DEPARTMENT: CIVIL ENGINEERING

OPTION: QUANTITY SURVEYING TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC: INFLUENCE OF DESIGN VARIABILITY ON

CONSTRUCTION COST.

CASE STUDY: RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

A PROJECT REPORT PRESENTED TO IPRC KIGALI IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
ADVANCED DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING, QUANTITY SURVEYING
TECHNOLOGY.
Submitted by:

NIZEYIMANA Jean Bosco 19RP06802

KWIZERA Emmanuel 19RP01839

HARAGIRIMANA Mandela 19RP04285

Supervised by:

QS. UWITONZE Pacifique

Kigali, December 2022

CERTIFICATE

The project work presents in this study entitled “INFLUENCE OF DESIGN

VARIABILITY ON CONSTRUCTION COST .” is a record of the original work done
by:
NIZEYIMANA Jean Bosco 19RP06802

KWIZERA Emmanuel 19RP01839

HARAGIRIMANA Mandela 19RP04285

In partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of an Advanced Diploma (A1) in civil
engineering department in Quantity Surveying option at Integrated Polytechnics Regional
College (IPRC) Kigali (KICUKIRO campus).

Project Supervisor Head of Department

Mr. UWITONZE Pacifique Mr. Jean de dieu IYAKARE
Signature…………… Signature……………
Date ……………… Date ………………

DECLARATION

i
We, NIZEYIMANA Jean Bosco (19RP06802), KWIZERA Emmanuel (19RP01839)

and HARAGIRIMANA Mandela (19RP04285) declare that the content of this

“INFLUENCE OF DESIGN VARIABILITY ON CONSTRUCTION COST”.

Dissertation is our original work and contribution to the fulfillment of the requirement for
the award of advanced Diploma in Civil Engineering Department, Quantity Surveying
option.

We do declare to the best of our knowledge that this research is original and has never
been presented or submitted for any academic award in any university, institute or college
as whole or in part.

NIZEYIMANA Jean Bosco (19RP06802)

Signature………….
Date….../….../2022

KWIZERA Emmanuel (19RP01839)

Signature………….
Date …... /….../2022
HARAGIRIMANA Mandela (19RP04285)
Signature………….
Date …... /….../2022

ii
DEDICATION

We dedicate this work to almighty God for all guidance, protection, help and his love
along this time of studies in IPRC Kigali and during the period of this work.
We also dedicate this work to our parents, families and our friends who helped us in this
work.
In addition, this work is dedicated to all other people involved in its production through
giving necessary information required for its completion. This work is dedicated to all
member of RQSSA in Rwanda and RIQS.

iii
ACKNOWDGEMENT

Above all, we express our thanks to Almighty God, who made all things possible and his
love, guidance, and protection that has been with us up to now. His name is Holy. We
would like to express our gratitude to our supervisor QS Pacifique UWITONZE who
helped us as Supervisor, in writing of our research proposal and continuous assistance
through their comments, in shaping and making the report comprehensive until the end.
Special thanks to Rwanda polytechnic and IPRC KIGALI for their academic support,
scientific and technical skills that are of paramount importance in the civil engineering
career. We highly appreciate our families and friends, their care, love support, kindness
and patience made a big role in our lives.
In this research project, we also appreciate QS Daniel UZANKIZA who helped us in the
internship period to get data and all other information that we wanted after internship. He
helped us to find all the necessary information to end up our project. We also thank all
peoples who gave us necessary information during data collection in the research study.
We are also appraising our classmates and all well wishes who supported us to conduct
our activities. We would like to our colleagues, friends who have shown great believing
and sympathy since we have be conducted this research.
We appreciate all member of RQSSA in Rwanda through it great information in
INKINGI journal. It is where we have understood the basic concept of Quantity
Surveying. The associations also helped to get an independent instititute of Quantity
Surveyor in Rwanda, RIQS.
To expand our appreciation, we would like to thank the government of Rwanda through
BRD in helping the student of universities by providing living allowance to them.
We also thank the administration of RHA who gave us the internship and within the
industrial attachment period, we tried to collect all the information that will be used in the
final report.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Regular shape.......................................................................................................9

Figure 2: Irregular shape....................................................................................................10
Figure 3: perimeter to floor area ratio 1.............................................................................13
Figure 4: Perimeter to floor area ratio 2.............................................................................14
Figure 5:Increase of P/F area ration due to many corners.................................................15
Figure 6: small landed grouped storeys vs large landed building.....................................16
Figure 7: Fullness of the plan.............................................................................................19
Figure 8: Different roof slopes with single span................................................................20
Figure 9: Architectural design features..............................................................................23
Figure 10: Spiral stair as design feature.............................................................................23
Figure 11: Male and female respondent distribution.........................................................37
Figure 12: Percentage composition by age........................................................................38
Figure 13: Distribution of respondent by level of education.............................................39
Figure 14: Distribution of respondent by profession.........................................................41
Figure 15: Working experience of respondent...................................................................42
Figure 16: Distribution of respondent by choice of building shape...................................43
Figure 17: Respondent of the types of roof used...............................................................44
Figure 18: Cost comparison between two shaped building.............................................49
Figure 19: Two different roof Slope comparison..............................................................51
Figure 20: Roof slope and corresponding area increase....................................................52

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Perimeter and area of two shape..........................................................................11

Table 2: Gantt chart of planned work................................................................................35
Table 3: Gender of respondent...........................................................................................37
Table 4: Distribution of the respondent by age..................................................................38
Table 5:Distribution of respondent by level of education..................................................39
Table 6: Distribution of respondent by title or profession.................................................40
Table 7: Working experience of respondent......................................................................41
Table 8: Distribution of respondent by choice of building shape......................................42
Table 9: Respondent of the types of roof used...................................................................43
Table 10: Respondent to the factor that dictate shape, size and height of building...........44
Table 11: Relative important index of the level of importance.........................................45
Table 12: Ranking of statement.........................................................................................46
Table 13: Relative Important Index and ranking...............................................................46
Table 14: Awareness of cost impact as a result of design variable....................................47
Table 15: Cost estimation Results for the cost analysis.....................................................51
Table 16:Roof slope and corresponding area increase.......................................................52

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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATION

RP: Rwanda Polytechnic

IPRC: Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center
QS: Quantity Surveyor
RWF: Rwandan Francs.
RIA: Rwanda Institute of Architects
RIQS: Rwanda Institute of Quantity Surveyor
RQSSA: Rwanda Quantity Surveying Student Association
RHA: Rwanda Hosing Authority
e.g: example
Info: information
No: number
Reg No: Registration Number
RII: Relative Important Index
RPPA: Rwanda Public Procurement Authority
RTDA: Rwanda Transportation Development Agency
VH: very high
VL: very low
Yrs.: years
FAR: Floor Area Ratio
P/F: Perimeter to Floor Area Ratio
GFA: Gross Floor Area

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE...................................................................................................................i
DECLARATION................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION..................................................................................................................iii

vii
ACKNOWDGEMENT.....................................................................................................iv
LIST OF FIGURES...........................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATION................................................................vii
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................x
CHAP 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION.......................................................................1
1.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................1
1.2 BACKGROUND...................................................................................................2
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT...................................................................................3
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY..........................................................................3
1.4.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE..............................................................................................................
1.4.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES......................................................................................................
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS...................................................................................4
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT.........................................................................4
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY.....................................................................................5
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY......................................................................5
1.9 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................6
CHAP 2. LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................7
2.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................7
2.1.1 DEFINITION.........................................................................................................................
2.2 DESIGN VARIABLES THEORY........................................................................7
2.3 DESIGN VARIABLES.........................................................................................8
2.3.1 BUILDING PLAN SHAPE...................................................................................................
2.3.2 PERIMETER/FLOOR AREA RATIO................................................................................
2.3.3 Average Storey Height........................................................................................................
2.3.4 NUMBER OF STOREYS...................................................................................................
2.3.5 CIRCULATION SPACE.....................................................................................................
2.3.6 BUILDING SIZE.................................................................................................................
2.3.7 FULLNESS ON PLAN.......................................................................................................
2.3.8 SLOPE OF THE ROOF.......................................................................................................
2.4 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN OF
BUILDING.....................................................................................................................21
2.5 PERSONNEL INFLUENCE IN THE DESIGN PROCEDURES......................24
2.6 PROJECT CHANGES........................................................................................26
2.6.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................

viii
 2.6.2 WHY PROJECT CHANGES OCCUR?.............................................................................
2.6.3 IMPACTS OF PROJECT CHANGE..................................................................................
CHAP 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................29
3.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................29
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN.........................................................................................29
3.2.1 STAGE ONE: PRELIMINARY STUDY...........................................................................
3.2.3 STAGE THREE: DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS.............................................
[Link] PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED IN THE STUDY............................................35
[Link] WORK PLAN..................................................................................................35
CHAP [Link] ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION............................36
4.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................36
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENT................36
4.2.1 GENDER OF RESPONDENTS..........................................................................................
4.2.10 AWARENESS OF COST IMPACT FOR DESIGN VARIABLES................47
4.3.1 COST IMPLICATION OF THE SOME MENTIONED DESIGN
VARIABLES......................................................................................................................................
4.4 SELECTION FACTORS FOR DESIGN VARIABLES....................................53
CHAP 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION...........................................54
5.1 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................54
5.2 SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS.......................................................54
5.3 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................55
5.4 RECOMMENDATION.......................................................................................55
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................57
APPENDIX.......................................................................................................................58

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 ABSTRACT

At the moment, the process of achieving a well-designed project in respect to cost constraints
dictated by clients, both for private and public buildings is not well understood. It involves a
significant amount of re-design, and rework, thus take long to complete. Residential building
facilitate only the welfare of the household without bringing any other income as compared to
other economic commercial or industrial building. In order to achieve a higher level of
performance without an increase in product cost and time, it is necessary to identify measure
and articulate the majorl building design variables and their cost influence to a building
project. Therefore, this literature review study has been sought to attain two objectives 1)
identifying of building design variables and their cost influence, and then 2) make appropriate
recommendations for the construction designers regarding design parameter especially in
Rwanda. The literature was collected from wide range of completed studies on the topic,
critically examined and then results discussed conclusions and recommendations drawn. The
findings established design variables, with main ones being plan shape and complexity,
storey height, number of storeys, building size, perimeter to floor area ratio and roof slope.
Plan shape was identified to have the greatest impact on costs, with square shape being the
cheapest while circular shape being most expensive, and complex shapes also having higher
costs. The recommendations made were that there is need for the building shape, to be as
close as possible to square, avoiding irregular shapes. Further studies need to be done to
establish how far individual cost elements are affected by these variables, especially in
developing countries like Rwanda.

