can be reused in different parts of the program, without the need to copy it
· The program flow can be tracked easily as it has a top
top-down approach.

v Object-oriented
oriented programming paradigm
In this framework, all real-world
world entities are represented by Classes. Objects are instances of classes so
each object encapsulates a state and behavior
behavior. State implies the fields, attributes of the object and
behavior is what you do with the state of the object and they are the methods. Objects interact with each
other by passing messages.

Features of OO:

· Encapsulation – This is a fundamental feature of Object

Object-Oriented
Oriented Programming. Here you hide
unnecessary details in classes and deliver a simple and clear interface for working. It describes the idea of
bundling data and methods that work on that data within one unit. Thi Thiss concept is also often used to hide
the internal representation, or state, of an object from the outside
· Inheritance - Inheritance is one of the core concepts of object
object-oriented
oriented programming (OOP) languages. It
is a mechanism where you can derive a class ffrom
rom another class for a hierarchy of classes that share a set
of attributes and methods. It explains how the class hierarchies develop code readability and support to
the reuse of functionality.
· Data Abstraction - to Data abstraction is the reduction of a particular body of data to a simplified
representation of the whole. Data abstraction is usually the first step in database design.
· Polymorphism - Polymorphism is an object
object-oriented
oriented programming concept that refers to the ability of a
variable, function or object to take on multiple forms.

Programming languages that have implemented the OO paradigm are: Ruby, Java, C++, Python,
Python
Simula(the first OOP language)

v The key characteristics of object-oriented

oriented programming include Class, Abstraction,
Encapsulation, Inheritance and Polymorphism.
v A class is a template or blueprint from which objects are created.
Advantages:

· Data security
· Inheritance
· Code reusability
· Flexible and abstraction is also present

Example in Java:

publicclassMain
{
publicstaticvoidmain(String[]args){
Additionobj=newAddition();
obj.num=10;
int answer =obj.addValues();
System.out.println("The sum is = "+answer);//prints-> The sum
is 55
}
}

classAddition{
int sum =0;
intnum=0;
intaddValues(){
for(int i=1; i<=num;i++){
sum+= i;
}
return sum;
}
}

Object-oriented programming is best used when:

· You have multiple programmers who don’t need to understand each component .
· There is a lot of code that could be shared and reused .
· The project is anticipated to change often and be added to over time .

v Logic programming paradigm

Intro: Logical programming is a computer programming paradigm that has its foundations in
mathematical logic in which program statements express facts and rules about problems within a
system. Rules are written as logical clauses with a head and a body. They also follow a declarative
rather than an imperative approach.

The logic programming paradigm takes a declarative approach to problem-solving. It's based on formal
logic.

The logic programming paradigm isn't made up of instructions - rather it's made up of facts and clauses.
It uses everything it knows and tries to come up with the world where all of those facts and clauses are
true.
For instance, Socrates is a man, all men are mortal, and therefore Socrates is mortal.

The following is a simple Prolog program which explains the above instance:

man(Socrates).
mortal(X) :- man(X).

Languages that support the logic programming paradigm:

· Prolog
· Absys

Logic programming paradigm is often the best use when:

· If you're planning to work on projects like theorem proving, expert systems, term rewriting, type
systems and automated planning.

Why should you consider learning the logic programming paradigm?

· Easy to implement the code.

· Debugging is easy.
· Since it's structured using true/false statements, we can develop the programs quickly using
logic programming.

Software

Defination:
· Software, instructions that tell a computer what to do. Software comprises the entire set of
programs, procedures, and routines associated with the operation of a computer system.
· Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific
tasks
· Software are set of coding which gives instructions given by use to the computer system to
perform specific work.

Types of Software:
there are two main classifications of software, which are namely,
1. System Software and
2. Application Software.
# System Software :
Defination

· System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's hardware and
application programs.
· System software controls a computer’s internal functioning, chiefly through an operating system, and
also controls such peripherals as monitors, printers, and storage devices.

