Schools of Islamic Theology - Wikipedia

Schools of Islamic
theology
Schools of Islamic theology are various

Islamic schools and branches in different
schools of thought regarding ʿaqīdah
(creed). The main schools of Islamic
Theology include the extant Ashʿarī,
Māturīdī, and Aṯharī; the extinct ones
include Qadariyah, Jahmiyya, Murji'ah,
Muʿtazila, Batiniyya,.
The Meeting of the Theologians, Persian
painting by Abd Allah Musawwir (mid-16th
century), Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.
The main schism between Sunnī, Shīʿa,

and Kharijite branches of Islam was
initially more political than theological, but
over time theological differences have
developed throughout the history of
Islam.[1]
Divinity schools in Islamic
theology
According to the Encyclopaedia of the

Qurʾān (2006), "The Qurʾān displays a wide
range of theological topics related to the
religious thought of late antiquity and
through its prophet Muḥammad presents a
coherent vision of the creator, the cosmos
and man. The main issues of Muslim
theological dispute prove to be hidden
under the wording of the qurʾānic
message, which is closely tied to
Muḥammad's biography".[2] However,
modern historians and scholars of Islamic
studies recognize that some instances of
theological thought were already
developed among polytheistic Pagans in
pre-Islamic Arabia, such as the belief in
fatalism (ḳadar), which reoccurs in Islamic
theology regarding the metaphysical
debates on the attributes of God in Islam,
predestination, and human free-will.[3][4]
The original schism between Kharijites,

Sunnīs, and Shīʿas among Muslims was
disputed over the political and religious
succession to the guidance of the Muslim
community (Ummah) after the death of the
Islamic prophet Muhammad.[1] From their
essentially political position, the Kharijites
developed extreme doctrines that set them
apart from both mainstream Sunnī and
Shīʿa Muslims.[1] Shīʿas believe ʿAlī ibn Abī
Ṭālib is the true successor to Muhammad,
while Sunnīs consider Abu Bakr to hold
that position. The Kharijites broke away
from both the Shīʿas and the Sunnīs during
the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil
War);[1] they were particularly noted for
adopting a radical approach to takfīr
(excommunication), whereby they
declared both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims to
be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims
(munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed them
worthy of death for their perceived
apostasy (ridda).[1]
ʿAqīdah is an Islamic term meaning "creed"

or "belief".[5] Any religious belief system, or
creed, can be considered an example of
ʿaqīdah. However, this term has taken a
significant technical usage in Muslim
history and theology, denoting those
matters over which Muslims hold
conviction. The term is usually translated
as "theology". Such traditions are divisions
orthogonal to sectarian divisions within
Islam, and a Muʿtazilite may, for example,
belong to the Jaʿfari, Zaydī, or even Ḥanafī
schools of Islamic jurisprudence.
In the history of Islam, one of the earliest
systematic schools of Islamic theology to
develop were the Muʿtazila in the mid-8th
century CE.[3][6] Muʿtazilite theologians
emphasized the use of reason and rational
thought, positing that the injunctions of
God are accessible through rational
thought and inquiry, and affirmed that the
Quran was created (makhlūq) rather than
co-eternal with God, which would develop
into one of the most contentious
questions in the history of Islamic
theology.[3][6]
In the 9th–10th century CE, the Ashʿarī

school developed as a response to the
Muʿtazila, founded by the 10th-century
Muslim scholar and theologian Abū al-
Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī.[7] Ashʿarītes still taught
the use of reason in understanding the
Quran, but denied the possibility to deduce
moral truths by reasoning.[7] This position
was opposed by the Māturīdī school;[8]
according to its founder, the 10th-century
Muslim scholar and theologian Abū
Manṣūr al-Māturīdī, human reason is
supposed to acknowledge the existence of
a creator deity (bāriʾ) solely based on
rational thought and independently from
divine revelation.[8] He shared this
conviction with his teacher and
predecessor Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān (8th
century CE), whereas al-Ashʿarī never held
such a view.[8]
According to the Afghan-American

philosopher Sayed Hassan Hussaini, the
early schools of Islamic theology and
theological beliefs among classical
Muslim philosophers are characterized by
"a rich color of Deism with a slight
disposition toward theism".[9]
Another point of contention was the

relative position of imān ("faith")
contrasted with taqwā ("piety"). Such
schools of Islamic theology are
summarized under ʿIlm al-Kalām, or
"science of discourse", as opposed to
mystical schools who deny that any
theological truth may be discovered by
means of discourse or reason.
Sunnī schools of theology
Sunnī schools of thought[10]
"Most Sunnis have adopted" the Ash‘ariyya