x
 CHAP 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

As the construction industry continues to be one of the fastest growing sectors of any economy,
be it in developed countries or developing ones, the urge to deliver the best product output in
terms of good designed building project, which is able to satisfy the clients and ultimate users
cannot be over emphasized. This has again been added on the scarcity of resources and hence
need to put the little available ones to the best use. This can be judged by having to incur costs
that cannot be dealt away with, called value for money in projects. With this new phenomena,
there is great tendency that most clients the common initial question they will ask is “what is it
going to cost me?” often followed closely by “can we do it any cheaper?” (M. NurSahid et al”,
2013)

Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an object or a system (as
in architectural blueprints, engineering drawings, circuit diagrams and sewing patterns).
Design is a process through which a set of requirements such as; physical, aesthetic,
performance, and so on are creatively manipulated. In addition, design decisions form
solutions to problems of function, form and economy for building. A variable is a factor, trait,
or condition that can exist in different amount or types. Hence, this process forms a complex
interaction of skills, judgment, knowledge, information, and time, aimed at satisfying the
client’s requirements through manipulations. In addition, it requires problem finding, and
problem solving, deduction and the drawing of inferences, inductions and the creation of new
ideas, analysis and synthesis.
(S, Ibrahim, 2015)

In trying to find solutions for all these constraints encountered during the design process, the
design team will always try to make adjustments on a wide range of issues, especially to do
with how best the building project could be delivered, without compromising the
performance and quality. This results into concept of modelling costs, this is the different
ways the project can be designed and constructed, with each method attracting different costs.
Hence, the assessment of different design alternatives produce better solutions on achieving a

1
particular project. These design combinations are the ones that have come be known as
building design variables.

Previous studies into the area of design process have identified a great number of design
variables, as models that account for the construction costs. They include plan shape; building
size; circulation space; perimeter to floor area; grouping of buildings; storey height and the
total height or number of storeys for the building, roof shape and slope. According to
findings, perimeter-to-floor area ratio to construction costs and overall project costs are
affected by variation in these design variables. ([Link],1983)

1.2 BACKGROUND

Before the construction of any project, the construction owner need to plan for the cost, do
you know why? All it’s a matter of financial issue .if the financial mean is not a problem we
could not go deep in all about the cost planning and cost control, we would just raise whatever
project we want without deep planning and projection for the cost. The construction project
especially residential building in Kigali city it is a matter of owner to know the cost before
raise up the project. The construction owner need to know the cost of the construction before
the work begin so that he make sure that it match with the financial available and quantity
surveyor must participate at that stage. The building owner need to be explained for variable
that makes the construction cost. Form various variable, some lies in the structural design
while other lies in the architectural design; we can not go deep in the structural design because
it goes with the strength of the structure. But here we are going to emphasize on the
architectural design variables that affect the construction cost.

Residential building means a building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for

normal residential purposes, with or without cooking or dining facilities, and includes one or
more family dwellings, lodging or rooming houses, hostels, dormitories, apartment houses of
such buildings. It is a structure consisting of one to four dwelling units used or occupied, or
intended to be used or occupied, for residential purposes. There are different types of building
like Educational Buildings, Institutional Buildings, Assembly Buildings, Business Buildings,
Mercantile Buildings, Industrial Buildings and Storage Buildings.

2
Buildings in the same class are designed in the same manner, the only different is the function
of the building but for residential buildings, there are other important factors to be considered
rather than function of the building. In this study, we are going to emphasize on design of
residential building. Many residential building developers need to have complex building
design but they do not think of the level of influence of the change on cost. This study will
look on residential building because other building like commercial building have in common
some majority characteristics that make them to be designed in similar way.
But for residential building, the design of one residential is differ from the design of other in
terms of the development of an area, slope of the site and available fund that create different in
design variables and make one residential to be unique from other in nature.

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The main problem in residential building design is to determine and analyze design
parameters to be based while designing a project that will influence construction cost. The
problem is how much a change in design variable will affect the project cost. Design variables
can appear in different range but it is difficult to know the extent to which change in one
design variable will create to the construction cost. So in the design of most residential
building in the increase in cost is mostly due to the fact that designer do not consider
influence on project cost due to change in design variables so that they can chose alternative
design variable. Previous studies has mentioned different design variables but there is no deep
study about the influence of each and quantifies their contributions to project cost.
(T. Maver, 1970).

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.4.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this study is to assess and analyze the influence of architectural design
variability of residential building on construction cost .

1.4.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

 To identify design variables in residential building construction.

3
 To assess the cost implication of design variables.
 To investigate the influence of design variable change on construction cost.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 What are design variables in designing residential building?

 What are cost implication of design variable?
 What are the influence of design variable change on construction cost?

1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

This paper consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 called “General introduction” includes the
introduction of the basic for design variables, background of residential buildings, statement
of the problem, objectives, scope, the research questions and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 literature reviews describing the Concepts, Ideas, Opinions from Authors/
Experts regarding of the existing design variables. The previous research on design variable
was studied and analyzed to develop the relationship with our research objectives and
questions. In order to relate and compare our findings with previous findings in the reviewed
literature. Theoretical Perspectives describing the list of design variables were analyzed and
tried to investigate their influence on project cost. The existing construction, number of
storeys, shape and area of the residential building were analyzed. The findings from this
chapter were used to create baseline for coming up to our findings.
Chapter 3 called methodology which describe Research Design and research population that
includes sample size and sampling procedures, research instrument that shows how data were
collected and methods used either interview, observation, questionnaires or other mean to
gather data and analyzing the regarding our case study.
Chapter 4” presentation, analysis and interpretation of data” discusses practical
implications of the findings with consideration on the results of similar previous studies.
Include also the findings of other investigators both in agreement or in disagreement with the
findings of the study on hand.
Chapter 5” Conclusion and recommendation which describe the advices given to different
entities and individuals from this findings.

4
 1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This specifies the boundaries of the research. The general scope defines of this report will
emphasized on the residential building which selected on various construction buildings by
describing different architectural design variables such as plan shape, storey height, size of
building, height of the building, site slope , roof slope etc. and the influence of each
variable on construction cost. This research lasted for 6 months to be completed and it was
done based on previous guidelines.

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This provides the justification of the study. It spells out who the probable beneficiaries of the
study findings might be (country, government, local community, agency, curriculum
developers, researchers etc.), and how they might benefit. It also shows how the research
findings will contribute to general knowledge and what its impact on development towards
better life is. It should reflect on knowledge creation, as well as on technological or socio-
economic value to the community. This can help architect and client to adopt a cost benefit
approach in considering the advantages of different variables in seeking a suitable balance
between cost, aesthetics and functional aspects. Thus, it is important that both architect and
client are fully aware of the additional costs (or savings) that probably will arise from even
small changes in the shape of the building.

Students especially those who are in quantity surveying option, will understand the influence
of change in architectural design variable on project cost. This study indicate different design
parameters that one should take into consideration while estimating the project [Link] will
also analyze the extent to which changes in building variable affect construction costs, and
thereby provide pre-design information for future reference for residential buildings with less
energy consumption and less environmental pollution.
To this end, residential buildings with the same characteristics have been used by
differentiating only building shapes, orientations and envelope alternatives to assess the
changes they cause in construction, energy and life cycle costs.

5
This study will facilitate residential building developers not to consider some design variables,
which are sometime cost more without having any impact on real functioning of the property.
Example: you as landlord, you were construction a residential building, once you reach on the
storey height a person is getting 3.5m high also 2.8m could work. Do you think that 0.7m as
different between those heights will have a small influence on the building cost? The
increment in floor to ceiling height will cause the additional works in all vertical position like
walling, plastering, painting, scaffolding, vertical drainage, Electric wires, plumbing and
vertical transportation mean which resulted in additional cost of materials and labor to attain
3.5m. This will push the landlord to increase the rent for tenant to recover the cost in
predetermined time. Through quantifying the contributions each design variable to cost and its
increases. This research provide complete reasons and can be used to analyze the cause-effect
relationship among design and cost thus improve performance for engineering design projects.
(A. S.-T., 2002.)

1.9 METHODOLOGY

This part of the research consist of instruments or methods that were used to collect data
from various source. In this report different method of data collection were used including:
interview, observation and questionnaire. The collected data were the analyzed to find the
statistical solutions regarding design parameter and the influence of each design variable
on construction cost.

6
 CHAP 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.1.1 DEFINITION

Design variable is the parameters or unit of a building design that can be kept constant in one
case, or be varied in another case. Design variables can be freely varied from the designer to
other to define the design of object to achieve a certain requirement.
The term cost in general terms can be defined as the value of any currency given in to obtain
a product, or service, to expend labor and use equipment and tools. For the case of
construction it was defined by [17] in their book titled, ‘Cost Modelling’, as; the cost of the
contract incurred by the client. Meanwhile, the source for construct on costs were generally
grouped into two basic sources according to [18] and [19], i.e. the owner-designer costs i.e.
ones that come up as a result of, owner’s requirements and the design, and the contractors’ and
subcontractors’ costs, through the competitive market and their own organizations.

2.2 DESIGN VARIABLES THEORY

In trying to meet client requirements and external constraints brought about by matters like
statutory requirements, environmental factors and construction process among others, the
architects have started to model their designs using parameters called design variables. The
building design variables have been suggested as part of the solution by helping in the field of
economics especially during modelling on the constraints of cost analysis and forecasts of the
project under the concept of providing value for money products . Therefore, from these
design variables, design decisions are normally established, as they give solutions of
challenges to do with form, time and economy for buildings , also it’s these variables which
form designers’ forecasts, because they give the information for forecasting and determining
whether value can be achieved at an acceptable cost . The practice is so important in that,
clients are able to get reliable cost advice to enable them assess and choose viability of a
project when it is still early , by indicating how they impact on costs hence enable clients
whether to incur that cost or not.

7
 2.3 DESIGN VARIABLES

2.3.1 BUILDING PLAN SHAPE

The shape of a building has an important effect on cost. As a general rule the simpler the
shape of the building the lower will be its unit cost. As a building becomes longer and
narrower or its outline is made more complicated and irregular, so the perimeter/floor area
ratio will increase, accompanied by a higher unit cost. The Significance of perimeter/ floor
area relationships will be considered in more detail in the next part. An irregular outline will
also result in increased costs for other reasons; setting out, site works and drainage work are
all likely to be more complicated and more expensive and this will be apparent by comparing
the two buildings shown in figure 2, each of which have the same floor area. In building B
where there is six per cent more external wall to enclose the same floor area, setting out costs
are increased by about fifty per cent, excavation costs by about twenty per cent and drainage
costs by approximately twenty-five per cent (two meters of additional 100 mm drain and two
extra manholes).