Whenever you turn on the computer first, it is this system software which gets initialized and then
gets loaded in the system’s memory. A system software essentially runs in the background, and it
isn’t actually utilized by the end-users. Due to this reason, the system software is also known
popularly as “low-level software”.

Few of the common system software examples are:

Operating System :
§ MS Windows
§ macOS
§ Linux
§ iOS
§ Android
§ Ubuntu
§ Unix

Device Drivers :
This type of software controls particular hardware which is essentially attached to the system.

· Display Drivers
· ROM Drivers
· Printer Drivers
· USB Drivers
· Sound Card Driver
· VGA Drivers
Firmware :
It is the operational software which is already embedded in flash, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM memory
chips so that the OS can identify them quickly. The task of the firmware is to directly manage and control
all the activities of any single hardware It offers vital information regarding how a particular device
interacts with different other hardware. Some of the examples of firmware are:

· Computer Peripherals
· Embedded Systems
· UEFI BIOS

Utility Software:
Utility software is a kind of system software which acts as an interface between system software and
application software. These are those programs which are specifically designed for some particular
purpose like maintenance of the computer or diagnose any error in the computer.Generally, these are
third-party tools which come along with the operating system.
It provides support to the computer infrastructure. Software like disk cleanup and management tools,
anti-viruses, defragmenters, compression tools etc. are all utility software.

Some of its examples are:

· Norton Antivirus
· McAfee Antivirus , WinRAR etc
# Application Software

Defination:
· Application software (app for short) is a program or group of programs designed for end
end-users.
· Application software is a term which is used for software created for a specific purpose. It is generally a
program or collection of programs used by end users. It can be called an application or simply an app.
· A software which is developed to help the user to perform specific tasks is called application software.

They are actually used by the end-user

user as well as have specific functionality or tasks which they are
designed to perform. These software are often developed through custom software development, based
on the requirements of the users. There is a variety of application software.

Various examples of application software are:

· Word processing software: Such applications are meant for documentation. It also assists in
storing as well as formatting and even printing of the documents. Key examples of such software
are: MS Word Apple iWork-PagesPages Corel WordPerfect Google Docs

· Database programs : It is used to create as well as manage a database and also known as
Database Management System or in short, DBMS. Such software assists in the data organization.
Some of the examples of DBMS are: MS Access FileMaker dBase Clipper MySQL

· Entertainment software: his is a software which is able to play, create as well as record images,
audio or even video files. These software are utilized for animation, video editing, graphics as
well as image editing. Due to the high demand for such software, every software prod
product
development company has vast avenues in developing them. Some of the examples of such
software are: Adobe Photoshop Picasa VLC Media Player Windows Media Player Windows
Movie Maker

· Web Browsers: These software are utilized to browse the internet. Web browsers assist the users
in locating as well as retrieving data well across the web. Some of the key examples of them are:
Google Chrome Mozilla Firefox Internet Explorer Opera

Other Application software Catogories are:

· Business software
· Educational software
· Computer-aided
aided design(CAD) software
· Spreadsheet software etc.

There are various different types of application software such as:

licensed, sold, freeware, shareware,and open source.

Application software’s either need to be installed or can run online.

Basics of Popular Operating Systems (Windows and Linux)
Windows
Microsoft Windows is a group of severalgraphical operating system families, all of which are developed,
marketed and sold byMicrosoft.

Windows is an operating system that manages a personal computer known as a series of programs. It is a
Microsoft-developed graphical operating system. This offers a way of data, apps running, playing video games,
streaming videos and internet access. Microsoft was first created in November 1985 and has frequently been
modified as computer memory expanded, as chips got faster processing and, of course, when the internet was
invented. PCs used a set of text commands before Windows. After that, more than a dozen versions, including
the latest Windows 10 edition, were released.

Examples of Windows operating systems are as follows. A few instances of windows operating system are
underneath as follows.