school of theology,[11] but the similar
Mātūrīd’iyyah school also has Sunni
adherents.[12]Sunni Muslims are the
largest denomination of Islam and are
known as 'Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h' or
simply as 'Ahl as-Sunnah'. The word Sunni
comes from the word Sunnah, which
means the teachings and actions or
examples of the Islamic prophet
Muhammad. Therefore, the term "Sunni"
refers to those who follow or maintain the
Sunnah of Muhammad.
The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did

not appoint a successor to lead the
Muslim ummah (community) before his
death, and after an initial period of
confusion, a group of his most prominent
companions gathered and elected Abu
Bakr, Muhammad's close friend and a
father-in-law, as the first 'Caliph 'of Islam.
Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs
(Abu Bakr, Ùmar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman
Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as "al-
Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly
Guided Caliphs". After the Rashidun, the
position turned into a hereditary right and
the caliph's role was limited to being a
political symbol of Muslim strength and
unity.
Athari
Atharism (Arabic: ‫ ;أثري‬textualism) is a

movement of Islamic scholars who reject
rationalistic Islamic theology (kalam) in
favor of strict textualism in interpreting the
Quran.[13] The name is derived from the
Arabic word athar, literally meaning
"remnant" and also referring to a
"narrative".[14] Their disciples are called the
Athariyya, or Atharis.
For followers of the Athari movement, the

"clear" meaning of the Qur'an, and
especially the prophetic traditions, has
sole authority in matters of belief, and to
engage in rational disputation (kalam),
even if one arrives at the truth, is
absolutely forbidden.[15] Atharis engage in
an amodal reading of the Quran, as
opposed to one engaged in ta'wil
(metaphorical interpretation). They do not
attempt to conceptualize the meanings of
the Quran rationally, and believe that the
"real" meaning should be consigned to
God alone (tafwid).[16] In essence, the
meaning has been accepted without
asking "how" or "Bi-la kaifa".
On the other hand, the famous Hanbali

scholar Ibn al-Jawzi states, in Kitab Akhbar
as-Sifat, that Ahmad ibn Hanbal would
have been opposed to anthropomorphic
interpretations of Quranic texts such as
those of al-Qadi Abu Ya'la, Ibn Hamid, and
Ibn az-Zaghuni.[17] Based on Abu'l-Faraj ibn
al-Jawzi's criticism of Athari-Hanbalis,
Muhammad Abu Zahra, a professor of
Islamic law at Cairo University deduced
that the Salafi aqidah is located
somewhere between ta'til and
anthropopathy (Absolute Ẓāhirīsm in
understanding the tashbih in Qur'an)[18][19]
in Islam. Absolute Ẓāhirīsm and total
rejection of ta'wil are amongst the
fundamental characteristics of this "new"
Islamic school of theology.
ʿIlm al-Kalām
ʿIlm al-Kalām (Arabic: ‫علم الكالم‬, literally

"science of discourse"),[5] usually
foreshortened to kalām and sometimes
called "Islamic scholastic theology" or
"speculative theology", is a rational
undertaking born out of the need to
establish and defend the tenets of Islamic
faith against doubters and detractors.[20]
ʿIlm al-Kalām incorporates Aristotelian
reasoning and logic into Islamic
theology.[6] A Muslim scholar of kalām is
referred to as a mutakallim (plural:
mutakallimūn) as distinguished from
philosophers, jurists, and scientists.[21]
There are many possible interpretations as
to why this discipline was originally called
kalām; one is that the widest controversy
in this discipline has been about whether
the Word of God, as revealed in the Quran,
can be considered part of God's essence
and therefore not created, or whether it
was made into words in the normal sense
of speech, and is therefore created.[6]
There are many schools of Kalam, the
main ones being the Mutazila,[22] the
Ash'ari and Maturidi schools in Sunni
Islam. Traditionalist theology rejects the
use of kalam, regarding humans reason as
sinful in unseen matters.[23]
Muʿtazila
Muʿtazila is a school of theology that

appeared in early Islāmic history and were
known for their neutrality in the dispute
between Alī and his opponents after the
death of the third caliph, Uthman. By the
10th century CE the term had also come to
refer to an Islamic school of speculative
theology (kalām) that flourished in Basra
and Baghdad (8th–10th century).[24][25][26]
According to Sunni sources, Muʿtazili
theology originated in the eighth century in
Basra (now in Iraq) when Wāṣil ibn ʿAṭā'
(died 131 AH/748 AD) withdrew (iʿtazala,
hence the name Mu'tazila) from the
teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a
theological dispute regarding the issue of
al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn (a
position between two positions), where
Wasil ibn Ata reasoned that a grave sinner
(fāsiq) could be classed neither as believer
nor unbeliever but was in an intermediate
position (al-manzilah bayna
manzilatayn).[27]
The later Mu'tazila school developed an