The additional costs do not finish there, as brickwork and roofing will be more costly due to
the work being more complicated. It is important that both architect and client are aware of the
probable additional costs arising from comparatively small changes in the shape of a building.
They are then able to consider the advantages to be gained from variations in shape in the full
knowledge of the additional costs involved and can adopt a rather rudimentary cost benefit
approach. It does however involve a subjective judgement as far as the aesthetics are
concerned. The running costs of the completed building may also be affected by such factors
as higher heat losses (walls and windows), window cleaning and painting.

Although the simplest plan shape, that is a square building, will be the most economical to
construct it would not always be a practicable proposition. In dwellings, smaller offices,
schools and hospitals considerable importance is attached to the desirability of securing
adequate natural daylighting to most parts of the buildings. A large, square structure would
contain areas in the center of the building, which would be deficient in natural lighting.
Difficulties could also arise in the planning and internal layout of the accommodation.

8
Hence, although a rectangular shaped building would be more expensive than a square one
with the same floor area because of the smaller perimeter/floor area ratio, nevertheless
practical or functional aspects and possibly aesthetic ones in addition, may dictate the
provision of a rectangular building. The following example illustrates the need to maintain a
balance between various design criteria, in this case cost, function and appearance. It is
pointless for the quantity surveyor to submit cost-saving alternatives which could not function
satisfactorily or which would be aesthetically undesirable. Circular buildings, although
enclosing the greatest floor area for the smallest perimeter, are uneconomic and result in major
internal planning problems.
The irregularity in plan shape has a higher perimeter/floor area ratio and requires more external
walling to enclose floor area, setting out costs will be increased, Excavations will cost more
and drainage costs will increase due to the extra manholes and extra length of piping needed.
Additional costs will also result from other elements of the building such as the walling and
roofing due to the work being complicated by the shape. (Devsar T, 2009.)

Eg 1. Consider Building block C and Building block D

.

Figure 1: Regular shape

9
 • Building C

• Area on plan = 400m²

• Length of walling = 80 m

• Assume 3m high walling @ RWF 50,000/m2

• Then cost/m² = 80 x 3 x 50,000 ÷ 400

• = RWF 30,000/ m2

• Building D

• Area on plan = 400 m²

• Length of walling = 116 m

• Assume 3m high walling @ RWF 50,000/m²

• Then cost/m² = 116 x 3 x 22,000 ÷ 400

• = RWF 43,500/m²

The length of Building D thus resulted in an additional expense of RWF 5,400,000 over that of
Building C.
Eg 2. Consider Building block A and Building block B

Figure 2: Irregular shape

10
 Table 1: Perimeter and area of two shape
Building A Building B

Floor area 200 sqm 199.97 around 200 sqm

Perimeter 66 m 69.42m

When you compare both building, we note that both plans have exactly the same floor
areas, yet building B is far more expensive due to the shape of its design. The increase in
cost will be due to that: Building B has a higher perimeter/floor area ratio and requires
more external walling to enclose the same floor area than Building A, Setting out costs
will be increased, Excavations will cost more and drainage costs will increase due to the
extra manholes and extra length of piping needed.

[Link] FACTOR FOR SELECTING THE PLAN SHAPE

1. Site or plot

In the design process one of the most important factors is the site that the project intends to
be built on and the surrounding environment (for environmental concerns) as there could
be hidden threats to whether the project can go ahead or not concerning the foundations of
the ground or the location itself. The slope and shape of a site might dictate the shape of the
building especially where the plan to plot ratio approaches one. Selection has an important bearing
on planning and designing of buildings. Generally, therefore, an architect has either to make a
choice of suitable site or to plan his building structure to suit the available site. Obtaining
planning approval from the local council is the first stage after acquiring the land to build
on so the project can progress. Having a Site Investigation report undertaken of the land
proposed to build on will give an analysis of the subsoil composition, bearing values
(maximum pressure on foundation soil that provides adequate safety against rupture of soil
mass), risk of contamination and the presence of water that could cause damage under the
building such as underground stream and rivers.

11
Understanding the topography of the land to determine whether it is sloping, the actual
size, shape and understanding the undulation are important to know before building
because they could pose serious threats and changes to the original design. Desktop studies
can be obtained to show the land history on ordnance survey plans dating back to the
1800s and the NCB (National Coal Board) can be contacted for mining records of the land.
The Architect could also look on the Flood Risk Environment Agency’s website and use
the postcode of the land to see whether the area is prone to flooding, previous Ordnance
Survey plans and drawings are other methods the Architect could use to understand the
area better.

2. Purpose of building

This is the most important factor to consider before purchasing or selecting a site for
residential purpose. The site should be selected keeping in view the general scope or the
purpose of building and based on extent or privacy required.

3. Friendly neighborhood

The site should be situated in locality which is already fully developed or which is fast developing.
To secure happy living conditions, generally such neighborhood is preferred where the neighbors
belong to an equal status in society and who should be social and friendly.

4. Financial aspects

Financial aspects, which dictate upon ownership rights and the costs, should be given due
consideration before the purchase of a plot. (Bostanciogˇlu, E. (2010)

2.3.2 PERIMETER/FLOOR AREA RATIO

The perimeter / area ratio is worked out by dividing the exposed perimeter given by the
floor area, and this will calculate how much floor insulation is needed. The
Perimeter/Floor area ratio allows us to compare different plans to establish the more
economical proposal. The lower the ratio, the more economical will be the proposal.
Circular buildings have the best ratio but savings are more than offset by the higher cost of
circular work. As the perimeter to floor area ratio increases, the cost increase. Once again
we should keep other design criteria in mind but the perimeter/floor area ratio does allow

12
the more experienced client to state the optimum ratio (from analysis of similar buildings
erected in past) as part of the design criteria during his brief of architect.

Eg: compare the following building:

Figure 3: perimeter to floor area ratio 1

Assuming that both buildings have an identical floor to ceiling height of 3.00m .

perimeter/Floor Area Ratio For:

• Building H

= Area of Enclosing Walls ÷ Total Floor Area

= 50m x 3m ÷ 100m²

= 1.50

• Building I

= Area of Enclosing Walls ÷ Total Floor Area

13
= 40m x 3m ÷ 100m²

= 1.20

We have already seen that the plan shape directly conditions the enclosing walls. The
Perimeter/Floor area Ratio allows us to compare different plans to establish the more
economical proposal.

The lower the ratio, the more economical will be the proposal. Circular buildings have the
best ratio but savings are more than offset by the higher cost of circular work.

Let us once again look at a practical example:

Figure 4: Perimeter to floor area ratio 2

Assuming that both buildings have an identical floor to ceiling height of 3.00m then the:

Perimeter/floor area ratio for:

BUILDING A

=Area of enclosing wall +total floor are

=50m*3m/100sqm=

1.5

BUILDING B

=Area of enclosing wall+ total flor are

14
=40m*3m/100sqm

=1.2

It should be borne in mind that the perimeter cost can be in the order of 20% to 30% of
total cost and an external wall is normally almost twice as expensive as an internal
partition. The more experienced client state the optimum ratio (from analysis of similar
buildings erected in the past).

Figure 5:Increase of P/F area ration due to many corners

2.3.3 Average Storey Height

This is defined as height from finished floor to next finished floor or from finished floor to
ceiling or headroom height (bungalow. Generally the following items may experience
increases as a result of changes i.e. decrease or an increase in storey height: 1). The
amount of heat energy may increase due to volume of building increasing plus the length
which supply cables have to run it may also be increased. 2) Longer service and waste
pipes may be required. 3) Chances of having expensive roof costs due to cost of hoisting
are high. 4) The costs for circulation elements like staircases and lifts also increase, as they
are vertical elements whose quantity depend on headroom height. 5) Chances are high of
cost increases in applying finishes and decorations due to very high heights of ceilings,
sometimes calling for additional scaffolding. (J. Clark, W. Kingston, 1930)

15
 2.3.4 NUMBER OF STOREYS

This is much related to the average storey height of a building, however its self refers to
how high or the number of levels in terms of vertical construction. In reference to this
constructing of tall buildings, it generally affects four major building elements
significantly because of the number of storeys of high-rise building i.e. frame structure
construction, external wall and fire protection (as in services), all mainly vertical elements
of the building. Previous studies pointed out that construction cost generally does not
increase proportionally as the number of storeys increase. It was found out that generally
unit-building cost tended to rise moderately with building height. Meanwhile for, it is
found out that, minus the lower floors, the unit residential building cost is almost constant
building height was varied. In addition to the ones stated above, other designs identified in
the previous studies over the years included: Mechanical and Electrical Services;
Circulation Space; Grouping of Buildings; Column Spacing; Building Size; Sharing walls;
Floor spans and Constructability. Lastly we cannot forget the land value. Nowadays we
need to construct on small land as much as possible due to the fact of the cost of land. On
should compare the cost incurred from the two options: one is it possible to construct a
large building on large land? Or it is more applicable to rise up the number of storey on
small ground in terms of cost?. (D.J. Loweet al, 2007)

Figure 6: small landed grouped storeys vs large landed building

16
 2.3.5 CIRCULATION SPACE

The minimization of circulation space (Entrance halls, passages corridors, stairways and
lift) by the economic layout of the building provides a definite cost benefit. Circulation
space can be regarded as dead space, which cannot be used profitably, but involve
considerable cost in air-conditioning, lighting cleaning and decorating, and vertical access.
This describes areas such as corridors, entrance, halls and lift wells. They increase cost per
unit of usable floor area. These areas are expensive to maintain, as they have to be cooled,
heated and cleaned. They serve as accesses between different parts of the building,
performing no economical function. They are mostly found in buildings like hotels which
require large entrance halls and corridors for prestige. A fair ratio for circulation to total
space can be obtained from previous projects and included in the criteria given during the
design brief. It is interesting to note that in a recent comparison of alternative plans, the
circulation space in blocks of flats varied between 22% and 32% of the total area of the
building. (Al Zahrani Ahmed S., 2005.)

