Review

Applications of prebiotics in food industry: A review

Vinti Singla and S Chakkaravarthi

Abstract
Benefits of prebiotics for stimulating a healthy intestinal tract are well known. From suppression of pathogens
to proliferation of indigenous bacteria of intestines, prebiotics have it all. Since the research on the scope of
prebiotics is expanding, new applications are coming up every day thus upgrading the choices consumer has
for a healthy living. Incorporation of prebiotics in a wide range of products that food industry offers on shelf is
an innovative way to replace fat and sugars along with enhancing the mouthfeel by providing better tongue
lubrication. In some cases, the thermal stability of the product is improved along with other sensory, textural
and physiological benefits. This paper gives an overview of the various prebiotics available from different
sources and their applications in various segments of food industry, notably dairy, beverage, processed fruit-
vegetable, bakery, confectionary, extruded snack, sweetener, infant formula, pet food and livestock industry.
The effects observed on addition of various prebiotics are also elaborated.

Keywords
Prebiotics, fructo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides, inulin, synbiotic, bifidobacteria
Date received: 25 February 2017; accepted: 16 June 2017

of microbes that are selectively stimulated by prebiotics

INTRODUCTION
The current trend shows the buying behavior of con-
sumers, a shift towards functional foods that impact
host health in a positive way. One product in this cat-
egory is ‘Prebiotics’ which are non-digestible carbohy-
drates selectively fermented to stimulate bacteria in the
gut. During their digestion in the body, the upper part
of the digestive tract offers resistance to their break-
down because of lack of suitable microflora. But as
they progress to the gut, the microbiomes present in
that section, break them down and in the process
derive the fuel they need to live. Small carbohydrate
molecules are also released which act as a source of
energy for the neighboring bacteria. In this manner,
the essential gut microflora thrives and keeps our
intestinal cells healthy by supplying them with
compounds which increase the blood flow in these
cells. Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli represent a section
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and benefit the body by creating vitamins, digestive
enzymes, lowering the attachment of pathogens, indu-
cing oral tolerance for dietary allergens and enhancing
the immunity. Prebiotics are also credited with
suppressing the growth of pathogenic microbes notably
Escherichia coli, Campylobacter jejuni and others (Saad
et al., 2013). However, based on recent developments
the strict bifidogenic activity of prebiotics has been
challenged with certain prebiotic substrates able to
stimulate Eubacterium spp., Roseburia spp.,
Coprococcus spp. and some other strains. This indicates
that certain prebiotics are not selective growth sub-
strates (Valcheva and Dieleman, 2016).
Prebiotic fibers are derived from plants such as
Jerusalem artichoke, chicory root (source of inulin),
onions, whole grains, bananas and garlic. By definition
Department of Basic and Applied Sciences, National Institute of
Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, India
Corresponding author:
S Chakkaravarthi, Department of Basic and Applied Sciences,
National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and
Management (NIFTEM), Sector 56, Plot 97, HSIIDC Industrial
Estate, Kundli 131028, Sonepat, Haryana, India.
Email: chakkaravarthi77@gmail.com
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)
not all dietary fibers are considered as prebiotics. Only
those dietary fibers which are soluble in water and
digested by gut bacteria (called soluble dietary fibers)
and those which are insoluble in water but fermentative
in the large intestine like resistant starches fall in this
category. Prebiotics mostly consist of oligosaccharides
but sometimes they also contain polysaccharides
(e.g. inulin) (Saad et al., 2013). Commonly used
prebiotics are fructo-oligosaccharides/oligofructose
(FOS), galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), inulin,
isomalto-oligosaccharide (IMO), beta-glucan and psyl-
lium husk. They contribute significantly to texturizing
properties along with physiological and nutritional
properties. Several prebiotic fibers are notable fat repla-
cers as they reduce friction and also provide tongue
lubrication.
Prebiotic when combined with probiotics form syn-
biotics which supply the body with good bacteria and
also act as a nutrition source for them. Yogurt, kefir,
ymer, cultured buttermilk, cultured cream, filmjolk,
koumiss and others are examples in this category of
foods. Out of these all, yogurt is well known and its
highest consumption is in Mediterranean, Asia and
Central Europe. Also yogurt flavored with vanilla,
honey, coffee essences, etc. is gaining popularity. The
functional properties of prebiotics in these yogurts and
desserts are not limited to provide nutrition for the gut
microflora but also by contributing to texture, mouth-
feel, fiber and sugar replacement. The synbiotic concept
has also been used while modelling ice-creams. The idea
was to take advantage of a stable texture in ice-cream
(owing to the use of prebiotic) (El-Nagar et al., 2002)
along with increased survival of probiotics in the intes-
tines while the product is digested in the body. Different
studies were also conducted to experiment the use of
cheese as a carrier for probiotic strains along with vary-
ing composition of prebiotics. Example petit-suisse
cheese when used as a medium for delivering
Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium animalis
showed higher acceptability when it was incorporated
with FOS and inulin (Cardarelli et al., 2008). Soy-based
synbiotic beverages are also gaining popularity as soy
extracts act as a good substrate for probiotic bacteria.
Soy extracts when mixed with yacon (which contains
prebiotic reserves) further improves the strain delivery
(Santana and Cardoso, 2008).
Researchers have also tried using apple coatings and
waxes as a medium for FOS and inulin, since apples are
widely consumed (Rößle et al., 2010). In the bakery
industry, effects of prebiotics in the product like soft
dough, higher spread, better color, and higher oil reten-
tion were studied. Apart from the nutritional benefits,
bakery industry focuses on improving the texture, rhe-
ology and other technological aspects with most studies
done on biscuits, bread, cakes and muffins. Inulin,
2
a common prebiotic added in bakery products encap-
sulates starch granules and lowers their digestion rate
(Brennan and Samyue, 2004). In chocolates, addition of
prebiotics is associated with altering heat resistance and
for sugar replacement (Wang, 2009). In chocolate
mousse, no change was observed in the sensory of prod-
uct after addition of inulin (Aragon-Alegro et al.,
2007). Among the prebiotic sweetener category, xylitol
is a pentahydroxy sugar alcohol with prebiotic activity
and offers the same sweetness as sucrose. Whereas other
sweeteners like lactitol, sorbitol, erythritol and maltitol
offer 50%, 60%, 70% and 90% sweetness as sucrose,
respectively. In infant formula, the aim of prebiotic
addition is to stimulate the gut microflora similar to
that achieved on feeding mother’s milk. So to mimic
human milk oligosaccharides (HMO), a mixture of
short chain GOS and long chain FOS were used in a
study (Scholtens et al., 2008).
The pet food industry targets on better intestinal
microbiomes and stool quality of pets with prebiotic
addition in their meals. Particularly in older cats, pre-
biotic diet is required as it can fix some of the nitrogen
in the intestines thus reducing the load on kidneys
(Hesta et al., 2005). Whereas the livestock industry
views the prebiotic diet as a means for attaining
weight gain and higher feed conversion ratio in some
animals. In aquatic animals, better zoo technical per-
formance and more growth of turbots were seen on a
diet with FOS (Mahious et al., 2006). Not limited to gut
health in humans and animals, the applications of pre-
biotics spread across new disciplines like nutrigenomics
and metabolomics. Similar to research on the effect of
drugs, in nutrigenomics every small response at the gen-
etic level due to nutrient stimuli (in this case prebiotics)
is monitored. Since an individual is in homeostasis at all
times with a constant chemical balance maintained
between the metabolic reactions, information at
molecular level can be used to cease the changes asso-
ciated with a particular disease (Grajek et al., 2005). In
metabolomics, study of small metabolites in a system is
carried out to identify key ‘biomarkers’ for specific
metabolic pathways. In recent findings, prebiotics
have shown to influence the metabolic activity of gut
microflora in a subtle way (Dewulf et al., 2012).
Since the consumer is health conscious, food is seen
not only as a source of nutrition but also a source of
other functional components. So, it is essential to study
this class of dietary fibres (prebiotics) which can help in
the formulation of a wide variety of functional foods
and nutraceuticals. On addition of prebiotics, it
becomes important to analyze how the overall quality
of the product has changed in terms of various param-
eters be it sensory, texture, rheology, crispiness, shelf
life or other key indices. Apart from the technological
and nutritional parameters, the product should also
 Singla and Chakkaravarthi