· Windows 95
· Windows 98
· Windows XP
· Windows vista
· Windows 7
· Windows 8
· Windows 10

Best Features of Windows Operating System

1. Speed

2. Compatibility

3. Lower Hardware Requirements

4. Search and Organization

5. Safety and Security

6. Interface and Desktop

7. Taskbar/Start menu
Advantages of Windows operating system :

· Available software. There is a huge selection of software available for Windows. This is both due to and
the reason for Microsoft's dominance of the world market for PC computer operating systems and office
software.
· Backing for all equipment&Hardwires –
As windows OS is utilized by 95% of clients so the majority of the equipment merchants make drivers for
windows.
· Support for new hardware. Virtually all hardware manufacturers will offer support for a recent version of
Windows when they go to market with a new product. Programming support –
Windows stage is most appropriate for game and programming engineers. Windows have a huge number
crowd so designers want to make utilities, games, and programming for windows OS. Linux clients can’t
make windows applications so it is smarter to utilize windows for creating applications.
· Plug & Play.–
Most equipment can be distinguished naturally by attachment and play include. You don’t have to
physically introduce the equipment however it is prepared to utilize when connected for example
webcam, console, mouse, cell phone, and so forth.
· Games. If you crave the latest in PC gaming technology, then you need Windows. A plethora of gaming
titles are available for Windows, as well as lots of special gaming hardware that's supported.

Disadvantages of Windows operating system :

· Virus attacks: Windows have a high amount of hacker attacks. The hackers can easily break
windows security. So windows users are dependent on anti-virus software and have to pay
monthly charges to companies to protect their data. Also, windows users have to update OS to
keep up-to-date with security patches.
· Most of the software is paid: Most windows programs are paid e.g. games, graphics software
(Photoshop), download manager (IDM) and other popular software are paid. You have to buy
these software or pay a monthly fee to use them.
· Rebooting a system: If your system becomes slow in performance then you have to reboot it. If
you load many programs at the same time then your system slows down and hangs up. The only
solution for this is to reboot.
· High price: Linux OS is open source and is free to use for everyone but windows OS has paid
license and you cannot use windows OS legally free. The cost of buying a copy of windows OS is
high as well. You also need to buy other Microsoft software e.g. MS Office to do regular office
work on the computer.
· High computer resources: If you are installing windows OS then your computer should have
high ram capacity, a lot of hard drive space and good graphics card. This is because of features
that are used in windows. If you want to install graphics software i.e. Photoshop then 16 GB of
ram is recommended.
· Technical support: Windows support is not good for most users. Only some large organizations
can get good support from the windows team. Common users have to search for forums to get
their problem solved.
Linux
Linux is an operating system just like Windows; Mac OS X developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991. Operating system
is the interface between the software and the hardware. It provides services for the applications and manages
computer hardware. Initially, Linux was just an operating system but now it became the platform to run
desktops, embedded systems, and servers.

Linux operating System Linux is an operating system or a kernel. It is distributed under an open source license. Its
functionality list is quite like UNIX.The Linux open source operating system, or Linux OS, is a freely distributable,
cross-platformoperating system based on Unix that can be installed on PCs, laptops, netbooks, mobile and tablet
devices, video game consoles, servers, supercomputers and more.The Linux OS is frequently packaged as a Linux
distribution for both desktop and server use, and includes the Linux kernel (the core of the operating system) as
well as supporting tools and libraries. Popular Linux OS distributions includeDebian,Ubuntu, Fedora, Red Hat and
openSUSE.

Linux Operating System has primarily three components

1.Kernel− Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating system. It
consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required
abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application programs.

2.System Library− System libraries are special functions or programs using which application programs or
system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implement most of the functionalities of the operating
system and do not requires kernel module's code access rights.

3.System Utility− System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks.

Basic FeaturesFollowing are some of the important features of Linux

Operating System.

1.Portable− Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in same way. Linux kernel
and application programs supportstheir installation on any kind of hardware platform.

2.Open Source− Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development project.
Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance the capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously
evolving.

3.Multi-User− Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources like memory/
ram/ application programs at same time.

4.Multiprogramming− Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at same
time.