Islamic type of rationalism, partly
influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy,
based around three fundamental
principles: the oneness (Tawhid) and
justice (Al-'adl) of God,[28] human freedom
of action, and the creation of the Quran.[29]
The Muʿtazilites are best known for
rejecting the doctrine of the Quran as
uncreated and co-eternal with God,[30]
asserting that if the Quran is the word of
God, he logically "must have preceded his
own speech".[31] This went against the
orthodox Sunni position which argued that
with God being all knowing, his knowledge
of the Quran must have been eternal,
hence uncreated just like him.[32] Though
Muʿtazilis later relied on logic and different
aspects of early Islamic philosophy,
ancient Greek philosophy, and Indian
philosophy, the basics of Islam is their
starting point and ultimate reference.[33][34]
Several groups were later influenced by

Muʿtazilite theology, such as the Bishriyya,
who followed the teachings of Bishr ibn al-
Mu'tamir, and the Bahshamiyya, who
followed the teachings of Abu Hashim al-
Jubba'i.[35][36]
Ashʿarīyyah
Ashʿarīyyah is a school of theology that

was founded by the Arab Muslim scholar,
reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-
Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the 9th–10th century
who developed the school of thought
founded by Ibn Kullab a century
earlier.[37][38][7]
It established an orthodox guideline[39][40]

based on scriptural authority,[37][7][41]
rationality,[37][41][42][43][44] and theological
rationalism.[37][41][43][45][46][47] As a young
man, al-Ashʿarī studied under al-Jubba'i, a
renowned teacher of Muʿtazilite theology
and philosophy.[48][49] He was noted for his
teachings on atomism,[50] among the
earliest Islamic philosophies, and for al-
Ashʿarī this was the basis for propagating
the view that God created every moment in
time and every particle of matter. He
nonetheless believed in free will,
elaborating the thoughts of Dirar ibn 'Amr
and Abu Hanifa into a "dual agent" or
"acquisition" (iktisab) account of free
will.[51]
Al-Ashʿarī established a middle way

between the doctrines of the Aṯharī and
Muʿtazila schools of Islamic theology,
based both on reliance on the sacred
scriptures of Islam and theological
rationalism concerning the agency and
attributes of God.[37][7][41] The Ashʿarī
school reasoned that truth can only be
known through revelation, and that without
revelation the unaided human mind
wouldn't be able to know if something is
good or evil. It has been called "an attempt
to create a middle position" between the
rationalism of the Muʿtazilites and
scripturalism of the traditionalists.[52] In an
attempt to explain how God has power and
control over everything, but humans are
responsible for their sins, al-Ashʿarī
developed the doctrine of kasb
(acquisition), whereby any and all human
acts, even the raising of a finger, are
created by God, but the human being who
performs the act is responsible for it,
because they have "acquired" the act.[53]
While al-Ashʿarī opposed the views of the
rival Muʿtazilite school, he was also
opposed to the view which rejected all
debate, held by certain schools such as
the Zahiri ("literalist"), Mujassimite
("anthropotheist"), and Muhaddithin
("traditionalist") schools for their over-
emphasis on taqlid (imitation) in his
Istihsan al‑Khaud.[54]
Ashʿarism eventually became the

predominant school of theological thought
within Sunnī Islam,[38][7][55] and is regarded
by some as the single most important
school of Islamic theology in the history of
Islam.[38] Amongst the most famous
Ashʿarite theologians are Imam Nawawi,
Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ibn al-Jawzi, al-
Ghazali, al-Suyuti, Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-
Salam, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ibn 'Asakir, al-
Subki, al-Taftazani, al-Baqillani and al-
Bayhaqi.[56]
Mātūrīd’iyyah
The Maturidi school was founded by Abu

Mansur al-Maturidi, and is the most
popular theological school amongst
Muslims, especially in the areas formerly
controlled by the Ottomans and the
Mughals. Today, the Maturidi school is the
position favored by the Ahl ar-Ra'y ("people
of reason"), which includes only the Hanafi
school of fiqh who make up the majority of
Sunni Muslims.[57]
The Maturidi school takes the middle

position between the Ash'ari and Mu'tazili
schools on the questions of knowing truth
and free will. The Maturidis say that the
unaided human mind is able to find out
that some of the more major sins such as
alcohol or murder are evil without the help
of revelation, but still maintain that
revelation is the ultimate source of
knowledge. Additionally, the Maturidi
believe that God created and can control
all of His creation, but that He allows
humans to make individual decisions and
choices for themselves.
Ethics are considered to have objective