DAIRY FOODS
• Yogurt, kefir, ymer, cultured buttermilk, cultured cream, filmjolk,
koumiss, ice-cream, mozzarella cheese, petit-suisse cheese.

BEVERAGES
• Soy-based synbiotic beverages, soy-yacon synbiotic
beverage, japanese alcohol 'sake', miso and soy-sauce.

BAKERY PRODUCTS
• Bread, biscuits, cookies, orange cake,
chocolate cake, muffins.

CHOCOLATES, CONFECTIONERY AND

EXTRUDED PRODUCTS
• Chocolate mousse, milk chocolates, sugar-free
confections, pasta, spaghetti and snack foods.

SWEETENERS
• Sugar alcohols like xylitol, sorbitol, maltitol,
mannitol, erythritol, lactitol, isomalt, hydrogenated
starch hydrolysate.

MEAT INDUSTRY
• .Sausages, meat patties, bologna sausage, hamburgers,
cooked sausages, dry fermented sausages.

PET FOODS AND LIVESTOCK FEED

• Diet for companion animals (dogs, cats, horses) and livestock
(laying hens, broilers, turkey, pigs, calves, rabbit and aquatic
animals).

Figure 1. Applications of prebiotics in food industry.

be evaluated for existing regulatory requirements to
ensure that safety is established (Anadón et al., 2016).
This review paper gives an insight into various applica-
tions and ongoing research in this area. Figure 1 sum-
marizes the applications of prebiotics in food industry
which are discussed in detail in later sections of this
paper.
PREBIOTICS DERIVED FROM PLANT
SOURCES
Food products such as beans, cabbage, brussels
sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables and
whole grains are rich in raffinose (a-D-galactosylsu-
crose) which is a non-digestible oligosaccharide and is
industrially produced from sugar beet molasses
(Sayama et al., 1992). Soybean whey extracted from
soybean on further extraction gives soybean oligosac-
charides. Soybean oligosaccharides are composed of
raffinose (F-Gal-G) and stachyose (F-Gal-Gal) mix-
tures with 3–4 degree of polymerization (Blaut, 2002).
Sucrose extracted from beet after transglycosylation
converts to FOS which again supports the growth of
gut microflora. Coffee manno-oligosaccharides show
prebiotic activity. It mainly consists of three bioactive
compounds mannobiose, mannotriose and mannote-
traose. These are produced when spent coffee grounds
were hydrolyzed at 220  C by the application of high-
pressure steam (Asano et al., 2003). Inulin, the prebiotic
with maximum applications is extracted from chicory
root by enzymatic hydrolysis of plant polysaccharides.
Xylans, which are extracted from cereal grains, on