5.Security− Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/ controlled
access to specific files/ encryption of data.Architecture: The architecture of a Linux System consists

6.Application support-It has its own software repository from where users can download and install
many applications.

The benefits of using Linux

Linux now enjoys popularity at its prime, and it's famous among
programmers as well as regular computer users around the world. Its main
benefits are –

1.It offers afree operating system. You do not have to pay hundreds of rupies to get the OS like
Windows!

2.Being open-source, anyone with programming knowledge can modify it.

3.The Linux operating systems now offermillions of programs/applications to choose from, most of them
free!

4.Once you have Linux installed you no longer need an antivirus! Linux is a highly secure system. More
so, there is a global development community constantly looking at ways to enhance its security. With
each upgrade, the OS becomes more secure and robust

5.Linux is the OS of choice for Server environments due to its stability and reliability

6. It gives you a lot of option of programs having some different features so you can choose according to
your need.

Linux provide 3 main security concepts are:

· Authentication: This simply implies claiming the person whom you are by assigning passwords and login
names to individual users, ensuring that nobody can gain access to their work.
· Authorization: At the file level Linux has authorization limits to users, there are read, write and execute
permissions for each file which decide who can access a particular file, who can modify it and who can
execute it.
· Encryption: This feature encodes your files into an unreadable format that is also known as ‘cyphertext‘,
so that even if someone succeeds in opening it your secrets will be safe.

Disadvantages of Linux:

No Standard Edition
While Windows and Mac have several definite versions, there is no one standard edition of Linux. In fact, there
are hundreds of different user-developed editions.

Learning Curve
The simplest way to put it: Linux is not as easy to use as Windows or Mac. It requires a broader base of
knowledge about computing than other operating systems, and this can be very challenging for a beginning user.

Non-Compatible Software
A disadvantage to using a Linux OS is that the majority of your favorite programs will not run on it. If you are used
to certain software, you will have to find a comparable Linux option. There are hundreds of choices of programs,
and there are many that are similar to specific Windows or Mac software.

Unsupported Hardware
There is less computer hardware that is compatible with Linux, also. There is a much smaller selection of drivers
that will work with Linux, although more are being added on a consistent basis. Oftentimes it takes a while for
new hardware to be supported, and you may find that a lot of the hardware you already have will be tough to run
on Linux.
Tech Support
While there is a large community of Linux users that are very helpful in answering your technical questions in
forums and chat rooms, it can be more difficult to get assistance for your issues. You can ask questions of Linux
users, but sometimes their answers will be difficult to understand if your technical knowledge is lacking.

# Configuring Operating System: Windows and Ubuntu

Windows
Each version of Microsoft Windows is installed on a computer using similar steps. While there
are steps in the installation process it can differ between versions of Windows, the following
general steps and guidelines help you install Windows on your computer.

The steps below are for all recent versions of Windows, including Windows 98, Windows ME,
Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10.

Check hardware compatibility

Genuine Windows CD, DVD, or USB drive
Installing Windows
To start the Windows install or upgrade process, you need to configure your computer to boot
from a CD or DVD before booting to the hard drive. Changing the boot process forces the
computer to look for the Windows installation disc before trying to boot from the hard drive.

1. Open the BIOS/CMOS(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) setup.

Computers manufactured in the last few years allow you to enter the BIOS setup using
one of the five keys shown below during the boot process. How to enter the BIOS setup.

1. F1
2. F2 *
3. F10 **
4. Del
5. Esc

2. Change the computer's boot order. Set the CD, DVD or disc drive as the first boot device
if you are trying to boot from a disc. Or, set the first boot device to your USB drive if
you're trying to boot from a USB thumb drive. If the drive is not shown, keep the disc is
inserted and reboot the computer. With the disc in the drive, BIOS should recognize and
include it in the list.