existence. Humans are thus capable of
recognizing good and bad without
revelation, but reason alone.[58] However,
prophets and revelation are necessary to
explain matters beyond human reason.[59]
In matters of the six articles of faith,
Māturīdism notably holds the idea that
paradise and hell coexist with the current
world, and does not adhere to the doctrine
of impeccability of angels.[60][61]
Jahmiyyah
Jahmis were the followers of the Islamic
theologian Jahm bin Safwan who
associate himself with Al-Harith ibn Surayj.
He was an exponent of extreme
determinism according to which a man
acts only metaphorically in the same way
in which the sun acts or does something
when it sets.[62] This is the position
adopted by the Ash'ari school, which holds
that God's omnipotence is absolute and
perfect over all creation.
Qadariyyah
Qadariyyah is an originally derogatory term
designating early Islamic theologians who
asserted human beings are ontologically
free and have a perfect free will, whose
exercise justifies divine punishment and
absolving God of responsibility for evil in
the world.[63][64] Their doctrines were
adopted by the Mu'tazilis and rejected by
the Ash'aris.[63] The tension between free
will and God's omnipotence was later
reconciled by the Maturidi school of
theology, which asserted that God grants
human beings their agency, but can
remove or otherwise alter it at any time.
Muhakkima
The groups that were seceded from Ali's
army in the end of the Arbitration Incident
constituted the branch of Muhakkima
(Arabic: ‫)محكمة‬. They are mainly divided
into two major sects called as Kharijites
and Ibadis.
Khawarij
The Kharijites considered the caliphate of

Abu Bakr and Umar to be rightly guided
but believed that Uthman ibn Affan had
deviated from the path of justice and truth
in the last days of his caliphate, and hence
was liable to be killed or displaced. They
also believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib
committed a grave sin when he agreed on
the arbitration with Muʿāwiyah. In the
Battle of Siffin, Ali acceded to Muawiyah's
suggestion to stop the fighting and resort
to negotiation. A large portion of Ali's
troops (who later became the first
Kharijites) refused to concede to that
agreement, and they considered that Ali
had breached a Qur'anic verse which
states that The decision is only for Allah
(Qur'an 6:57), which the Kharijites
interpreted to mean that the outcome of a
conflict can only be decided in battle (by
God) and not in negotiations (by human
beings).
The Kharijites thus deemed the arbitrators

(Abu Musa al-Ashʿari and Amr Ibn Al-As),
the leaders who appointed these
arbitrators (Ali and Muʿāwiyah) and all
those who agreed on the arbitration (all
companions of Ali and Muʿāwiyah) as
Kuffār (disbelievers), having breached the
rules of the Qur'an. They believed that all
participants in the Battle of Jamal,
including Talha, Zubayr (both being
companions of Muhammad) and Aisha
had committed a Kabira (major sin in
Islam).[65]
Kharijites reject the doctrine of infallibility
for the leader of the Muslim community, in
contrast to Shi'a but in agreement with
Sunnis.[66] Modern-day Islamic scholar
Abul Ala Maududi wrote an analysis of
Kharijite beliefs, marking a number of
differences between Kharijism and Sunni
Islam. The Kharijites believed that the act
of sinning is analogous to Kufr (disbelief)
and that every grave sinner was regarded
as a Kāfir (disbeliever) unless he repents.
With this argument, they denounced all the
above-mentioned Ṣaḥābah and even
cursed and used abusive language against
them. Ordinary Muslims were also
declared disbelievers because first, they
were not free of sin; secondly they
regarded the above-mentioned Ṣaḥābah
as believers and considered them as
religious leaders, even inferring Islamic
jurisprudence from the Hadeeth narrated
by them.[65] They also believed that it is
not a must for the caliph to be from the
Quraysh. Any pious Muslim nominated by
other Muslims could be an eligible
caliph.[65] Additionally, Kharijites believed
that obedience to the caliph is binding as
long as he is managing the affairs with
justice and consultation, but if he deviates,
then it becomes obligatory to confront
him, demote him and even kill him.
Ibadiyya
Ibadiyya has some common beliefs

overlapping with the Ashʿarī and Mu'tazila
schools, mainstream Sunni Islam, and
some Shīʿīte sects.[67]
Murji'ah
Murji'ah (Arabic: ‫ )المرجئة‬was an early
Islamic school whose followers are known
in English as "Murjites" or "Murji'ites"
(‫)المرجئون‬. The Murji'ah emerged as a
theological school in response to the
Kharijites on the early question about the
relationship between sin and apostasy
(rida). The Murji'ah believed that sin did
not affect a person's beliefs (iman) but
rather their piety (taqwa). Therefore, they
advocated the idea of "delayed
judgement", (irjaa). The Murji'ah maintain
that anyone who proclaims the bare
minimum of faith must be considered a
Muslim, and sin alone cannot cause
someone to become a disbeliever (kafir).
The Murjite opinion would eventually
dominate that of the Kharijites and
become the mainstream opinion in Sunni
Islam. The later schools of Sunni theology
adopted their stance while form more
developed theological schools and
concepts.
Shīʿa schools of theology
Zaydi-Fivers
The Zaydi denomination of Shīʿa Islam is