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Food Science and Technology International 0(0)
enzymatic hydrolysis produce xylo-oligosaccharides.
GOS can be synthesized by using monosaccharides or
disaccharides as a substrate (for e.g. lactose) and
b-galactosidase as the biocatalyst. The reaction which
occurs here for the production of GOS is called
transgalactosylation reaction and can occur only in
the presence of a catalyst (Charalampopoulos and
Rastall, 2009). Pectin extracted from certain fruits can
also impart gut health benefits. For example, kiwifruit
pectin (obtained by re-solubilization with mono-
potassium phosphate) enhanced the adhesion of
Lactobacillus rhamnosus and decreased the adhesion
of Salmonella typhimurium (a pathogenic bacteria) to
Caco-2 cells (Parkar et al., 2010). Similarly apple
pectin produced positive results in promoting the
growth of beneficial gut-bacteria and suppressing
other harmful species (Licht et al., 2010).
Resistant starch forms an important category of
plant-derived prebiotics. It is present as native starch
or a fraction of starch that is not hydrolyzed in human
digestive system because of its crystalline nature and
the ratio of amylose and amylopectin (Englyst et al.,
1992). Resistant starches offer benefits of both soluble
and insoluble dietary fibers. They fall in the category of
fermentable insoluble dietary fibers and are broken
down in the colon by intestinal microflora. They are
classified into four major groups such as RS1, physic-
ally inaccessible to digestion entrapment in a non-
digestible matrix (Haralampu, 2000) RS2, native and
ungelatinized starch granules present in raw banana
and potato; RS3, retrograded starch (Bird et al.,
2009) and RS4 chemically modified starch (Englyst
et al., 1992; Sajilata et al., 2006). They supplement the
food with high fiber and their applications include
baked products (muffins, cakes, cookies and biscuits,
crackers, breads, frozen doughs), cereal foods or
snacks (puffed or sheeted snacks, chips, extruded break-
fast cereals). Resistant starch can be used as flour sub-
stitute in bakery goods. The products so formed are
comparable to that made from conventional wheat
flour in terms of aroma, spread, colour and surface
cracking. Advantages of incorporating resistant
starches in processed foods include, (a) Enhanced
crispiness of cookies, crackers and extruded products,
(b) Decrease in moisture content resulting in higher
shelf life of the snack, (c) Induced reduction in bulk
density resulting in better expansion of extruded
snack, (d) Fat uptake on frying is lowered up to 25%
and sensory characteristics are better and (e) Product is
thermally stable even at temperatures as high as 150  C.
The endosperm of guar seeds is utilized for the pro-
duction of guar gum which acts as a dietary fiber when
partially hydrolyzed by endo-b-mannanase with
molecular weight ranging from 1000 to 100,000
Daltons (McCleary and Matheson, 1983; Yamatoya,
4
1994). Prebiotics such as chitin, hemicellulose, a-glu-
cans, b-glucans, mannans, xylans and galactans can
be derived from mushrooms. These mushroom polysac-
charides were found to have an important role in
immunomodulating and anti-tumour activities.
Though the mode of action of anti-tumor nature of
these polysaccharides is still not clear (Singdevsachan
et al., 2016). With the help of a breeding program, it is
possible to introduce fructan biosynthesis pathways in
certain crops with no harmful effects on plant develop-
ment. Transgenic maize, potato and sugarcane with
high fructan content were bred to produce prebiotic-
rich cultivars. It was emphasized that higher prebiotic
levels along with other micro and macro nutrients in
staple crops can make them nutritionally dense. Such
cultivars can help fight malnutrition in a developing
world (Dwivedi et al., 2014).
PREBIOTICS DERIVED FROM ANIMAL
SOURCES
Cow’s milk is rich in lactose which on isomerization
and transglycosylation forms lactulose and GOS,
respectively. Transglycosylation of lactose and sucrose
results in lactosucrose (a non-digestible oligosacchar-
ide). b-Galactosidases of Lactobacillus reuteri L103
and L461 were found to be suitable bio-catalysts for
converting lactose to GOS. When lactose concentration
of 205 g/L was used at almost 80% lactose conversion
rate, maximum GOS yield was obtained (38%)
(Splechtna et al., 2006). GOS are resistant to digestive
enzymes and are fermented by specific colonic bacteria,
thus showing bifidogenic activity.
PREBIOTICS DERIVED FROM
MICROBIAL SOURCES
Xylo-oligosaccharides were prepared from xylanase
derived from Trichoderma sp. (Fujikawa et al., 1990).
Trichoderma spp. enzyme gave higher yields of xylo-
biose than with enzymes derived from other microbes
such as Humicla spp. and Bacillus pumilus. GOS (b-D-
galactosyllactose) exhibits prebiotic activity and the
commercial production of GOS was established using
b-galactosidase derived from Aspergillus oryzae
(Matsumoto et al., 1989) and Cryptococcus leurentii
OKN-4 (Ohtsuka et al., 1988). FOS, an oligosaccharide
of fructose with single glucose moiety is produced in
general by the action of fructosyl transferase (FTase)
enzyme obtained from many plants and micro-organ-
isms (Hidaka et al., 1988; Yun, 1996). In a recent study,
spent osmotic solution (SOS) obtained after the osmo-
tic dehydration of carrots was subjected to FTase pro-
duced by Aspergillus oryzae MTCC 5154 under
submerged fermentation condition to yield FOS