. Entrance halls passages corridors, stairways and lift wells can be regarded as dead space,
which cannot be used profitably, but involve considerable cost in air-conditioning, lighting
cleaning and decorating. In doing a trade-off analysis between cost and circulation space,
one has to consider the functional and aesthetic inputs as previously discussed, but
substantial savings can be made by sound subjective judgement. A fair ratio for circulation
to total space can be obtained from previous projects and included in the criteria given
during the design brief. It is interesting to note that in a recent comparison of two
alternative plans, the circulation space in blocks of flats varied between 22% and 32%.
Unfortunately, very few cost analysis done in the past give details of circulation space and
information for different uses are sadly lacking.

17
2.3.6 BUILDING SIZE
A larger building size leads to a decrease in the per unit cost of the building. Costs like
transportation remain constant. Discounts on bulk purchase of materials also reduce cost.
High-rise buildings have lifts serving a large floor area making it cheaper. Increases in the
size of a building usually produces reductions in unit cost such as the square meter rate.
The prime reason for this is that on costs do not rise proportionally with increases in the
plan size of a building. Expressing in another way we can say that the Preliminary and
General items expressed as a percentage of total cost tends to decline with an increase in
size and cost. A practical illustration would be the construction of two shops for RWF
5,000,000 and

RWF 15,000,000 respectively:

SHOP A

Cost : RWF 5,000,000

Foreman’s salary RWF
100,000/month

Construction time : 3 months

Percentage of on-costs = RWF100,000 x 3 ÷ (RWF5,000,000 – (RWF100,000 x 3))

=RWF 300,000 ÷ 4,700,000
=6.4%

SHOP B

Cost: RWF 15,000,000

foreman’s salary RWF
100,000/month

Construction time : 5 months

Percentage of on costs = RWF100, 000 x 5 ÷ (RWF15,000,000 - (RWF100,000 x5))

=3.4%

In larger buildings, other reductions in unit costs may arise due to savings in:

a. Prices paid for materials by the builder

b. Vertical transportation costs in high rise buildings

18
 c. Larger room sizes etc.

2.3.7FULLNESS ON PLAN

A concept closely relates to that of size as discussed under the previous section but
distinguishing for the usage factor. It is obvious that the rate per square meter for a block
of bachelor flats will differ a great deal from the rate for a block of three bedroom flats.

Let us look at the following buildings:

Figure 7: Fullness of the plan

Assuming that an internal division wall will cost us Rwf 45,500 and a bathroom will cost
Rwf 105,[Link]. We can then calculate the influence of these elements as follows:

BLOCK A
Cost of division walls =3* 45,500 = Rwf 136,500
Cost of bathrooms =4 *105,000 = Rwf 420,000
Rwf 556,500
556,500÷ 200
Rwf 2,780
BLOCK B
Cost of division walls=1*45,500=Rwf 45,000
Cost of bath room= 2*104,000=Rwf 208,000
Rwf 253,5000
253,5000÷200
= Rwf 1,267.5

19
 Although other more complex relationships come to operate with such a comparison, we
can generally state that an increase in the “fullness” of a design will also increase the cost
per meter square.

2.3.8 SLOPE OF THE ROOF

Multiple residential houses having amazing pitched roofs are being implemented in
different cities. As the country is very hilly, the influence of wind loads on the buildings is
high and therefore the selection step of roof slopes needs to be carefully undertaken, in
order to ensure not only the structure safety, but also the economy. Available international
and national guidelines give details about safety and functionality requirements, but do not
talk much about economic aspect, and this was the purpose of the this study. Using a well-
elaborated methodology, the influence of the roof slope on its cost was checked, and it was
established that the slope's increase of one degree would raise the roof cost by 3.6%.
Therefore, during the roof slope selection and design process, economic requirements need
more attention. (imbreyeho,et all,2020)

The roof pitch has also a big effect on air flow and heating load of sealed and vented attics
for a Gable-Roof Residential Building . While for the factors considered during
selection of the roofing system, aesthetics, minimum slope, and maintenance
requirements were consistent, aesthetics might be the most significant aspect, even if for
some situations, the set of requirements was economy, drainage, durability, wind
resistance, service, safety, and aesthetics, among others . Regarding the roof materials, the
preference and influence look to depend on materials manufacturing industry level of each
country. (Leopord D, (2020.)

20
Figure 8: Different roof slopes with single span

2.4 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ARCHITECTURAL

DESIGN OF BUILDING

There could be so many reasons that help an architect to make a design. Making designs
that the client is going to acknowledge is difficult if some existing trends that affect the
style of buildings. Factors like materials, culture, construction system, etc are going to
come into play. The other thing that needs to be focused on is commercial stair design.
Following are some important things that an architect who passed out from a reputed
institute such as the Karpagam Architecture, one of the Best Architecture Colleges in
Coimbatore, can keep in mind before making the final design.

a) Finance

The Architect that is designing the new building unit must take into the account the
financial limits that the client has and design the factory unit accordingly making sure it
can be achieved realistically on the budget provided. The architect tasked with designing
the factory unit is able to evaluate whether the build is realistic on the funds available by
comparing the design to previous builds they have designed in the past or by calculating
building costs per m^2 and volume per unit. It is important that the Architect ensures the

21
 build is feasible so the budget of the client is not exceeded although 10-15% of projects
costs are paid in fees the Architect must still make the project cost effective for the client.

b) Timing

It is likely that the Client will want the new residential unit completed as soon as possible
however this creates pressure on the design phase so an agreement must be came to as to
when the project can realistically be completed after all initial issues in the design process
have been addressed so the building is near perfect. A lack of planning in the design phase
as a result of haste from the client means an unrealistic timescale is created and the
building fails to deliver along with the failure for the work load to be scheduled
effectively. It can take up to three months for the design and approval to be made along
with another month for tenders to be submitted (contractors estimates of costs), depending
on the scale and complexity of the design it can take anything from 6-24 months for the
build to be completed.

c) Geography, Climate, and Commercial Stair Design

Geography plays a vital role in architecture. It is the base of an architect’s design elements.
Some things that can be kept in mind when it comes to geography are the topography or
the place where architects want to construct a building. All the surveyors find out about
the location before making a building. The next thing comes is the climate which means
what’s the weather like in that place? By keeping this in mind the architects have the
choice to make the design according to the weather conditions of the location. If the
location is harsh they can build a tough building and on the other hand, they can provide
different designs if the place is sunnier than usual. Your education at the Karpagam
Architecture will make you prepared for tackling such a situation since it is counted as best
college for architecture in India.

d) Religion, Technology, and Culture

Many clients don’t have any specific requirements prevailing to religion. Though some
would ask an architect to provide those requirements. Apart from that, there are some
places where religion plays a big role in the community by making a building that could

22
seem offensive to them. Keeping this in mind, the changes can be made. Just like religion,
another thing that determines the designs of a building is culture. For instance, if the client
is Chinese, their preference could be a building according to Feng Shui beliefs. Architects
need to make changes by having a conversation with clients about their requirements.
Technology has helped so much and made everything fully functional. Having a building
automation system is an evident sign that technology-assisted building structures are
systematized and functioning to their full capacity. You too with your knowledge gained
from the Karpagam Architecture, Top Architecture Colleges in Coimbatore, can help
society.

e) Imagination and Style

The Visualization techniques of architects cannot be denied. Architects have the

responsibility of making inventive designs that their clients love. They can implement so
many things to make the buildings look more attractive by making beautiful stair designs
like spiral stairs. Architects could fix some old designs by making new changes. It’s their
responsibility to make designs that satisfy the clients.

But the architect could be able to explain to the client the important of each design feature
so that no money is going to wasted for unimportant features. If their visualization
techniques are good they can give results that could impress the clients. This could also
mean that they can combine old and new techniques to make impressive buildings.
Engineering aspects of the building as important architectural design. It means to make
sure that the building is safe and sound. Above all the things keep in mind the client’s
vision and the engineering aspects should go hand in hand. By this, the client will not only
get a beautiful attractive building but also the strong and safe one. (I. navinkumar,2021)

23
Figure 9: Architectural design features

Figure 10: Spiral stair as design feature

2.5 PERSONNEL INFLUENCE IN THE DESIGN PROCEDURES

Design and redesign of construction works is a formal and informal specification relating
to the actions of the individual, including both structural and interpersonal aspects of the
work,taking into account the needs and demands of both the organization and the
individual.
Design of construction works is a formal and informal specification relating to the action
of individual including both structural and interpersonal aspects of the work. Taking into
account the need of both organization and individual. The following personnel have a
great influence on the architectural design of the project.

Architect

The Architect is there to advice on design. As designers who deal with clients, we all have
to face one situation, no matter how difficult and uncomfortable, and that is guiding the
client to accept that your design is perfect. Now, you already have the project, so this is
not a matter of convincing them to pick you for the job. This is about getting them to see
that your design satisfies their requirements and contains everything they want.

Client

24
One of the main purposes of construction designer is that the client shares their needs and
wishes with the design team. The design team in turn needs to interpret these requirements
and executes a set of actions to satisfy these needs and wishes to buildable documentation
(Bowen & Edwards 1996).
The client is the person for whom the project is carried out . One of the main purposes of
construction design is that the client shares their needs and wishes with the design team.
The design team in turn needs to interpret these requirements and executes a set of actions
to satisfy these needs and wishes to buildable documentation (Bowen & Edwards 1996).

.In the end, the final decision falls to the client, but there are times and most of us have
experienced them when the client’s lack of expertise in the field affect the quality of the
design. In such times, we have a responsibility to do everything in our power to convince
the client that the design is perfect as it is.(Drew D.S,et al,(2001)

And that any further alteration would impair the website’s ability to communicate
everything it needs to. This confrontation is not welcome by either party, but it is certainly
necessary.

Quantity Surveyor

Quantity Surveyors (sometimes referred to as cost consultants or commercial managers)

provide expert advice on construction costs. They help to ensure that proposed projects are
affordable and offer good value for money, helping the client and the design team assess
and compare different options, and then track variations, ensuring that costs remain under
control as the project progresses.

25
Quantity Surveyors can specialize in a specific aspect of construction costs, or in a
particular type of construction. Tasks will vary depending on the nature of the project, but
they might include:

 Helping determine the client's requirements and undertaking feasibility studies.

 Checking developing designs against the project budget.
 Checking designs meet legal and quality standards.

Government entity

Every local Municipal body and Urban development authorities have their bye-laws and
regulations regarding the planning of buildings like clear open spaces to left around the
building, permissible height of the building, permissible construction area, etc. The
developer has to approve the proposed building plan with the Local Authority as per
Building bye-laws. Gujarat has Comprehensive General Development Control Regulation
for the entire state for regulation regarding the planning of the building.