close to the Muʿtazila school in matters of
theological doctrine. There are a few
issues between both schools, most
notably the Zaydi doctrine of the Imamate,
which is rejected by the Muʿtazilites.
Amongst the Shīʿa, Zaydis are most similar
to Sunnīs,[68] since Zaydism shares similar
doctrines and jurisprudential opinions with
Sunnī scholars.[69]
Bāṭin’iyyah
The Bāṭen’iyyah was originally introduced

by Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu
Zaynab al-Asadī,[70][71] and later developed
by Maymūn al-Qaddāh[72] and his son ʿAbd
Allāh ibn Maymūn[73] for the esoteric
interpretation of the Quran.[74] The
members of Bāṭen’iyyah may belong to
either the Ismāʿīlī or Twelver
denominations of Shīʿa Islam.
Imami-Ismā'īlīs
The Ismāʿīlīs differ from Twelvers because

they had living imams or da'is for centuries.
They followed Isma'il ibn Jafar, elder
brother of Musa al-Kadhim, as the rightful
Imam[75] after his father Ja'far al-Sadiq.
The Ismailis believe that whether Imam
Ismail did or did not die before Imam
Ja'far, he had passed on the mantle of the
imāmate to his son Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl
al-Maktum as the next imam.[76]
Batini-Twelver ʿAqīdah schools
The followers of Bāṭen’iyyah-Twelver

school consist of Alevis and Nusayris, who
developed their own system of Islamic
jurisprudence and do not pursue the Ja'fari
jurisprudence. Their combined population
is nearly around 1% of the global Muslim
population.[77]
Alevism
Alevis are sometimes categorized as part

of Twelver Shīʿīsm, and sometimes as its
own religious tradition, as it has markedly
different philosophy, customs, and rituals.
They have many Tasawwufī characteristics
and express belief in the Qur'an and The
Twelve Imams, but reject polygamy and
accept religious traditions predating Islam,
like Turkic shamanism. They are
significant in East-Central Turkey. They are
sometimes considered a Sufi brotherhood,
and have an untraditional form of religious
leadership that is not scholarship-oriented
like other Sunnī and Shīʿa groups. 7 to 11
million Alevis, including the other
denominations of Twelver Shīʿītes, live in
Anatolia.[77]
Alevi Islamic school of divinity
In Turkey, Shīʿa Muslims follow the Ja'fari

jurisprudence, which tracks back to the
sixth Shia Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, and are
called "Ja'faris".
The Alevi-Turks have a unique and

perplex conviction tracing back to the
Kaysanites and Khurramites which are
considered as Ghulat Shīʿītes. According
to Turkish scholar Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı,
the Qizilbash ("Red-Heads") of the 16th
century – a religious and political
movement in Azerbaijan that helped to
establish the Safavid dynasty – were
"spiritual descendants of the
Khurramites".[78]
Their aqidah (theological conviction) is
based upon a syncretic fiqh system
called as "Batiniyya-Sufism"[74] which
incorporates some Qarmatian
sentiments, originally introduced by
"Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu
Zaynab al-Asadī",[70][71] and later
developed by Maymun al-Qāddāh and
his son ʿAbd Allāh ibn Maymun.[73]
On the other hand, the members of
Bektashi Order have a conviction of
"Batiniyya Isma'ilism"[74] and "Hurufism"
with a strong belief in The Twelve
Imams.
In conclusion, Qizilbash-Alevis are not a
part of Ja'fari jurisprudence fiqh, even
though they can be considered as
members of different Tariqa of Shia
Islam all looks like sub-classes of
Twelver. Their conviction includes
"Batiniyya-Hurufism" and "Sevener-
Qarmatians-Ismailism"
sentiments.[74][79]
The Twelver branch of Shia Islam
Muslim population of Turkey is
composed of Mu'tazila aqidah of Ja'fari
jurisprudence madhhab, Batiniyya-
Sufism aqidah of Maymūn’al-Qāddāhī
fiqh of the Alevīs, and Cillī aqidah of
Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn
Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh of the
Alawites.[80][81]
ʿAqīdah of Alevi-Islam Dīn Services
What's Alevism, what's the