3. Save the settings change and exit BIOS.

Once you have updated the boot order, you can begin the Windows
installation process.
4. Place the Windows disc in the CD/DVD drive or USB thumb drive into the back of
the computer.
5. Turn on or restart the computer. As the computer starts up, it should detect the
installation disc or drive and show a message similar to Press any key to boot from
CD. Press any key on the keyboard to have the computer boot from the Windows
disc or drive.
6. After the Windows install begins, there are several prompts that you need to
answer. Select either Yes or the appropriate option to install Windows.
7. When asked which partition to install Windows onto, select the main partition,
which is usually the C: drive or one labeled "Unallocated partition". If upgrading
Windows, select the existing installation of Windows on the hard drive.
8. You may be asked if you want to erase all contents on the hard drive, then install
Windows. We recommend you choose this option, as it also formats the hard drive
to allow the Windows operating system to be installed.
9. The computer may need to restart several times during the Windows install process.
The restarts are normal and if prompted to restart, select the Yes option.
10.When the install process is nearly complete, the Windows configuration option
screens are shown. On these screens, you may be asked to select the time zone you
live in, your preferred language, and the name of the account you use to access
Windows. Select the appropriate options and enter the appropriate information on
each configuration screen.

The Windows install process is completed when the computer prompts you to log in or when it loads into
Windows.

Ubuntu
Installing Linux: Let's look the various methods we can use to install
Ubuntu.Installing Linux using USB stick
This is one of the easiest methods of installing Ubuntu or any distribution on your computer.
Follow the steps.

1.Download the .iso or the OS files.

2.Downloadfree software like 'Universal USB installer to make a bootable USB stick

3.Select an Ubuntu Distribution form the dropdown to put on your USB

a.Select your Ubuntu iso file download in step 1.

b.Select the drive letter of USB to install Ubuntu and Press create button.

4.Click YES to Install Ubuntu in USB.

5.After everything has been installed and configured, a small window will appear
Congratulations! You now have Ubuntu on a USB stick, bootable and ready to go.
# BIOS (basic input/output system)
In computing, BIOS is firmware used to perform hardware initialization during the booting
process, and to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs. The BIOS
firmware comes pre-installed on a personal computer's system board, and it is the first software
to run when powered on.

BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a computer's microprocessor uses to start the
computer system after it is powered on. It also manages data flow between the computer's
operating system (OS) and attached devices, such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard,
mouse and printer.

BIOS may refer to any of the following:

1.BIOS, in fullBasicInput/Output System, Computer program that is typically stored in EPROM

and used by the CPU to perform start-up procedures when the computer is turned on.Its two
major procedures are determining what peripheral devices (keyboard, mouse, disk drives,
printers, video cards, etc.) are available and loading the operating system (OS) into main
memory. After start-up, the BIOS program manages data flow between the OS and the
peripherals, so neither the OS nor the application programs need to know the details of the
peripherals (such as hardware addresses).

2. Short for Basic Input/Output System, the BIOS (pronounced bye-oss) is a ROM chip found
on motherboards that allows you to access and set up your computer system at the most basic
level. The picture below is an example of what a BIOS chip may look like on a computer
motherboard. The BIOS pictured is of an early AMIBIOS, a type of BIOS manufactured by AMI.
What is included in a BIOS?
The BIOS includes instructions on how to load basic computer hardware. It also includes a test
referred to as a POST (Power-On
On Self
Self-Test)
Test) that helps verify the computer meets requirements to
boot up properly. If the computer does not pass the POST, you hear a combination of beeps
indicating what is malfunctioning in the computer.

What are the four main functions of a PC BIOS?

· POST - Test the computer hardware and make sure no errors exist before loading the operating
system. Additional information on the POST is available on our POST and beep eep codes page.
· Bootstrap Loader - Locate the operating system
system.. If a capable operating system is located, the
BIOS will pass control to it.
· BIOS drivers - Low-level
level drivers that give the computer bbasic
asic operational control over your
computer's hardware.
· BIOS setup or CMOS setup - Configuration program that allows you to configure hardware
settings including system settings, such as computer passwords, time, and date.

How to Use BIOS

How to Enter/Access the BIOS setup
setup.