Government set policies including laws, plans, actions, behaviors regarding the
construction of different infrastructures. They are plans and methods of action that govern
the society in the given legal and constitutional framework of the nation. Policies are
reflection of the intent of the government towards its social commitments and priorities
and considered as the fundamental principles underpinning the set of rules and regulations.
Through distributive, redistributive and regulatory policies, government eventually seeks
human development. The problems policies addressed could be as basic as food, shelter,
housing, literacy, health and as complex as environment, urbanization to host of economic
policies. Looking at the complexities of society, policies must also reinvent itself through
application of different approaches. It is in this context that one can think of the
intervention of design-a problem solving method, in the policy domain. (M. Bholey,2015)

Government specify that building projects are designed and constructed to fulfill the
demands of users, clients and society. Many of these demands are expressed as functional
requirements through building codes, standards and local regulations. Government has set

26
construction codes that will guide the construction industry especially the designer who is
charge of providing the overall design. He has to keep in mind that whatever is being
designed should be in line with the government requirement.

They design based on like distance to be left from the main road, the required height of
building in the region and the number of users to ensure that standard comfortability have
been achieved. The government entity assist in verifying of the feasibility of the proposed
project in accordance to the Master plan and other relevant laws and regulations.

2.6 PROJECT CHANGES

2.6.1 INTRODUCTION
Changeability is universal in all types of construction project in Rwanda. From a logical
point of view, in construction terms, changeability refers as scope change, where a
request from the client, contractor or consultant firm is considering to modify the agreed
scope and objectives of the project to accommodate a need not ordinary determined to be
part of the project (wallance,1999-2007). Change requests alter the course of a project and
working within the constraints of time, budget and quality more challenging. If change
requests are not handled properly, the project will overshoot its schedule and accumulate
costs that are beyond the original plan.

2.6.2 WHY PROJECT CHANGES OCCUR?

There are various reasons why changes occur. Some of these reasons are technical, some
are procedural, some are financial, and still some are political or people-related. Whether a
project manager supports the adjustments or not, it is important to think over why changes
are requested and their possible impact on the integrity of the project, as well the delivery
process. Let us look at the most common reasons why changes occur.

Incomplete requirements

This is where a project lack some necessary information, omission or design error in the
plan during design stage and it will come to be a problem during implementation. Scope
changes or creeping functionality--are the results of ineffective management of
requirements. These are also the results of a project manager inability to get approval from
project sponsors. When requirements kept going through changes during the course of a
development lifecycle, new features and functionalities are often added, resulting in a

27
product that overshoots the allocated time and resources, but fails to meet an acceptable
level of quality. Within ii this change we will find incomplete contract document and other
information that are missed or incomplete during the design stage.

Organizational restructuring

If the client’s organizational structure changes midway through the project lifecycle, it is
inevitable for the delivery team to either expect a closer scrutiny of the project or change
requests to be submitted. Financial considerations, corporate policies, and new sets of end
users are some of the factors to consider as change agents when organization restructurings
happen. Some requirements are too rigid, while some requirements need more room for
discrepancy in specifications. When alpha releases prove to be too limited to one set of
target users alone, then expect change requests from auxiliary end-users.

External factors, such as new vendors, technologies, or methodologies

External factors, such as the involvement of another vendor or a representative end-user,

can cause diversion from the original project execution plan. This issue is often as
technical as it is financial (or political). Ideas that are tied to the new vendor
methodologies and technologies can affect the execution of the project plan halfway
through the lifecycle.

Sometimes, clients can be finicky about what they want out of the project that agreed-upon
requirements kept being changed. The more a finicky client gets in contact with vendors
who want to take on the project, the more ideas they get about improving the product and
cutting the cost of development. In such a scenario, be prepared. Other cause may be due
to new regulation and codes

2.6.3 IMPACTS OF PROJECT CHANGE

During project they will be impact of change that have took place, some are positive while
others are negative, but the most problem to suffer from, in case of additional cost is to
determine the change in cost compared to previously calculated amount. The second issues
it the time of completion, in fact, once the project design has already been modified, it will

28
 also require estimating the additional time to complete the work. Other problem is the
conflict among involved parties because when a project is being affected by on party, it
becomes more issue

CHAP 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provide a detailed analysis of the methodology, which will be used by the
researcher to collect, analyze and discuss data. This chapter presents research design and
approaches that will be used in the study.

This is the conceptual structure and the procedures within which research was conducted. Its
function is to provide the collection of relevant information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money. This part will describe area of the study, research Design and
research population that includes sample size and sampling procedures, research instrument
that shows how data were collected and methods used either interview, observation,

29
questionnaires or other mean to gather data and analyzing regarding to our case study in order
to achieve the objectives of the research.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

The design of a research is the combination/ set of methods (or methodology) you have
chosen for the empirical part of your study (Bakkbabulindi,2004).Grinnell et al (1990) define
research design as the comprehensive process of the study and the problem formulation
through dissemination of the findings. During this study, the researcher applied descriptive
and correlation studies as research design, both quantitative and qualitative prospective study
designs were used to assess the influence of design variability in residential buildings.

This research will be carried out by use of both primary data (data collected from interview
and questionnaire) and secondary data (data that has already been collected from literature
review).The methods that were employed in this study are aimed to both quantitative
(numerical data) and qualitative (non-numerical data). In addition, this design provides a
meaningful and accurate picture of the events and seeks to explain people’s perception and
behavior based on the data collected. It issued to identify and obtain information to the
particular problem or issue.
The adopted method in this research was based on the influence of design variability on
construction cost.

The major process was:

1. Stage one: preliminary study
2. Stage two: Data collection
3. Stage three: data analysis and data processing
3.2.1 STAGE ONE: PRELIMINARY STUDY

This process include identifying the problem, determining title and area of the research.
This was done by doing preliminary literature review such as referring books, articles and
journals. Then the aims and objectives of the study were identified before the literature
review conducted.

30
3.2.2 STAGE TWO: DATA COLLECTION

After the preliminary study has been done, data collection was carried out. The data
collection process involves two types of data: primary data and secondary data. Both
qualitative and quantitative research was conducted to collect primary and secondary data.

The primary data was gathered by conducting some interviews and survey questionnaire
while the secondary data was gathered by conducting secondary literature review from
books, articles, journals, internets, class lecture, etc. the secondary data was collected in
order to give additional support to the research objectives and findings.

4.3.1 PROCESS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

As mentioned earlier, the empirical study presented here serves as one of the research
project on the influence of design variable on the construction cost . Prior to this
investigation, a quantitative study was carried out which included un-structured
interviews with design team in construction, general contractor, and owners running
construction projects and/or construction firms. The primary data was captured using data
collection instruments such as survey questionnaires, face-to-face interviews and in some
case, site observation was used. Sample survey research was considered to be the most
appropriate method, as this survey process is particularly well suited for determining
information about large population (real &parker,1997).

4.3.2 STUDY AREA

There are number of factors that were taken into consideration before adopting the area of
field research. These included proximity of project sites, which means that they could have
similar problems, accessibility to office of information and convenience in visiting site and
monitoring progress of the development. Beside the above-mentioned reasons, location
was deemed to be very important if the research was to be represented of Rwanda. The
area of the study has to be centrally located and geographically accessible depending on
the area with many infrastructure fulfilling our requirement.

31
4.3.3 POPULATION STUDY
Population is described as the entire group or set of cases that the researcher is interested
in generalizing. A population is a mass of units of analysis (e.g. respondents) about which,
the researcher will measure his or her variables (Bakkabulindi, 2004). In this section the
researcher is expected to describe the nature of the “target or parent population” that
concerns respondents in term of who or what they will be, where they will be found, why
they have been chosen for your study and how many they are. For this research, the
population consisted of building all member of the building team. The total population of
the study is 2000 people.

4.3.4 SAMPLING SIZE

The sample is necessary to designate the persons to represent the parent population of the
study. The sample was collected from Kigali city .There is no fixed and inviolate rule on
how large you sample should be, rather it is circumstances that dictate what number or
fraction of the population you will study (Owolabi,2003:97). The author further observed,
that the large size you will use the more representative of you target population, you
sample will be, although the more costly you study will become.

Thus a sample was selected from the study of the whole polulation the sample selected
was 95 peoples from the whole population of 2000 peoples .it is from which this sample
selected could help the researcher to fulfil the objective of the study.

The following formula attributed to Yamane Slovin was used in order to compute the
sample size from the total population of 2000 peoples collected from residential
population as mentioned above, this formula allows the researcher to sample the
population with a desire degree of accuracy. It gives the researcher an idea of how large
this sample size needs to be to ensure a reasonable accuracy of the results,(Stephanie,
2009)

Sloven’s Formula is written as:

N
n= 2 Where
1+ N e

n=sample ¿ N=Total population , e=Error tollerance=10 % ,∧¿

32
1=Constant number

2000
n=
2000∗(0.1¿¿ 2)+1 ¿

2000
n= =95 n=95
21

Thus a 95 total samples of the population. The study was carried through random sampling
techniques where all the peoples in the population have the same probability of being
included in the sample, and purposive sampling. This is a method of sampling whereby the
researchers use his or her judgement about which respondent to choose and pick the only
those who best meet the purpose of the study (Kenneth,1978).

4.3.5 QUESTIONNAIRES

According to mbaaga (1990), a questionnaire is a set of questions, which are used to get
information from a respondents. This techniques helps the researcher to obtain the view
and opinions of individual respondent. The questionnaire will be addressed to building
team participants. It will include both open and closed questions, Close-ended questions
for quantitative data gathering and Open ended questions for qualitative approach.
According to MUGENDA (2005, to obtain accurate information through questionnaire, a
researcher need to obtain maximum co-operation from the respondent. The researcher will
establish a friendly relationship with the respondents prior to conduct the research.

4.3.6 INTERVIEW

In addition to questionnaire, the researcher conduct face to face structured and

unstructured interview with respondents selected from the population. The objective of the
interviews is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can
determine what variable need further in-deep investigation. In this research, an interview
guide to be addressed to the staff of Rwanda housing authority officers in charge or the
general rule of construction.

4.3.7 SECONDARY DATA

33
Secondary data are data obtained from historical records. the secondary data are collected
through a wide reading or any documentary review from text books, internet, magazine,
power point presentation, and especially reports and financial statements concerning the
subject matter of the study (Kothari,2004). In this study ,the researcher collected
secondary data from reading lecturer notes, books, relevant reports and gain through
reading on internet source.