understanding of Islam in
Alevism? The answers to these
questions, instead of the
opposite of what's known by
many people is that the
birthplace of Alevism was never
in Anatolia. This is an example
of great ignorance, that is, to tell
that the Alevism was emerged in
Anatolia. Searching the source
of Alevism in Anatolia arises
from unawareness. Because
there was not even one single
Muslim or Turk in Anatolia
before a specific date. The roots
of Alevism stem from Turkestan
– Central Asia. Islam was
brought to Anatolia by Turks in
10th and 11th centuries by a
result of migration for a period
of 100 – 150 years. Before this
event took place, there were no
Muslim and Turks in Anatolia.
Anatolia was then entirely
Christian. We Turks brought
Islam to Anatolia from
Turkestan. – Professor İzzettin
Doğan, The President of Alevi-
Islam Religion Services.[82]
Some of their members (or sub-groups)
claim that God takes abode in the
bodies of the human-beings (ḥulūl),
believe in metempsychosis (tanāsukh),
and consider Islamic law to be not
obligatory (ibāḥa), similar to
antinomianism.[83]
Some of the Alevis criticizes the course
of Islam as it is being practiced
overwhelmingly by more than 99% of
Sunni and Shia population.
They believe that major additions had
been implemented during the time of
Umayyads, and easily refuse some basic
principles on the grounds that they
believe it contradicts with the holy book
of Islam, namely the Qur'an.
Regular daily salat and fasting in the
holy month of Ramadan are officially not
accepted by some members of Alevism.
Some of their sub-groups like Ishikists
and Bektashis, who portrayed
themselves as Alevis, neither
comprehend the essence of the regular
daily salat (prayers) and fasting in the
holy month of Ramadan that is
frequently accentuated at many times in
Quran, nor admits that these principles
constitute the ineluctable foundations of
the Dīn of Islam as they had been laid
down by Allah and they had been
practised in an uninterruptible manner
during the period of Prophet
Muhammad.
Baktāshism (Bektaşilik)
The founder of the Bektashiyyah sufi order

Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli (Ḥājjī Baktāsh Walī), a
murid of Malāmatī-Qalāndārī Sheikh Qutb ad-
Dīn Haydar, who introduced the Ahmad
Yasavi's doctrine of "Four Doors and Forty
Stending" into his tariqah.
Baktāshi Islamic School of Divinity
The Bektashiyyah is a Shia Sufi order

founded in the 13th century by Haji
Bektash Veli, a dervish who escaped
Central Asia and found refuge with the
Seljuks in Anatolia at the time of the
Mongol invasions (1219–23). This order
gained a great following in rural areas and
it later developed in two branches: the
Çelebi clan, who claimed to be physical
descendants of Haji Bektash Veli, were
called "Bel evladları" (children of the loins),
and became the hereditary spiritual
leaders of the rural Alevis; and the
Babağan, those faithful to the path "Yol
evladları" (children of the way), who
dominated the official Bektashi Sufi order
with its elected leadership.
Bektashism places much emphasis on the
concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujood ‫وحدة الوجود‬,
the "Unity of Being" that was formulated by
Ibn Arabi. This has often been labeled as
pantheism, although it is a concept closer
to panentheism. Bektashism is also
heavily permeated with Shiite concepts,
such as the marked veneration of Ali, The
Twelve Imams, and the ritual
commemoration of Ashurah marking the
Battle of Karbala. The old Persian holiday
of Nowruz is celebrated by Bektashis as
Imam Ali's birthday.
In keeping with the central belief of

Wahdat-ul-Wujood the Bektashi see reality
contained in Haqq-Muhammad-Ali, a
single unified entity. Bektashi do not
consider this a form of trinity. There are
many other practices and ceremonies that
share similarity with other faiths, such as a
ritual meal (muhabbet) and yearly
confession of sins to a baba (magfirat-i
zunub ‫)مغفرة الذنوب‬. Bektashis base their
practices and rituals on their non-orthodox
and mystical interpretation and
understanding of the Qur'an and the
prophetic practice (Sunnah). They have no
written doctrine specific to them, thus
rules and rituals may differ depending on
under whose influence one has been
taught. Bektashis generally revere Sufi
mystics outside of their own order, such as
Ibn Arabi, Al-Ghazali and Jelalludin Rumi
who are close in spirit to them.
The Baktāshi ʿaqīdah
Four Spiritual Stations in Bektashiyyah:

Sharia, tariqa, haqiqa, and the fourth station,
marifa, which is considered "unseen", is
actually the center of the haqiqa region.
Marifa is the essence of all four stations.
The Bektashi Order is a Sufi order and

shares much in common with other
Islamic mystical movements, such as the
need for an experienced spiritual guide —
called a baba in Bektashi parlance — as
well as the doctrine of "the four gates that
must be traversed": the "Sharia" (religious
law), "Tariqah" (the spiritual path),
"Haqiqah" (truth), and "Marifa" (true
knowledge).
Bektashis hold that the Qur'an has two

levels of meaning: an outer (Zāher ‫)ظاهر‬
and an inner (bāṭen ‫)باطن‬.[84] They hold the
latter to be superior and eternal and this is
reflected in their understanding of both the
universe and humanity, which is a view
that can also be found in Ismailism and
Batiniyya.[74]
Bektashism is also initiatic and members
must traverse various levels or ranks as
they progress along the spiritual path to
the Reality. First level members are called
aşıks ‫عاشق‬. They are those who, while not
having taken initiation into the order, are
nevertheless drawn to it. Following
initiation (called nasip) one becomes a
mühip ‫محب‬. After some time as a mühip,
one can take further vows and become a
dervish. The next level above dervish is
that of baba. The baba (lit. father) is
considered to be the head of a tekke and
qualified to give spiritual guidance (irshad
‫)إرشاد‬. Above the baba is the rank of halife-
baba (or dede, grandfather). Traditionally
there were twelve of these, the most
senior being the dedebaba (great-
grandfather). The dedebaba was
considered to be the highest ranking
authority in the Bektashi Order.
Traditionally the residence of the dedebaba
was the Pir Evi (The Saint's Home) which
was located in the shrine of Hajji Bektash
Wali in the central Anatolian town of
Hacıbektaş (Solucakarahüyük).
Ithnā'ashariyyah
Twelvers believe in the twelve Shīʿa