(a low calorie prebiotic). SOS obtained after the osmo-
tic dehydration of fresh carrots and carrots from pre-
vious cycle, under the action of FTase resulted in FOS
yield of 50.63  0.94 to 57.86  0.18%. Restoring the
solute concentration of SOS produced by osmatic
dehydration process was a major problem. The use of
SOS as a substrate for FOS production was a feasible
solution to this critical problem (Aachary and Prapulla,
2009). In other study at laboratory level, FTase derived
from the native strain Aspergillus spp. N74 was used in
the enzymatic conversion of sucrose solutions. Using
HPLC quantification of FOS and reaction subproducts
was done. Different processing conditions altered the
hydrolytic and transfructosylating activities of the
strain Aspergillus spp. N7. The industrial production
of FOS depends on the transfructosylating and hydro-
lytic activities ratio (UtS UhS1). Best conditions for
FOS production were found to be pH 5.50, temperature
(60  C) and sucrose concentration greater than
50% w/v. Under these conditions, a conversion select-
ivity more than 90%, remnant sucrose around 8%, and
a high FOS yield in the range of 51% to 53% w/w were
obtained. Also the high temperature resistance of
Aspergillus spp., N74 mycelium makes this method an
alternative for semibatch FOS production (Sánchez
et al., 2010).
APPLICATIONS OF PREBIOTICS IN
DAIRY FOODS
The use of inulin as a fat replacer in ice-cream at
increasing levels of 5%, 7% and 9% resulted in
enhanced consistency and stickiness. The sensory pro-
file was smooth because of less grittiness and hardness
(El-Nagar et al., 2002). However, the use of inulin in
full fat ice-cream as a sugar replacer at 10% and 30%
sucrose replacement levels resulted in high consistency
coefficient, pseudoplasticity and apparent viscosity. The
advantage from this addition is higher melting resist-
ance and creaminess of the product. But at the same
time, ice-cream became hard and there was loss of per-
ceived vanilla flavor. On the other hand, the use of FOS
as a sugar replacer in full fat ice-cream at 10% and 30%
sucrose replacement levels had minor effect on the
apparent viscosity and pseudoplasticity. The sensory
in this case showed more intense vanilla profile and
sweet taste (Soukoulis et al., 2010). FOS is also linked
with improving stool frequency and consistency in
adults (Yu et al., 2017). Fiber isolated from orange
seed, pulp and peel was used as a fat replacer in ice
cream. The fiber being rich in soluble fiber, insoluble
fiber and total phenolics allowed for 70% fat reduction
in the product (de Moraes Crizel et al., 2013). Also the
soluble prebiotic fiber will nourish the bacteria of the
colon. Prebiotic fibers in addition to producing bulk
Singla and Chakkaravarthi
also create many health benefits for the body. In
Tanzania, prebiotics were added to plain yogurts to
increase their consumption. These prebiotics masked
the sour taste of yogurt and instead added a sweet pro-
file to the product for enhanced acceptability (Irvine
and Hekmat, 2011). Allgeyer et al. (2010), in their
study on drivers of liking for yogurt concluded that a
more viscous product which has neither a very sour nor
too sweet profile is mostly liked by consumers and such
a combination is possible only by the incorporation of
probiotics and prebiotics in the drink. In synbiotic skim
milk where Lactobacillus were incorporated with pre-
biotics, the doubling time decreased considerably.
Hence it was concluded that the addition of prebiotics
had positive effects on both fermentation times and the
viability of the probiotic strain during storage periods
(Desai et al., 2004).
GOS induce a significant increase in the numbers of
bifidobacteria in the human colon (Davis et al., 2010).
The high solubility of GOS increases its use in dairy
products, e.g. dried buttermilk (Čurda et al., 2006).
One of the major applications is in infant nutrition
where a substitute of breast milk has to stimulate the
bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. Low levels of GOS
(0.24 g/100 ml) will help the breast-fed-like flora to pro-
liferate (Ben et al., 2008; Veereman-Wauters, 2005).
The addition of GOS to yoghurts produced smoother
and creamier consistencies. Also the native microflora
of yogurt is not able to break down this prebiotic and
hence GOS reaches the gut undigested (Sangwan et al.,
2011). In another study on peach flavored drinkable
yogurts containing prebiotics, the sensory profile had
acceptance similar to that of control samples without
prebiotics (Gonzalez et al., 2011). Inulin reduced the
syneresis in yoghurts and provided better texture and
mouthfeel (Aryana et al., 2007).
Inulin and FOS are two well-known prebiotics,
therefore in a study they were incorporated in cheese
samples to find the effects. Synbiotic petit-suisse cheese
turned out to be an effective carrier for these prebiotics.
When supplemented with an equal proportion of inulin
and FOS, the resultant petit-suisse cheese showed good
sensory acceptance, high fructan contents and good
viable counts of Lactobacillus acidophilus and
Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis (Cardarelli
et al., 2008). Due to increasing cases of hypertension
and obesity, processed cheeses are reformulated by
prebiotic addition to enhance the health benefits by
reducing the sodium and fat contents. Prebiotic com-
ponents also exert positive effect on final texture, fiber
content and sensory acceptance of the product. Use of
pectin gel as a fat replacer resulted in lower fat globules
and better mouthfeel, however, the chewiness and gum-
miness remained same. When lecithin was used as a fat
replacer, the texture of the processed cheese was
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Food Science and Technology International 0(0)
Table 1. Effects of prebiotics on cheese properties.
Prebiotic
incorporated Component under study
FOS and inulin Free fatty acid profile of
(50:50) product (particularly conju-
gated linoleic acid).
Agavin Physicochemical and textural
properties of functional
skim mozzarella cheese
were analyzed.
Inulin and FOS Sensory and technological
(50:50) functional features of syn-
biotic petit-suisse cheese.
Pectin gel Textural properties and as a
fat replacer.
Lecithin Sensory parameters and as
a fat replacer.
FOS: fructo-oligosaccharides.
improved and acceptance scores were higher (Ferrão
et al., 2016). Applications of prebiotics in different
cheese products and the effects observed on their add-
ition are summarized in Table 1.
APPLICATIONS OF PREBIOTICS IN
BEVERAGES
Functional properties served by prebiotics in beverage
and drinks include sugar replacement, foam stabiliza-
tion and mouthfeel. Broken cashew nut kernels having
low market value were utilized to successfully make a
beverage product along with 14% FOS and 33% pas-
sion fruit juice. The resulting beverage had satisfactory
acceptability and also met the criteria of bifidogenic
action. The functional beverage formulated here com-
bined the prebiotic activity of FOS with sensory prop-
erties of passion fruit juice and nutritional properties
of cashew nut kernels. This beverage can add to the
profits of cashew processing industry by utilizing the
broken cashew nut kernels (Rebouças et al., 2014).
Soy based synbiotic beverages offer new area of
research. Evangelista et al. (2012), formulated a syn-
biotic beverage made of soy hydrosoluble extract,
FOS (as prebiotic) and Bifidobaterium longum,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus paracasei sub-
species (as probiotic bacteria). Here soy acts as a good
substrate for the growth of probiotic microorganisms
and an optimum concentration of 10% soy (w/v) can
be used with ease for the production of fermented
beverage. At the start of the fermentation, FOS
6
Effects References
The amount of linoleic acid in cheese (Rodrigues et al.,
increased during the ripening period. 2012)
Minimum fiber of 9.28% resulted in high (Myrna et al.,
moisture retention and protein content. 2013)
No difference in the sensory profile was
observed but the hardness and firm-
ness of the cheese increased.
After a storage period of 28 days, petit- (Cardarelli et al.,
suisse cheese with FOS and/or inulin 2008)
showed highest acceptability. It had
higher fructan content and good viable
counts of Lactobacillus acidophilus and
Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis
Reduced fat globules and better texture (Liu et al.,
and mouthfeel. 2008)
Improved texture and higher acceptance (Drake et al.,
scores. 1999)
should be added in appropriate amount (such that
FOS and soy substrate are enough to stimulate the
probiotic bacteria). FOS is also acting as sugar
(sucrose) replacer in the beverage and higher quanti-
ties of sucrose in beverage indicate less FOS addition.
In another study, sweet potato-like yacon was used in
combination with soy extracts to formulate a beverage
that would act as a vehicle for the delivery of pro-
biotic strain of bifidobacterium. Yacon, unlike most
tuberous species does not store carbohydrates in the
form of starch but rather contains reserves of FOS
which show bifidogenic activity (Santana and
Cardoso, 2008). Along with providing a sugar-free
and low-calorie food source (1482.2 kJ kg1), this
synbiotic beverage was also acceptable for sensory
parameters (Manzoni et al., 2012).
GOS is used in beverages because it forms clear solu-
tions and does not alter the viscosity of the product.
Further it can sustain high processing temperatures
and is also stable under low pH conditions. Its low gly-
cemic index makes it appropriate for patients suffering
diabetes or cardiovascular disease. GOS is metabolized
to produce short chain fatty acids which lower the chol-
esterol and serum lipid levels. These fatty acids also
enhance the mineral absorption and lower the chances
of having leukemia (Sangwan et al., 2011). GOS also
binds to the bacterial receptors and hence prevents
their attachment with the colon epithelium tissue.
Thus, it also shows anti-pathogenic activity along
with numerous other health promoting effects
(Newburg et al., 2005).