3.2.3 STAGE THREE: DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Raw data are transformed into meaningful interpreted report using different [Link]
order to get quality information, there is general needs for standard that the researcher
could end up with realistic data, which Cleary reflect the depicted situation. Thus strong
checking is done through Editing , coding and Tabulation. This id done in order to
reduce detailed data to manageable proportions. In this stage, processing and analysis of
data was carried out in particularly towards the primary data collected using questionnaire
and interview however, before data analysis was carried out, all data was first processed.
Data processing include the following: check and verify the returns.

The first step in processing data was to check and verify the returns as the data was
received back (Moore, 2000; Tan, 2004).

Questionnaire return was made sure that they was straightly answered. The second step
was data analyzing and it was consisted of examining and categorizing the evidences to
address the initial proposition of the study.

The data gathered from the questionnaire was processed and analyzed using Microsoft
excel and some statistical formula to show some percentages and index where applicable.
The author was able to determine whether the research objectives has been achieved. The
last step is the report writing, in this stage, we tried to include the process of writing-up,
checking and corrections with the guidance of supervisor, together with the
recommendation, conclusion and future research recommendations.

[Link] EDITING

34
 According to kakinda (1990),Editing is the process whereby errors encounter in interview
schedules and questionnaires are properly analyzed. Scrutinized and verified in order to
avoid errors and repetition “.once this type of data processing is made, the analysis
become simple and easy to the researcher.

[Link] CODING

This is used to summarize data by classifying the different responses given into categories
for easy interpretation. According to kakooza (1996), codding refer to assigning a symbol
or a number to a response for identification purposes.

[Link] STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

In this study statistical results and excel spreadsheet were used in the processing and
analysis of data which informed the presentation of findings, Analysis and interpretation.
The presentation focused on the research questions. the kind of the statistical treatment
depend upon the nature of the problem especially the specific and the natural of the data
gathered.

[Link] ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

This study must not contradict with ethical principles including the obligation to avoid
hurting or embarrassing the respondent as well as respecting their privacy. The
researchers asked himself the ethical relevance of the research with respect to the values
and action to undertake in order to complete it .for this purpose the researcher observe a
set of measure to comply with ethical standards during the whole process of the research.

[Link] PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED IN THE STUDY

Limitation are the problem encountered by the researcher while carrying out the
research .the researcher faced the following problem:

Financing difficulties
It was requiring ticket money from Kigali to different regions and their there was some
times a very long journey.

Time constraints

35
It take a sufficient and favorable time to conduct [Link] cannot take only one day or a
week to accomplish it. Normal it take long to find accurate data and it depend the
availability of targeted population and researcher too.

[Link] WORK PLAN

In the first 2 week we will propose the topic, after finding the topic we will develop
developing the statement of the study and then develop the significance. ‘other activities
are shown on the gant chart below.

Table 2: Gantt chart of planned work

MONTH 1stMONTH 2nd MONTH 3rd MONTH

WEEKS 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
PORPOSAL
RESEARCH
WRITE
EDIT
ANALYSIS
RESULTS
SUBMISSIO
N

CHAP [Link] ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The main purpose of this chapter is to clarify the influence of design variability on
construction cost especially in residential building construction. This chapter presents the
main findings after analysis and interpretations of the data collected from interview,
observation and questionnaire. The data collected from the field survey was all about” the

36
influence of design variability on construction cost ” examining different design variables
and determine the influence to which a change in design variable will cause to the
previously estimated cost of construction or simply the implication of design variable
change to the construction cost. The data obtained by observation was firstly analyzed in
the following manner: the researcher obtained the needed data and the necessary
information from different respondent including building owner (developers), Quantity
Surveyors, construction technicians, Architects and the government officers in charge of
construction

The findings are based on 95 peoples considered as sample size and the results are shown
in forms of frequencies of different response and were expressed in percentages. Different
approaches like percentage, indexes and graph have been applied in order to interpret the
recorded.

4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENT

In this study, the profile of respondent have considered the following criteria such as
gender, education level, location of respondent , title or profession possessed in building
team, level of urbanization. The following information indicate the respondents. This part
describe the characteristic of the population of the study.

4.2.1 GENDER OF RESPONDENTS

The result of the distribution of respondent by gender is shown in the table below.

Table 3: Gender of respondent

Gender Frequency Percentage

37
 Male 72 75.8
Female 23 24.2

TOTAL 95 100
Source :Primary data ,Oct ,2022

Based to the table above demonstrate that 75.8% of the respondents were male and other
24.2% were female, the results show that the great number of the respondent were males.
The primary reason behind is that the construction industry is mainly participated by male
than female. You will find many male building developers, Quantity Surveyor, Architect,
Engineer, and technicians compared to the female involved. The male respondent they
tried to tell us about the economic consideration in the designing, also are the one to
consider the economics factor in construction compared the female. Most female building
developers they first think about the physical appearance of the building.

Male and female respondent

24.20%

75.80%

Male Female

Figure 11: Male and female respondent distribution

4.2.2 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENT BY AGE

Table 4: Distribution of the respondent by age

Age of respondent Frequency Percentage

18-25 Years 10 10.5
26-35 Years 23 26
36-45 Years 32 24.2
38
 Above 45 Years 40 42.1
TOTAL 95 100
Source :Primary data ,Oct ,2022

Percentage age of the respondents

45.00% 42%
40.00%
35.00%
30.00% 26%
24%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
11%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
18-25 Years 26-35 Years 36-45 Years Above 45
Years

Figure 12: Percentage composition by age

As reflected in the table 2 above 10.5% of the respondent were aged between 18-25 years
old, 26% were aged 26-35 years old, 24.2% were aged 36-45 years old and 42% were
aged above 45 years old. We have a great number of people aged above 45 year or the
large numbers in building team. The lower aged respondents they think getting good
looking building whatever it can cost them. But the elder ones, they want to spent less
money for residential accommodation and use the remaining money to run other economic
activities.

4.2.3 THE LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF THE RESPONDENT

The respondent were having different level of education this means that they were all
educated which prove that they can give out their opinion freely in the table below there is
information to their levels of education.
39
Table 5:Distribution of respondent by level of education

Level of education Frequency Percentage

Primary 9 9.5
Secondary 20 21
Training college 16 16.8
University 38 40
None Technical Institute 12 12.6
TOTAL 95 100
Source :Primary data ,Oct ,2022

Distribution of respondent by experience

0.45
40%
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
21%
0.2 17%
0.15 13%
10%
0.1
0.05
0
Primary Secondary Training University None
college Technical
Institute

Percentage

Figure 13: Distribution of respondent by level of education

The Table above and graph above illustrated that according to the Education level of
respondent, 40% of the respondent completed the university. 21% have completed training
college, 16.8% have completed technical college.

From the information above, it is clear that most respondent are educated to the extent of
knowing the content of our topic. Through our judgement, to reach at least more educated
people that are able to give us well information.

The structure of the respondent:

40
The clarification of the respondent answer given by the technician who finished the
primary level, secondary and university were very different. In the questionnaire, we
wanted to know what would happen in term of cost, if the slope of the roof were increased.

The respondent who finished primary level they only, know that when the roof slope rise,
also the cost rise but they cannot examine the level to which the cost is going to increase.

At the level of secondary and university, the respondent is able to specify the extent to
which cost is going to increase of result of rising the roof slope.

4.2.4 TITLE OR PROFESSION OF RESPONDENT

Table 6: Distribution of respondent by title or profession

Title of respondent Frequency Percentage

Building developers 15 15.8
Foreman 11 11.58
Engineer 14 14.74
Quantity Surveyor 26 27.36
Architect 29 30.5
Authority officer in charge 3 3.1
of construction
TOTAL 95 100
Source :Primary data ,Oct ,2022

Proffesions of respondents
1

27.36% 30.50%
15.80% 11.58% 14.74%
3.10%
0

Percentage

Figure 14: Distribution of respondent by profession

41
It is clear that the great number of respondent is architects because they are the one to
provide the general layout of the building and try to convince client. They carry 30.5%.
Quantity Surveyors possess 27.36%, they are the one to advice the architects.

This project is mainly aimed at advising the architect and other personnel in charge of
providing the architectural layout of the building to think of the design variability of
different features or layout of the residential building. For improved residential building
where Quantity Surveyor is engaged in order to advice both design and owner impact of
most cheaper approach. Through our judgment, we would like to have a great number of
architects and quantity surveyor’s because they are the one to influence the architectural
design of the building.

4.2.5 ACCORDING TO THE WORKING EXPERIENCE

Working experience of the respondents is necessary as it helps to know whether the

respondent has encountered any challenge related to our research.

Table 7: Working experience of respondent

Working experience Frequency Percentage

< 5 years 27 28.4
5-10 years 32 33.7
>10 years 38 40
TOTAL 95 100

42
 experience of respondents
45.00%
40.00%
40.00%
35.00% 33.70%
30.00% 28.40%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
< 5 years 5-10 years >10 years

Figure 15: Working experience of respondent

From the table above, 40% of the respondent are above 10 years of experience in
construction industry, they are well at demonstrating our issue, they have committed many
challenges relating to design variability and they were able to give us a complete
information. The accuracy of the information provided by experienced person it different
from the new comer in the industry.

4.2.6 DIFFERENT SHAPE OF THE BUILDING

Table 8: Distribution of respondent by choice of building shape

Plan shape of building Frequency Percentage

Square 25 26.3
Rectangle 38 40
Triangle 1 1.05
Rhombus 0 0
Trapezium 0 0
TOTAL 95 100

43
 Most applicable shape plan
0.45
40%
0.4
0.35
0.3 26%
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05 1% 0% 0%
0
Square Rectangle Triangle Rhombus Trapezium

Percentage

Figure 16: Distribution of respondent by choice of building shape

From the table above, 40% of the respondent declare that the building plan are in shape of
rectangle .the fact they provide is that many construction material are available in
rectangle shape. Other 26% declare that most building are available in square.

The remaining 31% declare that the shape of the building depends on the wishes of the
client and the plot. Other 2% showed that building plan are in shape of circle.

From this information, beyond the wishes of the client and the shape of the plot, most
building are in shape of rectangle and square.