Imams. The twelfth Imam is believed to be
in occultation, and will appear again just
before the Qiyamah (Islamic view of the
Last Judgment). The Shia hadiths include
the sayings of the Imams. Many Muslims
criticise the Shia for certain beliefs and
practices, including practices such as the
Mourning of Muharram (Mätam). They are
the largest Shia school of thought (93%),
predominant in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq,
Lebanon, and Bahrain and have a
significant population in Pakistan, India,
Afghanistan, Kuwait and the Eastern
province of Saudi Arabia. The Twelver
Shīʿas are followers of either the Jaf'ari or
Batiniyyah madh'habs.
Imami-Ja'faris
Followers of the Jaf'ari madh'hab are

divided into the following sub-divisions, all
of them are the followers of the Theology
of Twelvers:
Usulism
The Usuli form the overwhelming majority

within the Twelver Shia denomination.
They follow a Marja-i Taqlid on the subject
of taqlid and fiqh. They are concentrated in
Iran, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iraq, and
Lebanon.
Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, Iraq, where Shias
believe Ali is buried.
Akhbarism
Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however reject

ijtihad in favor of hadith. Concentrated in
Bahrain.
Shaykhism
Shaykhism is an Islamic religious

movement founded by Shaykh Ahmad in
the early 19th century Qajar dynasty, Iran,
now retaining a minority following in Iran
and Iraq. It began from a combination of
Sufi and Shia and Akhbari doctrines. In the
mid 19th-century many Shaykhis
converted to the Bábí and Baháʼí religions,
which regard Shaykh Ahmad highly.
Ghulāt-Imamis
‘Alawism
Alawites are also called Nusayris, Nusairis,

Namiriya or Ansariyya. Their madhhab is
established by Ibn Nusayr, and their aqidah
is developed by Al-Khaṣībī. They follow
Cillī aqidah of "Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim
Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh" of
the ‘Alawis.[80][85] One million three
hundred and fifty thousand of them lived in
Syria and Lebanon in 1970. It is estimated
they are 10–12% of the population of Syria
of 23 million in 2013.[86]
‘Alawite Islamic School of Divinity
Alawites consider themselves to be

Muslims, although some Sunnis dispute
that they are.[87] Alawite doctrine
incorporates Gnostic, neo-Platonic,
Islamic, Christian and other elements and
has, therefore, been described as
syncretistic.[88][89] Their theology is based
on a divine triad,[87][90][91] or trinity, which is
the core of Alawite belief.[92] The triad
comprises three emanations of the one
God: the supreme aspect or entity called
the "Essence"[92] or the "Meaning"[91] (both
being translations of ma'na), together with
two lesser emanations known as his
"Name" (ism), or "Veil" (hijab), and his
"Gate" (bab).[90][91][92][93] These emanations
have manifested themselves in different
human forms over several cycles in
history, the last cycle of which was as Ali
(the Essence/Meaning), Muhammad (the
Name) and Salman the Persian (the
Gate).[90][92][93][94] Alawite belief is
summarised in the formula: "I turn to the
Gate; I bow before the Name; I adore the
Meaning".[87] The claim that Alawites
believe Ali is a deity has been contested by
some scholars as a misrepresentation on
the basis that Ali is, in fact, considered an
"essence or form", not a human being, by
which believers can "grasp God".[95]
Alawites also hold that they were originally
stars or divine lights that were cast out of
heaven through disobedience and must
undergo repeated reincarnation (or
metempsychosis[92]) before returning to
heaven.[87][93] They can be reincarnated as
Christians or others through sin and as
animals if they become infidels.[87][96]
Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed

by their modern religious authorities.[97]
Alawites tend to conceal their beliefs
(taqiyya) due to historical persecution.[98]
Some tenets of the faith are secret, known
only to a select few;[99][100] therefore, they
have been described as a mystical
sect.[101] In addition to Islamic festivals,
the Alawites have been reported to
celebrate or honor certain Christian
festivals such as the birth of Jesus and
Palm Sunday.[102][103] Their most-
important feast is Eid al-Ghadeer.
The ‘Alawite ʿaqīdah
Alawites have always described