1. F1
2. F2 *
3. F10 **
4. Del
5. Esc

BIOS supports several hardware configuration options that can be changed through the setup utility.
Saving these changes and restarting the computer applies the changes to the BIOS and alters the way
BIOS instructs the hardware to function.

Here are some common things you can do in most BIOS systems:

§ Change the Boot Order

§ Load BIOS Setup Defaults
§ Flash (Update) BIOS
§ Remove a BIOS Password
§ Create a BIOS Password
§ Change the Date and Time
§ Change Floppy Drive Settings
§ Change Hard Drive Settings
§ Change CD/DVD/BD Drive Settings etcetc
# System Utilities Software
Defination:
1.Autility or software utility is computer system software intended to analyze, configure, monitor, or
help maintain a computer. Usually, a utility is smaller than a standard program in size and may be
included with an operating system.

2.Utility software is software designed to help to analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer.
It is used to support the computer infrastructure.

List of computer utilities

Below is a list of many different utility program categories. For a list of all of the different types of
computer software

· Antivirus
· Backup software
· Compression utility
· Cryptography software
· Debuggers
· DirectX
· File manager
· Registry cleaners
· Screen saver
· System monitor
System utilities
· Anti-virus/Firewall utilities scan for computer viruses and block or remove them.
· Debuggers typically permit the examination and modification of data and program instructions in
memory and on disk.
· Diagnostic programs determine and report the operational status of computer hardware and software.
· Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings, check data
transfer or log events.
· Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a computer.
· Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys that are no
longer in use.
· System monitors monitor resources and performance in a computer system.

Storage device management utilities

· Backup software makes copies of all information stored on a disk and restores either the entire disk (aka
Disk cloning) in an event of disk failure or selected files that are accidentally deleted or corrupted.
· Disk checkers scan an operating hard drive and check for logical (filesystem) or physical errors.

· Disk compression utilities transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the
capacity of the disk.
· Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several locations on the
hard disk and collect the fragments into one contiguous area.
· Disk formatters prepare a data storage device such as a hard disk, solid-state drive, floppy disk or USB
flash drive for initial use. These are often used to permanently erase an entire device.
· Disk partition editors divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system
which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
· Disk space analyzers provide a visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder
(including sub folders) and files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used space.

File management utilities

·Archiversoutput a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive suites may
include compression and encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities have a separate un-archive utility for the
reverse operation. One nearly universal type of archive file format is the zip file.

·Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.

·Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file.

·Data conversion utilities transform data from a source file to some other format, such as from a text file to a
PDF document.

·Data recovery utilities are used to rescue good data from corrupted files.

·Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target data storage and vice
versa.
Miscellaneous utilities
·Data generators create a file of test data according to specified patterns.

·HTML checkers validate HTML code and check links.

·Installation or setup utilities are used to initialize or configure programs, usually applications programs, for use
in a specific computer environment. There are also Uninstallers.

·Patching utilities perform alterations of files, especially object programs when program source is unavailable.

·Screensavers

Summary
Most of the utility programs come as a part of the operating system’s package, however, users can
download third-party software solutions for specific functions. Utility software programs such as disk
cleaners and antiviruses are available with extra features are sold separately.

# Antivirus software
Definition:

1. Antivirus software, or anti-virus software, also known as anti-malware, is a computer

program used to prevent, detect, and remove malware. Antivirus software was originally
developed to detect and remove computer viruses,

What does a antivirus software do?

Antivirus software constantly scans your computer for threats from emails, web surfing, and app
and software downloads, to make sure everything you do and access online is free from
potentially harmful code

An antivirus software works by scanning incoming files or code that's being passed through
your network traffic or computer Hard Disk. Companies who build this software compile an extensive
database of already known viruses and malware and teach the software how to detect, flag, and remove
them.

Antivirus software typically runs as a backgroundprocess

Antivirus software usually performs these basic functions:

1.Scanning directories or specific files for known malicious patterns indicating the presence of
malicious software.

2.Allowing users to schedule scans so they run automatically.

3.Allowing users to initiate new scans at any time.