Traditional Japanese alcohol ‘sake’, miso and soy
sauce contain IMO as an important ingredient. All
three are commercially synthesized from corn starch
using a-amylase, pullulanase and a-glucosidase.
Isomalto-900, a commercial product consists mainly
of isomaltose, panose and 600 -a-glucosylmaltotriose.
It also has maltose, maltotriose and glucose in small
proportions. Isomaltose is a disaccharide with
a-(1, 6)-linkage while panose is a trisaccharide with
a-(1, 6)-linkage and a-(1, 4)-linkage between glucose
units. IMO has lesser digestibility than maltose inside
the body (Fukami, 2010). A mixture of IMO and glu-
cose can stimulate Lactobacillus plantarum, which is a
probiotic strain able to produce conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA). CLA has important role in preventing cardio-
vascular diseases, high cholesterol levels, and many
cancers. However, in the same study, it was found
that gentio-oligosaccharides are not readily metabo-
lized by Lactobacillus plantarum (Soto, 2013).
APPLICATIONS OF PREBIOTICS
IN PROCESSED FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
Prebiotics have been incorporated in edible coatings of
apples which reduced the loss of bioactive and volatile
compounds from apples. The alginate coating which
was a carrier for FOS and inulin enhanced the nutri-
tional benefits and shelf life of freshly cut apple wedges
(Rößle et al., 2010). These coatings not only reduce the
water loss but also delay the senescence by being select-
ively permeable to gases. New edible coatings which are
coming up for fresh and minimally processed fruits
have been designed to act as a carrier for prebiotics,
nutraceuticals and other bioactive compounds by
using novel techniques such as nanoencapsulation and
layer-by-layer assembly (Vargas et al., 2008).
APPLICATIONS IN PROCESSED
CEREAL FOODS
Foods available for weaning infants are low in dietary
fibers. Therefore, addition of prebiotics such as FOS
will provide a good source of soluble dietary fibers.
Though the effects of prebiotic oligosaccharides in
cereal and weaning foods have been less studied, a ran-
domized double-blind trial conducted to find the effects
of FOS-supplemented infant foods concluded that FOS
consumption led to softer and regular stools.
Constipation or days without stool is a frequently
reported problem in infants. This pediatric study
found that mean intake of 0.74  0.39 g FOS/day in
cereals changed stool consistency. FOS addition to cer-
eals was tolerated up to doses as high as 3.00 g FOS/day
(Moore et al., 2003).
Singla and Chakkaravarthi
APPLICATIONS OF PREBIOTICS IN
BAKERY PRODUCTS
In bakery products, prebiotics can act as fat and sugar
replacer. Fat is essential in bakery products for high
loaf volume, soft texture and delayed bread staling.
But due to the ill-effects of trans-fat and bakery short-
enings, their consumption is discouraged. So the role of
prebiotics as a fat-replacer in bakery products becomes
crucial. As a sugar replacer, prebiotics performed well
with no aftertaste in the sensory of the product and
higher laxative effects. Another advantage associated
with the incorporation of prebiotics in bakery foods is
that they help in lowering down the rate of digestion of
starch granules inside the body. This occurs because
starch granules are encapsulated by prebiotics (such
as inulin) and not available for digestion (Brennan
and Samyue, 2004). The effects observed on addition
of prebiotics in various bakery products such as bread,
biscuits and cakes are given in Table 2. The addition of
beta-glucan (a prebiotic with high-affinity for water) in
bread resulted in underdevelopment of gluten network
and less steam production during baking (Gill et al.,
2002). However, inulin addition to bread had effects
on volatile and lipid-oxidative compounds during
baking. Inulin also affected the colour of white bread
by enhancing the maillard reaction (O’brien et al., 2003;
Poinot et al., 2010; Stojceska and Ainsworth, 2008;
Wang et al., 2002). Wheat and oat bran in biscuits
increased the water absorption because of more
H-bonding owing to the presence of hydroxyl groups
in their structure (Rosell et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2002).
In a study, FOS was added as a prebiotic sugar replacer
in biscuits to enhance the laxative effects of the product.
FOS addition did not alter the original characteristics/
sensory of the biscuits (De Bondt, 2006). However, the
addition of buckwheat flour to biscuits resulted in
lower spread ratio and poor sensory profile of the prod-
uct at higher levels of buckwheat flour (Badifu and
Akubor, 2001; Baljeet et al., 2010; Padma and
Prabhasankar, 2013). When yacon and inulin were
used in chocolate cake as wheat-flour replacer, desired
results were achieved in terms of hardness, cohesiveness
and specific volume of the cake (Moscatto et al., 2006).
Though, addition of inulin and FOS in orange cake led
to more dough beigeness, crust brownness and sticki-
ness (Volpini-Rapina et al., 2012).
APPLICATIONS IN CONFECTIONARY
AND EXTRUDED SNACK PRODUCTS
Prebiotics influenced the functional and nutritional
properties of the extruded products. E.g. barley when
added to pasta improved the cooking quality and the
bioactive compounds notably beta-glucan (Marconi
7
8
Table 2. Effects observed on addition of prebiotics in bakery products.

Bakery product Prebiotic material

used added Property of the prebiotic Effects observed References

Bread Beta-glucan High affinity for water. Resulted in underdeveloped gluten network (Gill et al., 2002)
and less steam production during baking.
Subsequently a firm bread with lower loaf
volume was produced.
Bread Inulin Low degree of polymerization Effect on volatile, fermentative and lipid oxi- (O’brien et al., 2003; Poinot
in inulin led to low water dative compounds in baking. In white et al., 2010; Stojceska and
absorption. bread it enhanced the Maillard reaction. Ainsworth, 2008; Wang
Dough development time increased et al., 2002)
because of inulin of higher degree of
polymerization.
Biscuit Wheat bran, oat Higher number of hydroxyl Water absorption values increased and (Rosell et al., 2001; Wang
bran, corn bran, groups in the structure of extensibility of the dough decreased with et al., 2002)
barley bran fiber allows more H- higher levels of bran.
bonding.
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)

Biscuit FOS Natural sugar replacer, no Less sugar content in the biscuit. This (De Bondt, 2006)
aftertaste, laxative effect. healthy biscuit did not alter the sensory
characteristics of the original product.
Biscuit FOS, isomalt, Greater dextrose equivalents Sugar content reduced to zero, softer dough, (De Bondt, 2006)
Acesulphame K (DE) as compared to higher spread, more color formation.
sucrose.
Biscuit Buckwheat flour Low water absorption cap- Spread ratio decreased. Weight increased (Badifu and Akubor, 2001;
acity, high oil absorption because of higher retention of oil by buck Baljeet et al., 2010; Padma
capacity. wheat. Poor sensory profile at higher and Prabhasankar, 2013)
levels of buck wheat. An optimized limit of
20% produced best results in terms of
nutrient and sensory.
Biscuit Inulin and resistant Starch replacer. Low viscosity of the final formulation with (Padma and Prabhasankar,
starch higher levels of resistant starch. 2013)
Biscuit Potato fiber High water holding capacity. Viscosity increased because of the formation (Padma and Prabhasankar,
of a networked gel. 2013)
Chocolate cake Inulin and yacon Wheat flour replacer. 20% yacon and no inulin gave optimized (Moscatto et al., 2006)
meal result with desired hardness, cohesive-
ness and specific volume.
Orange cake Inulin and FOS (Volpini-Rapina et al., 2012)
FOS: fructo-oligosaccharides.