4.2.7 TYPES OF ROOF COMMONLY USED

Table 9: Respondent of the types of roof used

Type of roof Frequency Percentage

Pitched roof 86 91
Flat roof 5 5.3
Curved roof 4 4.2
TOTAL 95 100

44
 Types of roof
1 91.00%
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 5.30% 4.20%
0
Pitched roof Flat roof Curved roof

Series1 Percentage

Figure 17: Respondent of the types of roof used

From the table above, 91% of the respondent answered that the types of roof most
commonly use is pitched roof. Once pitched roof is the most on used and it vary in
different slopes. So researcher is required to indicate different variation in roof slope and
goes with the amount of money available. 5% of the respondent indicate that the type of
roof used is flat roof and 4% answered that curved roof is used. So it is necessary to think
of the slope of the roof for pitched roof so to match with the financial available and other
wishes of the client.

4.2.8 DICTATION OF THE SHAPE, SIZE AND HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING

PLAN
They are various factor which are considered while selecting the shape size and height of
the building but here the researcher wanted to know the fact the can eliminate others in
terms of selecting the size shape and height of the residential building.

Table 10: Respondent to the factor that dictate shape, size and height of building
frequenc
NO Facts y %
28.4
1 Shape of the plot 27 2
Amount of money 37.8
2 available 36 9
12.6
3 Desire of the owner 12 3
4 Government regulation 16 16.8

45
 4
4.21
5 Other 4 1

TOTAL 95 100

From the table above 28.2 % of the respondent answer the shape, the plot shape dictates
size and height of the residential building. 37.89% answered that the shape,

 For architect it is necessary to consider the financial available for client to match
with the client wishes in order to get a baseline for starting to design.
 One cannot perfectly determine the extent to which the cost of the building is going
to increase as a result of design change. This project come to give an advice on
how to determine the amount of money to be deducted or added when the
architectural design has changed or modified.
 From the research 80% the respondent answered that the roof slope of the building
is determined by the climatic condition of the area.
 From our research study, 60% and 67.2% of the respondent answered that plan
shape and roof slope of the building strongly affect the construction cost for
residential building. This indicate that those variables are the on to study deeply to
have a complete information on this issue.

4.2.9 RELATIVE IMPORTANT INDEX

Table 11: Relative important index of the level of importance

No Outcome No impact Slight impact Major impact TOT

Scale value 1 2 3
1 Time 15 49 31 95
2 Cost 8 20 67 95
3 Additional specialist 73 16 6 95
4 Addition of health and safety 85 10 0 95
equipment
5 Dispute between parties to 2 78 15 95
contract

We want to know the relative important index of each statement. 95 respondent opinions
are collected related to 5 statements.

46
 1n 1+2 n2 +3 n3
relative important index=
A∗N

WHERE 1 n3=Number of respondents for no impact

2 n2=¿ Number of respondents for Slight impact

3 n1= Number of respondents for Major impact

A=¿Highest weight ¿ 3

N=¿Total number of respondents ¿95

We need to calculate the relative index for each statement

We have 95 respondent for each statement

Time

frequency %
No impact 15 15.79
Slight impact 49 51.58
Major impact 31 32.63
100.0
TOT 95 0

Cost

47
 frequency %
No impact 8 8.42
Slight impact 20 21.05
Major
impact 67 70.53
100.0
TOT 95 0
Additional specialist

frequenc
y %

No impact 73 76.84
Slight
impact 16 16.84
Major
impact 6 6.32
100.0
TOT 95 0

Addition of health and safety

equipment

48
 frequency %
No impact 85 89.47
Slight impact 10 10.53
Major
impact 0 0.00
100.0
TOT 95 0
Dispute between parties to contract

frequency %
No impact 2 2.11
Slight impact 78 82.11
Major impact 15 15.79
100.0
TOT 95 0

49
Table 12: Ranking of statement
No Outcome No Slight Major TOTAL TOTAL A*N RII RANK
impact(1) impact(2 impact(3) Numbe
) r
(N)
1 Time 15 98 93 206 95 285 0.7228 2
2 Cost 8 40 201 249 95 285 0.8737 1
3 Additional 73 32 18 123 95 285 0.4316 4
specialist
4 Addition of 85 20 0 105 95 285 0.3684 5
health and
safety
equipment
5 Dispute 2 156 45 203 95 285 0.7123 3
between
parties to
contract

Table 13: Relative Important Index and ranking

Relative
important
outcome statement index value importance
Time 0.7228 2
Cost 0.8737 1
Additional specialist 0.4316 4
Addition of health and safety
equipment 0.3684 5
Dispute between parties to
contract 0.7123 3

Relative important index range between Zero and 1

From the table above relative important index have been given for each outcome
statement. For each statement, you can see relative important index. Cost is having the
highest RII, Ii is [Link] second is Time with RII 0.7228, the third is Dispute among
parties, the fourth is Additional specialist and the last on is addition of health and safety
equipment.

This mean that the respondent have given more importance to the cost outcome statement
than other statement. Using RII You can understand what the importance is given for
each [Link] give-relating factor for each statement.

46
4.2.10 AWARENESS OF COST IMPACT FOR DESIGN VARIABLES

Table 14: Awareness of cost impact as a result of design variable

Aware of the cost impact Not aware of the cost

due to architectural design impact due to architectural
variation design variation
in figure in % in figure
38 40% 57 60%

From the table above 60% of the respondent are not aware or they don’t understand the
impact of design variability to the construction cost. A small number of 40% they a little
the cost impact created when the design vary or change. To advice this people such as
architect design construction projects that they have to take into consideration the
financial matching of what they are designing. If they are incapable, they have to work in
hand with Quantity Surveyor who have read this book to make sure that what is being
designed goes with the financial available and they are the highest and best in use.

4.3 ANALYSIS OF SOME DESIGN VARIABLES IN RESIDENTIAL

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.
From research questions, we tried to know whether respondents know about the different
design parameters that one should be based on that goes with cost while designing a
residential building. Some respondents are aware of those design variables and they are
able to interpret the level of influence. However, most respondent including clients or
developers who are supposed to finance the project are not aware of such parameters that
need proper understanding before taking decision.

From the data collected, the respondents mentioned some design variables, which are the
following: Plan shape, storey height, Number of storeys, Circulation space, Building
size, Roof slope, and perimeter/floor area ratio. Therefore, this indicated that many
peoples involved in construction are not at all know what should be based on or
what should be considered while allocating the client’s budget in terms of some
design variable.

47
In addition, even clients, it is difficult to mention the parameters choice that much
with his/her financial available. So it a task a Quantity Surveyor to advise the
architect and client on the influence created by the each design variability.

4.3.1 COST IMPLICATION OF THE SOME MENTIONED DESIGN

VARIABLES.

[Link] PLAN SHAPE

Among he mentioned parameter, the plan shape of the building was highly encounter to
have a great impact on the total cost of the project so from this research, different shapes
of a building was analyzed to look on the impact in variability of shape on cost. Let us
stars on irregularity of the plan.

This exercise aimed at establishing the influence of the Plan shape on the building/it’s
overall
Cost. The collected information about the most applied regular shapes used in designing a
House model with perimeter, the area on the plan was calculated and the cost of most
items that goes with the plan shape were estimated according to their measurement. In
order for the above to be achieved, two building shape plans of detached house was
selected. The shapes were analyzed and their cost estimation was finally performed
according to their point of difference. The following result were obtained during
observation showing different in Plan shapes.
BUILDING A

48
BUILDING B

Figure 18: Cost comparison between two shaped building

We note
that both plans have exactly the same floor areas, Building B has a higher perimeter/floor area
ratio (to be discussed in more detail later) and requires 6% more external walling to enclose the
same floor area than A.

Cost of building A Cost of building B

Floor area =200m2 Floor area =200m2

Length of walling= 66m Length of walling= 69.43m

Cost of walling =9,766,500Rwf Cost of walling =10,352490 Rwf

Setting out costs=356,453Rwf Setting out costs=417,050 Rwf

Cost of Excavations=464,484Rwf Cost of Excavations=520,222 Rwf

Drainage cost= 235,695Rwf Drainage cost= 294,619 Rwf

49
It is clear now that the following changes has taken place

10,352490−9,766,500
1. Walling cost will increase by ×100=6 %
9,766,500

417,050−356,453
2. Setting out costs will be increased by ×100=46 % .
356,453
520,222−464,484
3. Excavations cost will be increased by =12 %.
464,484
294,619−235,695
4. Drainage costs will increase by approximately =25 %due to the
235,695
extra manholes and extra length of piping needed.
5. Additional costs will also result from complication by the shape in walling and
roofing.

It can therefore be concluded that the irregular shapes or any time you turn a corner of
buildings add to their overall cost an extent about 23% of the average.

[Link] DESIGN ROOF SLOPE AND COST ESTIMATION

The slope was measured using a measuring tape. The measurement consist of reading the
riser and the run as the key parameter of the slope. This parameter was used to calculate
riser
the slope using the formula (1) and obtain the slope. slope h(%) ×100
run
This exercise aimed at establishing the influence of the roof slope on the roof /it’s overall
Cost.

The collected information about the most applied roof slopes was used in designing a
House model with a sloped roof, the area of the roof was calculated and the cost of roof
Covering materials was estimated using unit cost method. In order for the above to be
achieved, a plan of single-family detached house was selected, and then its roof with
different slopes was proposed. The roof analysis and cost estimation was finally
performed for those sloped roofs. The following result were obtained during observation
showing different in roof slope.

50
Figure 19: Two different roof Slope comparison

The following work is going to analyses Residential building with different slope. The
five roof slope was selected, with respective calculated area of roof sheets needed to
cover each corresponding slope are given in table below:

15: Cost estimation Results for the cost analysis

Table

S/ Type of roof slope Slope (in Max. ridge Area of Unit Total
N % degree) height, h roof sheets cost cost(Rwf)

5,6 1,015,
1 Roof slope of 50% 26.570 6.886m. 181.398m2 00 829

5,6 1,135,
2 Roof slope of 75% 36.870 8.20m. 202.800m2 00 680

5,6 1,284,
0
3 Roof slope of 100% 45 9.523m 229.442m 2
00 875
5,6 1,454,
4 Roof slope of 125% 51.34° 10.855m 259.710m2 00 376
5,6 1,637,
0 2
5 Roof slope of 150% 56.31 12.191m 292.483m 00 905

51
From the data above
Change in degree=29.720
Change in cost=622,076Rwf
By an increase of 1-degree, cost of roof is increased by 3.6%.
Table 16:Roof slope and corresponding area increase

Slope (in degree) Area of roof sheets in m2

26.57 181.398
36.87 202.8
45 229.442

51.34 259.71

56.31 292.483

Corresponding roof slope with area increase

350

300 292.483

259.71
250
229.442
202.8
200
181.398

150

100

51.34 56.31
50 45
36.87
26.57

0
1 2 3 4 5

Slope (in degree) Area of roof sheets in m2

Figure 20: Roof slope and corresponding area increase

52
As the slope of the roof, change also the area of roof covering material increase.

4.4 SELECTION FACTORS FOR DESIGN VARIABLES

Respondent were required to mention the factors that can limit or allow the choice of that
design variable or the extent at which a certain design variable can occur. The following
are the factors that can limit the application of certain design variable as were said by the
respondent the following factors have been mention by Quantity Surveyor, Engineer ,and
the architect as shown from the questionnaire respondent.
Site topography, location, climatic condition of the locality, plot size, number of
users, available fund, desire of clients or architects and neighborhood environment.
so whatever the design all will be dictated by the client.