4.Removing any malicious software it detects. Some antivirus software programs do this
automatically in the background, while others notify users of infections and ask them if they want
to clean the files.
How does Antivirus Software Work?
Antivirus software, sometimes known as anti-malware software, is designed to detect, prevent and take
action to disarm or remove malicious software from your computer such as viruses, worms and Trojan
horses. It may also prevent or remove unwanted spyware and adware in addition to other types of
malicious programs. The first versions of antivirus software can be traced as far back as the 1980s.

Antivirus software will begin by checking your computer programs and comparing them to known types
of malware. It will also scan your computer for behaviors that may signal the presence of a new,
unknown malware. Typically, antivirus software uses all three scanning detection processes:

· Specific Detection – This works by looking for known malware by a specific set of
characteristics.
· Generic Detection – This process looks for malware that are variants of known “families,” or
malware related by a common codebase.
· Heuristic Detection – This process scans for previously unknown viruses by looking for known
suspicious behavior or file structures.
· Signature Analysis:Signature-based analysis is similar to fingerprinting and is one of the most
common types of antivirus threat detection. All antivirus software vendors compile and constantly
update a database of identified threats, known as "virus definitions," from files and suspicious
websites.
· Behavior Monitoring: Generally speaking, behavior monitoring watches the traffic between your
computer and various devices – external hard drives, USB thumb drives, networked computers,
printers, etc

Features of Antivirus Software

Background Scanning - Antivirus software helps to scan all the applications, files and programs that are
opened from the backend. This process is called an on-access scanning. This ensures real-time
protection, giving complete computer protection from threats and other malware attacks.

Complete System Scans - Full system scans are by and large not really vital when you have an on-
access scanning system in hand. Full system scans become indispensable when an antivirus software is
installed for the first time or if the antivirus software is not updated with new virus definitions recently.
This is done to ensure that there are no malware infections hiding behind the codes on the system. Full
framework checks are additionally valuable when you repair your contaminated PC.

Virus Definitions - Antivirus software functions based on the virus definitions to recognize if the
file/program is genuine or malware intended. That is the main reason to archive on the new virus
definitions. The virus definitions stashes the signatures of any viruses that as been categorized as
infectious in the wild. In the event that the antivirus software checks any application or file and that it
finds the document infected by a malware that looks similar to the malware in the malware definition,
then that file or program is stopped from executing and then it is moved into the quarantine.

What are different types of Infections/Problems

·Virus – a piece of code that is capable of copying itself and typically has a detrimental effect, such as
corrupting a system or destroying data on an individual computer. A computer virus operates by inserting
or attaching itself to a legitimate program or document that supports macros in order to execute its code.

·Worm – a malware computer program that replicates itself so it can spread to other computers, often,
via a network. Almost always causing harm to the network, worms rely on security failures on the target
computer in order to initially gain access.
·Malware – also known as malicious software, is a broad term used to refer to viruses, worms,
ransomware, Trojan horses, keyloggers, rootkits, spyware, adware and other malicious software.
Malware is designed to disrupt normal computer or mobile operations, gather sensitive information, get
access to private computer systems and even to show unwanted advertising.

Symptoms of an Infected Computer

When unprotected devices are infected, they:

· Run slower than normal.

· Show popups both online and/or offline.
· Have programs that do not open, run slow or close unexpectedly.
· Have browser(s) that do not display some or any website at all.
· Show the ‘FBI’ or ‘Department of Justice’ screen, it comes up shortly after loading the
computer’s operating system.
· Present problems when trying to recognize external hardware.
· Show a blue screen with the error code.

Types of antivirus programs

· 1.Norton
· 2.BullGaurd
· 3.Panda
· 4.Avira
· 5.Quick hill
· 6.Mackeeper
· 7.MacCafe
· 8.Avast
· 9.Netgear
· 10.Kasperkey

Why is Updating Antivirus Software So Important?

Updating antivirus is critical for the security of any system. This is because any system gets constantly
threatened and attacked by new viruses every day. Antivirus updates would have latest definition files
that are needed to identify and combat new viruses.