et al., 2000). The use of unripe banana flour which is
high in resistant starch resulted in increased adhesive-
ness and water absorption of the product. However,
there were high cooking losses and the spaghetti
produced had a smaller diameter (Agama-Acevedo
et al., 2009).
In chocolates, prebiotics are used to modify the heat
resistance of the product and to act as a sugar replacer
(Wang, 2009). Due to the changing lifestyles, con-
sumers are demanding sugar-free confections with
health benefits. In a study, inulin, polydextrose and
maltodextrin were used instead of sugar and the low-
calorie milk chocolate formed had desirable textural
and physiological properties (Farzanmehr and
Abbasi, 2009). In another study, chocolate mousse
was used a medium for delivery of Lactobacillus para-
casei. Inulin was also added to the mousse to increase
the bifidogenic activity. The results confirmed that both
the probiotic and prebiotic ingredient had no effect in
altering the sensory properties of the desired product
(Aragon-Alegro et al., 2007).
PREBIOTIC SWEETENERS
Xylitol, a pentahydroxy sugar alcohol present in various
fruits and vegetables is a functional sweetener with pre-
biotic activity. It can reduce blood glucose, triglyceride,
and cholesterol level and is good for dental health.
Agricultural biomass on chemical and enzymatic
hydrolysis can be used to synthesize xylose which acts
as a precursor for xylitol (Ur-Rehman et al., 2015). Most
sugar alcohols fall in the category of ‘low-digestible
carbohydrates’ and are known to provide less calories
than conventional sugar sources. Table 3 summarizes
the calorific value, structures and applications of some
commonly used sugar alcohols. Though prebiotic sweet-
eners have therapeutic effects, they can also cause digest-
ive stress by producing gas during fermentation by
intestinal microflora. In a study to examine the effects
of xylitol on the intestinal microflora of mice, it was
found that the metabolic activity of colonic microbiomes
and resultant effect on metabolism of isoflavonoids were
altered (Tamura et al., 2013). In humans, the effect of
xylitol supplementation was more profound than mice
because the stimulation of colonic microflora occurred
from a single oral dose of 30 g xylitol (Salminen et al.,
1985). Apart from their prebiotic effects, sugar alcohols
have also been studied for bone and skin health in ani-
mals. Dietary xylitol supplementation preserved bone
mineral density and prevented osteoporosis in strepto-
zotocin-diabetic rats. Long-term supplementation of
xylitol increased the collagen synthesis in the skin of
aged rats (Mattila et al., 2005).
In laboratory trials, it has been found that lactitol
stimulates the growth of bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli,
Singla and Chakkaravarthi
thereby improving the condition of the colon
(Makelainen et al., 2010). So, this sugar replacer is
sometimes highlighted for its therapeutic properties.
Unlike other sugar alcohols, isomalt produces minimal
cooling effect or minty flavor in mouth (Godshall,
2016). FOS is sweet in taste and hence used in a variety
of sugar-free products. With 50% sweetness relative to
sucrose, FOS maintains healthy gastrointestinal tract
and enhances dietary absorption of calcium
(Macfarlane et al., 2006). Since they cannot be broken
down in the stomach or gut, they do not contribute to
any calorie intake.
PREBIOTICS IN INFANT FORMULAS
Infant formulas have to provide nutrition similar to
mother’s milk and thereby should contain such com-
pounds that mimic HMO (Martin et al., 2016). A mix-
ture of short chain GOS and long-chain FOS when used
as an alternative to HMO resulted in intestinal microbial
stimulation comparable to that from mother’s milk
(Scholtens et al., 2008). On transgalactosylation of lac-
tose using b-galactosidases as a catalyst, GOS are
formed which show prebiotic activity (Sako et al.,
1999). Depending on their structure, GOS and other
lactose-derived oligosaccharides show potent biological
activities such as immunomodulation binding to glycan-
binding proteins of pathogens or glycan-binding
domains of bacterial adhesins and toxins (Chen and
Gänzle, 2017). For the production of FOS, sucrose is
used as a substrate with mixed enzyme system of
b-fructofuranosidase and glucose oxidase (Yun et al.,
1994). Alternatively, FOS can be produced by using
sucrose as the substrate with enzyme Levansucrase
(derived from Bacillus subtilis C4). In this reaction,
both FOS and levans are formed with a degree of poly-
merization less than 50 (Euzenat et al., 1997). A study
done to quantify the prebiotic oligosaccharides in com-
mercial infant formulas using chromatographic tech-
niques such as GC-FID and HPLC-RID found FOS,
GOS and GOS/FOS in the range of 1.6–5.0, 1.7–3.2,
and 0.08–0.25/2.3–3.8 g/100 g product, respectively,
which were consistent with the range mentioned on the
labels of these packaged formulas (Sabater et al., 2016).
PREBIOTICS IN MEAT INDUSTRY
In the meat industry, three strategies are used to
achieve healthier meat and meat derivatives – these
are linked with animal production, raw material hand-
ling and reformulating meat derivatives. Raising
healthy livestock for better meat production is dis-
cussed in a later section of this review paper. In raw
material manipulation stage, internal and external fat is
trimmed from the carcass. However, this fat trimming
9
10
Table 3. Applications of prebiotic sweeteners in food industry.

Sweetness relative
Sugar alcohols Method of production to sucrose Applications in food industry Structure

Sorbitol Hydrogenation of dextrose (glu- 60% (2.6 calories Candies, flavored jam and jelly
cose) derived from corn starch. per gm) spreads, bakery goods and
baking mixes, chewing gums and
cough drops.

Mannitol Fructose derived from sucrose is 60% (1.6 calories Candies, flavored jam and jelly
hydrogenated to synthesize per gm) spreads, confections and frost-
mannitol. ings, chewing gum and cough
drops.
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)

Xylitol Xylan extracted from birch wood is Same sweetness Sugar-free chewing gums, candies
hydrogenated and then detoxi- as sucrose. and vitamin gummies.
fied to obtain xylitol.

Maltitol Maltitol is manufactured by fer- 90% (2.1 calories Candies, jams, jellies, baked goods,
menting corn sugar. per gm) baking mixes, chewing gums,
cough drops, frostings and
confections.

Erythritol Made by fermenting corn sugar. 70% (two-tenths of Confectionery and bakery products,
a calorie per chewing gums and certain
gm) beverages.

(continued)
 Table 3. Continued

Sweetness relative
Sugar alcohols Method of production to sucrose Applications in food industry Structure

Lactitol Synthesized by hydrogenating Slightly less than Lactitol is used with artificial sweet-
lactose. 50% (2 calories eners. It is added to frozen dairy
per gm) dessert, candies, chocolate con-
fections and preserves.

Isomalt Synthesized in a two-stage process.
Isomaltulose obtained from
sugar (in the first stage) is
hydrogenated to obtain isomalt in
second stage.
50% (2 calories per Chocolates, confectionaries, ice
gm) cream, jams and preserves,
bakery products, fillings and fon-
dants, chewing gums and cough
drops.

Hydrogenated Initially starch is partially hydrolyzed 20–50% (calorific Blended with artificial and caloric
starch to obtain dextrins. These dextrins value depends sweeteners. Added to candies,
hydrolysate are then hydrogenated to obtain on composition) chocolates, jams, preserves,
sugar alcohols. baked goods and fillings.