53
 CHAP [Link] AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This study is designed to analyze the influence of design variable on construction cost.
Residential building was used as case study. This last part of the report highlight the
conclusion and recommendation of this research study. This section is going to
summarize the major findings form research, conclude on most important advise and
recommend involved parties.

5.2 SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS

This study entitled “influence of design variability on construction cost”. Case study of
residential building as one of the project, which is likely to vary in different architectural
design. Study period of 2019-2022, the general objective of the study was to determine
and analyze the design variables and their influence to the construction cost.

The following specific objective were used to achieve the general objective: to identify
design variables in mostly in residential building, cost implication of those variables to
their different extent.

The review of our research is based on different parameters (design variable) on should
take into consideration in the planning stage which affect the construction cost of the
building.

A sample size of 95 respondents were selected from various member of the building
team. Questionnaire and interview were give to the respondent to provide primary data
while observation and documentation were used as secondary data

54
According to the study results on influence of design variable, the 80% of the respondent
answered that they are not aware of the influence on cost created by design variation.
They cannot elaborate cost change due to design change at given level.

5.3 CONCLUSION

This research aimed at identifying, analyzing and advising on the influence of design
variable on construction cost. It is necessary to think of the design variables in the design
stage and how each influence the cost of the building .but all them of these parameter
will be dictated by the financial mean available.

The Quantity Surveyor need to keep tabs on the cost but it is up to the initiator of the
building process to lay the ground rules to be based. Therefore, this report come to advise
the building team on the issue of architectural design variability and their cost influence.
We hope that, by studying some of the influences of design on cost we have been able to
assist you in understanding some of the elements that play a role in determining the
building cost.

Residential building provide space for occupancy, it is not any investment you are doing
whatever the financial available, no money should be wasted from any design parameter
which bring no impact. The landlord must construct the building so that each element of
the building plays basic functioning to the occupants(tenants).otherwise they will lose the
occupancy because of high rent amount as result of high cost. So this project will
facilitate the landlord to solve that issue.

The quantity surveyor should be there during the design stage so that the architect design
what bring any impact according to the client wish. If the quantity surveyor is required to
give any advice on the most implacable design in accordance with the money available,
he or she shall be able to analyses the cost impact brought by each parameter.

5.4 RECOMMENDATION

55
Based on the findings and analysis from this study, a number of recommendation are
proposed:
To landlord
This is to recommend the landlord in Kigali city who are developing new residential
building, they need to design and construct affordable house. This is achieved through
avoiding unnecessary architectural feature, which are costly and bring no impact in the
normal functioning to the occupants.

Rwanda Housing Authority

The RHA need to set the rules and regulation regarding the construction of residential
building after assessing the income of the region.

To IPRC Kigali
The campus administration need to facilitate the students especially in quantity surveying
option. To continued their studies after completing A1 diploma because this professional
require a great and degree competence. The Rwanda polytechnic must continue to put an
effort to bring A0 Diploma in IPRCS

To construction companies administrations

This is to recommend the architect to design what is in line with the budget available by
thinking about the financial influence from the design change.
The personnel in construction companies especially Quantity Surveyor need to treat well
the internees during the period of industrial attachment. The companies’ personnel also
need to give full information in the data collection in academic research done by students.

Quantity surveying students

This is to recommend the student especially those who study in IPRC Kigali to put an
effort in their studying because QS is a professional that require great knowledge and
skills, because all matter dealing with the money in the industry is on the head of QS. The
students should also find the way of continuing their studies after finishing A1 Diploma.

56
REFERENCES

The reference sources used in this project are those books, reports. Journals and
electronic reference
Al Zahrani Ahmed S., 2005.”Cost Implications of Architectural DesignVariables
(“Ainomugisha Safiki”, Mochamad S et al”, M. NurSahid”, 2013)

Bostanciogˇlu, E. (2010), “Effect of building shape on a residential building’s

construction, energy and life cycle costs”, Architectural Science Review, Vol. 53 No.
4, pp. 441-67.

Chang, A. S.-T., 2002. Reasons for cost and schedule increase for engineering design
projects. Journal of Management in Engineering, 18(1), pp. 29-36.
Drew, D.S. and Lo, H.P. and skit more, R.M. (2001) THE EFFECTS OF CLIENT
AND TYPES AND SIZE OF CONSTRCTION WORK ON A CONTRCTOR’S
BIDDING STRATEGY. Building and Environment 36(3):pp.393-406.

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Build, Am. Inst. Steel Constr., New York, 1930
Leopord, d. ,. (2020. Effects of the roof slope on the cost variation of residential.
CIVIL ENGINEERING Vol. 15 ,89.

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Performance”
[Link]
346492433_Effect_of_the_Roof_Slope_on_the_Cost_Variation_of_Residential_Hou
ses

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 Nur Sahid 1,*, Ainomugisha Safiki2 , and Mochamad Solikin ,2016” Building
Design Variables Usage as a Tool of Value Engineering During Designing”

Shen, S. W. A. Z.(2012). Effects of Roof Pitch on Air Flow and Heating Load of
Sealed and Vented Attics for Gable-Roof Residential Building. Sustainability, 4,
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[Link]

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“Assessment of the Effect of Plan Shapes on Cost of Institutional Buildings in
Nigeria”.2015

APPENDIX

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

In the process of data collection, we have travelled to AMAHORO national stadium

where rehabilitation work is taking place. Because it’s a big project we could find many
companies with a great number of personnel and their corresponding profession. This was
an advantage for us to collect the necessary data from the respondents.

We have collected some important information to guide us in our reporting at the

project entitled “
UPGRADE OF AMAHORO MAIN STADIUM, PETIT STADE AND PARALMPIC
PLAYGROUNDS”.
The following information was collected from a big project that with some variable
related to our research:

58
*Due the matter of the curvature of the structure, the setting of the footings, the columns
and beams and other structure was done by surveying instruments. Therefore, the use of
hand tool couldn’t be cause error that result from the size of the project. Sometimes it can
require an introduction of new technology or other new item depending on the size of the
project as one of the design variable.

*Due to the matter of the height of the building or the depth of the some structures like
pile it requires to bring a concrete pump with a long pipe. casting by hand could not be
possible or could result into segregation. The cost of bringing pump vary differently with
the cost if done by hand.
The concrete to be casted was in large quantity that makes impossible to be done by hand
it need a concrete mixer that could produce a large quantity. The introduction of concrete
mixer could results into increase or decrease of cost.
Due to the fact of being a big project it require to bring the department of [Link]
Company at the site must have the personnel in charge of safety So the act of bringing
other department is also costing the company.

The size of the project require Rwanda housing authority as the procuring entity to hire
GASABO 3D Company in charge of [Link] compared to the residential building,
you may be require more than one supervisors according to the size of the project.

The height of the building can limit the use of hand in raising of some materials at great
height. This can results into the introduction of new equipment to help thework and
sometimes its cost is higher the manual force if possible.

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QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

Dear SIR/Madame,

I am student from IPRC Kigali carrying out research on "Influence of design variability
on construction cost” This research aim at fulfilling my academic requirements for
Advanced Diploma. I will be grad to have you assistance by responding to the question
below to be able to compile effective result about the study topic mentioned above. You
response will be highly treated as confidential and used for academic purpose.

Thank you for you time.

60
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INTERVIEWEES INSTRUCTION

PART ONE: CLOSED QUESTIONS

I. Clearly tick the answer in the circle before the statement where you are
required to do so.

a)Are you male or female?

o male

o Female

How old are you?

o 18-25 Years

o 26-35 Years

o 36-45 Years

o Above 45 Years

1. How do you agree with the following statement “to which extent do the following
statement affected due to design variation ?” please rate you opinion

No Outcome No impact Slight impact Major impact

SCALE VALUE 1 2 3

1 Time
2 Cost
3 Additional specialist
4 Addition of health and safety
equipment
5 Dispute between parties to
contract

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2. Tick the class you belong:

o Building developer(owner) o Authority officer

o Technician o Architect
o Engineer o Others, Specify
o Quantity surveyor
3. How long have you worked in construction industry?

o < 5years
o 5-10 years
o >10 years
4. Among the following regular shapes, what is the most shape residential building
are likely to have in plan.

o Square o Rhombus
o Rectangle o Trapezium
o Triangle o Other and

specify

5. The shape, size and height of the building is dictated by:

o Shape of the plot

o Amount of money available
62
 o Desire of the owner
o Government regulation
o Other and specify
6. Which of the parameters affect the project cost in change of size.

o Shape of the building o Size of the building

o Circulation space within the o Slope of the roof
building
o Others. Please specify
o Height of the building
7. Among the design team, who is likely to influence the best design of the building
to be undertaken ?

o Owner
o Quantity surveyor
o Architect
o Engineer
o Authority officer
o Others. Please specify
8. When the design of the project changes, do all people involved in building team
aware of the change in cost this variation is going to create in accordance to pre-
determined construction cost.
o Yes
o No

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 9. Amon the following types of roof, which one is mostly used in Rwanda :

o Flat roof
o Pitched roof
o Curved roof

PART TWO: OPEN QUESTIONS

Where explanations are required, space has been provided.

1. A) From you understanding and level of experience, what are the most
architectural design variables (parameters) or features one should take into
consideration, which affect construction cost?

B) From the element mentioned above, why do building team need to consider

each design parameter in accordance with the construction cost?

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2. What are challenges faced during the design stage regarding the allocation of
available budget of the building?

3. How can you know the amount of money that is going to increase to the
previously determined cost after modifying you project?

4. What are the factors that influence certain design parameter choice according
to project cost or what are the factors that can limit or allow you to apply a
certain design parameter choice?

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