11
Singla and Chakkaravarthi
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)

may not be economically feasible and reduce the yield
of the meat cut. So, the best stage to modify the com-
position of meat products is the preparation stage. At
this stage, either the fat, saturated fatty acids, salts, etc.
that are present in large quantities are reduced to lower
levels or functional ingredients such as prebiotics, anti-
oxidants, vegetable proteins, etc. are added. Functional
ingredients such as prebiotics (dietary fibers) not only
exert physiological benefits but also improve the
technological parameters. Dietary fibers from oats,
soy, sugar beet, fruits such as apple were incorporated
in meat sausages and patties. Similarly inulin was used
in sausages and cooked ham (Jiménez-Colmenero et al.,
2001). When soy fiber was used along with plasma pro-
tein in bologna sausage, harder and chewier structure
was obtained. Fat and water binding properties also
improved, however, there was higher weight loss and
poor textural properties (Cofrades et al., 2000). In
another study, texture modifying agents such as dietary
fibers, starches and polydextrose were added to ham-
burgers. The result was a significant reduction (20–
40%) in cooking losses and texture similar to 20% fat
control sample. Though the beef flavor intensity was
reduced slightly due to the addition of these ingredients,
there was no statistical difference in flavor scores when
compared to 20 and 30% fat patties (Troutt et al.,
1992). Addition of short chain FOS to cooked sausages
did not affect the weight loss or water activity because a
compact gel was formed by soluble dietary fibers.
The energy of the reformulated samples reduced by
92 kcal/100 g and the sensory acceptability was also
better. On the other hand, inulin supplementation
(7.5 and 12.5%) to low-fat, dry fermented sausages
resulted in a soft textured product with tenderness
and springiness very close to conventional sausages.
Calories from the fermented sausage were significantly
reduced on 10% inulin addition (Fernández-Ginés
et al., 2005). In totality, it can be said that more
research is needed to select these functional ingredients,
choose their mode of incorporation and optimize the
final structure and properties.
PREBIOTICS IN PET FOOD INDUSTRY
Inulin, FOS in pet foods can come from a variety of
sources like peanut hulls, barley and by-products of
wheat. Prebiotics in animal feed serve the objective
of improving gut microbiomes and stool quality. In
western countries, pet animals suffer from obesity, car-
diovascular diseases, kidney diseases and cancers
because of unhealthy food which their owners feed them.
Table 4 summarizes some of the common prebiotics
fed to various companion animals for lowering health
disorders. Other advantages of inclusion of prebiotics
in the diet of dogs are reduced nitrogen burden on the
kidneys because more nitrogen is being fixed by the
microbes in the intestine due to higher fermentations
(Howard et al., 2000). Addition of 1.5% FOS in
dog’s feed reduces the chances of cancers by preventing
the proliferation of colonocytes which have higher
exposure to carcinogenic compounds in the lumen
(Howard et al., 1999). Specific incorporation of lactu-
lose in dog’s feed is beneficial for liver patients as it
increases the excretion of nitrogen in faeces by reducing
the absorption of ammonia in the intestinal tract
(Beynen et al., 2001; McQuaid, 2005). In cats, the defe-
cation frequency increased to 1.6 per day by raising the
FOS/inulin supplementation in the feed up to 9%

Table 4. Effects observed in companion animals when prebiotics were used as a part of feed.

Companion Prebiotic used in

animal feed Effects observed Reference

Dogs FOS/lactulose pH in the intestine is lowered by the pro- (Beynen et al., 2001,
duction of SCFA. Due to this solubility and 2002)
absorption of calcium and magnesium is
increased.
Cats FOS Faecal counts of beneficial bacteria like lac- (Sparkes et al., 1998)
tobacilli and Bacteroides spp. increased
while counts of harmful bacteria like
Escherichia coli and Clostridium perfrin-
gens decreased.
Horses Fructans (10 g/kg Fructan overload leads to higher cecal lac- (Milinovich et al., 2006;
bodyweight) tate production which reduces the pH in Pollitt, 2004)
the hindgut, thus creating a dominance of
Gram positive bacteria in the gut. This
leads to the onset of Hoof laminitis.
FOS: fructo-oligosaccharides.

12
 Singla and Chakkaravarthi

(Diez et al., 1997). Prebiotic diet is especially required
in older cats with renal insufficiency where the load on
kidneys could be reduced by nitrogen fixation (by gut
bacteria) in the intestines so that it comes out in the
faeces (Hesta et al., 2005). In horses, hindgut bacteria
are critical for the onset of carbohydrate-induced Hoof
laminitis. This condition makes the animal lame and
often leads to euthanasia (Al Jassim et al., 2005).
PREBIOTIC DIET IN LIVESTOCK
INDUSTRY
Livestock owners want maximum weight gain in the
animal with limited feed, owing to higher feed conver-
sion ratio and thus creating profits. Reduced morbidity
and well-being of the animal are also important for the
success of this industry. Since European Union has
banned the use of anti-microbial growth promoters,
the incorporation of prebiotics in the feed has come
up as a potential alternative.
Table 5 gives a brief insight on the effects of various
prebiotics studied with aquaculture, meat and poultry
animals. Microbial ecology found in the intestine of fish
is very different from that found in warm-blooded ani-
mals. This opens up a broad spectrum for experimen-
tation with different prebiotics. Like the effects of
feeding fructans to herbivorous sturgeon, omnivorous
catfish, and carnivorous salmon could be determined.
Studies indicate that better zootechnical performance
emanated from feeding prebiotics to aquatic animals.
In piglets feeding a diet rich in prebiotics like inulin,
sugar beet pulp, native wheat starch and lactulose
resulted in lower protein fermentation and reduced
ammonia in faeces (Awati et al., 2006). Also an inulin
based diet reduced the parasites (Oesophagostomum
dentatum and Trichuris suis) and increased the bifido-
bacteria count in the faeces of pigs (Mølbak et al., 2005;
Petkevicius et al., 2003). One important application of
inulin or FOS in the diet of male pigs is to achieve
reduced meaty odour. Due to this odour, male pigs
had to be emasculated before they reach sexual matur-
ity (Lanthier et al., 2006; Xu et al., 2002). Among poul-
try animals, broilers are expected to gain more weight
when they consume a prebiotic diet. This can be attrib-
uted to higher absorptions taking place in the intestine.
Also the lactobacilli count in GIT increased which indi-
cates a healthy colon (Yusrizal and Chen, 2003). Laying
hens when fed with fructans had an elongation of small
intestine and colon, higher serum calcium levels and
lower cholesterol concentration in the yolk (Chen and
Chen, 2004; Chen et al., 2005a, 2005b). In Turkeys, the
effects of FOS in the diet was more profound. Fructan
and inulin supplementation rather did not affect the
performance indices. In calves, rumen is not well devel-
oped as long as they are milk fed. Also the intestinal
infections are a big problem. To prevent these infec-
tions, a diet based on fructans could be given to the
young ones. Inulin and oligofructose diets result in
higher weight gain in calves (Verdonk et al., 2005).
Meat rabbits suffer from digestive disorders due to
unstable microflora in cecum, resulting in decreased
growth and high morbidity. A diet consisting of 4%
inulin not only increased the feed conversion but also
lowered the morbidity (Volek et al., 2004).

Table 5. Effects of prebiotic diet in livestock.

Livestock Prebiotic diet Effects observed References

Aquaculture FOS Increase in growth of weaning turbot (carnivor- (Mahious et al., 2006)
ous species).
Pigs Inulin More pigs had bifidobacteria present in their (Loh et al., 2006)
faeces.
Broilers Fructans May lead to higher weight gain, feed conversion (Yusrizal and Chen,
ratio resulting in more carcass weight. 2003; Van Leeuwen
et al., 2005)
Laying hens Fructan Higher calcium absorption leading to enhanced (Chen and Chen, 2004)
egg-shell strength.
Turkey Fructan (2%) Higher production of SCFA (particularly butyric (Juskiewicz et al., 2005)
acid) in the cecum.
Calves Inulin and FOS More daily weight gain and higher feed con- (Verdonk et al., 2005)
version ratio in calves.
Rabbit FOS Clinical signs were less in rabbits infused (Morisse et al., 1993)
with Escherichia coli O103 when their diet
contained the prebiotic FOS.
FOS: fructo-oligosaccharides.

13
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)
NUTRIGENOMICS
Based on the concept of nutrition affecting metabolic
pathways and homeostatic control, this diet–gene rela-
tionship is disturbed by nutrition-associated diseases.
The extent to which these diseases can affect an indi-
vidual varies with their genotype (Muller and Kersten,
2003). To cure these diseases, effective diet has to be
given and the response from this nutrient stimulus has
to be monitored (Grajek et al., 2005). Acute gastro-
enteritis which is a problem in infants and a prevalent
cause for morbidity and mortality in developing coun-
tries can be actively treated by some selected strains of
probiotics, however, the studies with prebiotics are lim-
ited in this area (Vandenplas, 2016). Their use in differ-
ent clinical settings such as prevention of anti-biotic
induced diarrhoea, in liver disease (steatosis and min-
imum encephalopathy) and reduction of the occurrence
of necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm new-borns has
been studied but the final recommendations cannot be
made without thorough research backing it (Olveira
and González-Molero, 2016). Inflammatory bowel
diseases like ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease
occur from genetically-determined susceptibility on
interaction with external factors such as intestinal
microflora and diet (Ferguson, 2013). Prebiotics can
help in restoring the indigenous gut microflora notably
Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species. Though the
therapeutic trials in this area are limited, researchers
believe that prebiotics, probiotics or synbiotics when
combined with anti-inflammatory and immunosuppres-
sive drugs can treat inflammatory bowel diseases
(Sartor, 2004).
METABOLOMICS
After genomics, proteomics and transcriptomics; meta-
bolomics is a newly coined term. It includes the study of
metabolites in a system (Cevallos-Cevallos et al., 2009).
Particularly in food science, this study is not only lim-
ited to metabolites but also includes chemical residues
that may enter the value addition chain during process-
ing. Metabolomics is studied for setting up of ‘bio-
markers’ which would indicate an imbalance in a
more specified metabolic pathway by making use of
fingerprinting or metabolite profiling. Bioactive com-
pounds present in food matrix can help in carrying
out a more informative metabolomic analysis
(Cevallos-Cevallos and Reyes-De-Corcuera, 2012). In
food samples, a prior knowledge of metabolites is
required to examine their responses under varied con-
ditions. Example, a prior knowledge of the relationship
between some target volatile metabolites and growth
of pathogens like Escherichia coli O157:H7 and
Salmonella spp. helped in predicting the presence
14
of these pathogens in meat samples based on the ana-
lyses of volatile metabolites (Cevallos-Cevallos et al.,
2011). In reference to applications of prebiotics in this
domain, various studies have been conducted. In a
recent study to check the effect of in vitro fermentation
of prebiotic flours, it was found that the gut micro-
biomes and their metabolic activity were positively
modulated with this prebiotic stimuli (Maccaferri
et al., 2012). In another study, utilizing PCR techniques
with metabolic profiling inferred similarity between
high mass arabino-oligosaccharides and FOS, thus pro-
posing new potential prebiotic for future research
(Sulek et al., 2014). A study conducted to explore
the effects of inulin-type fructans in obese women con-
cluded that though significant metabolomic profile
clustering was not observed, still there were subtle
changes in intestinal microflora which were associated
with variations in fat mass, serum lipopolysaccharide
levels and metabolism (Dewulf et al., 2012). Butyrate
(nutrition source of enterocytes) was produced in
higher quantities in the gut of apple pectin fed rats.
Butyrate and mucopolysaccharide hydrolysing enzyme
b-glucuronidase is produced by Clostridiales spp, whose
population was more in rats that consumed 7% apple
pectin diet. Also these rats had reduced numbers of
specific species within the Bacteroidetes group (Licht
et al., 2010). Metabolic activity of gut microflora can
be varied by feeding different prebiotics, thus metabo-
lomics has potential for future research and enhanced
applications.
CONCLUSION
Since prebiotics are used extensively in various food
applications there is scope for novel discoveries.
Synbiotic formulation is an area which is not fully
explored and various combinations of probiotics and
prebiotics can be tried for varying degree of therapeutic
effects. The effect of such formulations at the genetic
level called nutrigenomics will provide better under-
standing how different individuals respond to nutrients.
This diet–gene relationship is of significance in control-
ling inflammatory bowel disease including ulcerative
colitis and Crohn’s disease. Apart from the inflamma-
tory diseases, effect of prebiotics on other systems of
the body like modulation of immune responses also
paves the way to an interesting research area. Novel
prebiotics and their effect on textural, rheological, sen-
sory and nutritional profiling of nutraceuticals need to
be done extensively for higher prebiotic usage in food
industry. Also the mode by which prebiotics are deliv-
ered via food affects their adequacy and should be
reviewed while exploring different applications. The
stage is set for higher commercialization of prebiotic
foods to attract the health conscious consumers,

so the industries need to tap the potential of this nutra-
ceutical segment. Future research can also focus on
addition of prebiotics in meal replacement shakes and
energy bars to increase the health component asso-
ciated with them. Marine feed is another area where
prebiotic studies can be done since a vast majority of
population consumes aquatic foods. Developing food
supplements and nutraceuticals from mushrooms to
impart prebiotic effects and medicinal advantages
such as immunomodulation and anti-tumor effects
require extensive studies. Designing functional meat
and functional fermented meat products needs scientific
base and initiates a new challenging market. With more
research coming up in this area of functional foods,
new prospects are opened for the food industry to
raise the health component of their offerings.
DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
FUNDING
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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