themselves as being Twelver Shi'ite
Muslims and have been recognized as
such by the prominent Lebanese Shi'ite
cleric Musa al-Sadr.[104] The Sunni Grand
Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al-Husseini
issued a fatwa recognising them as part of
the Muslim community in the interest of
Arab nationalism.[105][106] However, Athari
Sunni (modern day Salafis) scholars such
as Ibn Kathir (a disciple of Ibn Taymiyya)
have categorised Alawites as pagans in
their writings.[99][107][108]
Barry Rubin has suggested that Syrian

leader Hafiz al-Assad and his son and
successor Bashar al-Assad pressed their
fellow Alawites "to behave like regular
Muslims, shedding (or at least concealing)
their distinctive aspects".[109] During the
early 1970s a booklet, al-Àlawiyyun Shi'atu
Ahl al-Bait ("The Alawites are Followers of
the Household of the Prophet") was
published, which was "signed by numerous
'Alawi' men of religion", described the
doctrines of the Imami Shia as
Alawite.[110] Additionally, there has been a
recent movement to unite Alawism and
the other branches of Twelver Islam
through educational exchange programs in
Syria and Qom.[111]
Some sources have discussed the

"Sunnification" of Alawites under the al-
Assad regime.[112] Joshua Landis, director
of the Center for Middle East Studies,
writes that Hafiz al-Assad "tried to turn
Alawites into 'good' (read Sunnified)
Muslims in exchange for preserving a
modicum of secularism and tolerance in
society". On the other hand, Al-Assad
"declared the Alawites to be nothing but
Twelver Shiites".[112] In a paper, "Islamic
Education in Syria", Landis wrote that "no
mention" is made in Syrian textbooks
(controlled by the Al-Assad regime) of
Alawites, Druze, Ismailis or Shia Islam;
Islam was presented as a monolithic
religion.[113] Ali Sulayman al-Ahmad, chief
judge of the Baathist Syrian state, has
said:
We are ‘Alawi Muslims. Our

book is the Qur'an. Our prophet
is Muhammad. The Ka`ba is our
qibla, and our Dīn (religion) is
Islam.[97]
Kızılbaşlık
The Qizilbash ʿaqīdah
Shah Ismail I, the Sheikh of the Safavi

tariqa, founder of the Safavid dynasty of
Iran, and the Commander-in-chief of the
Kızılbaş armies had contributed a lot for
the development and implementation of
The Qizilbash ʿAqīdah amongst the
Turkmen people.
Qizilbash and Bektashi tariqah shared

common religious beliefs and practices
becoming intermingled as Alevis in spite
of many local variations. Isolated from
both the Sunni Ottomans and the Twelver
Shià Safavids, Qizilbash and Bektashi
developed traditions, practices, and
doctrines by the early 17th century which
marked them as a closed autonomous
religious community. As a result of the
immense pressures to conform to Sunni
Islam, all members of Alevism developed a
tradition of opposition (ibāḥa) to all forms
of external religion.
The doctrine of Qizilbashism is well

explained in the following poem written by
the Shaykh of Safaviyya tariqah Shāh
Ismāʿil Khatai:
‫ من داها نسنه بيلمه زه م‬/ Men daha
nesne bilmezem, (I don't know
any other object)
‫هَلل بير محممد عل́ىدير‬١ّ / Allah bir

Muhammad-Ali'dir. (Allah is
unique Muhammad-Ali)
‫ اؤزوم غوربتده سالمازام‬/ Özüm

gurbette salmazam, (I can't let
out my own essence to places
far from my homeland)

‫ بير اولوبدور‬،‫ اونالر بيردير‬/ Onlar

birdir, bir oluştur, (They are
unique, a single one, i.e. Haqq-
Muhammad-Ali)
‫ يئردن گؤيه نور اولوبدور‬/ Yerden göğe

nûr oluştur, (It's a nūr from
Earth to Sky)
‫دؤرد گوشه ده سيرر اولوبدور‬، / Dört

guşede sır oluştur, (It's a
mysterious occult secret in
every corner of the square)
‫ ختايى بو يولدا سردير‬/ Khatai bu

yolda sırdır, (Khatai in this
tariqah is a mysterious occult
secret)
‫ سرين وئره نلر ده اردير‬/ Sırın

verenler de erdir, (Those reveal
their own secret are private as
well)
‫ گونده نوردور‬،‫ آيدا سيردير‬/ Ayda
sırdır, günde nûrdur, (Secret on
Moon, nūr on day)

The lines of poetry above may easily be

judged as an act of "Shirk" (polytheism) by
the Sunni Ulama, but they have a bāṭenī[84]
taʾwīl (inner explanation) in Qizilbashism.
Tashbih
Karram’iyyah
Anthropomorphic-Anthropopathic
Karram’iyyah was founded by Abū ʿAbd
Allāh Muḥammad b. Karrām.[114] Ibn
Karram considered that God was a
substance and that He had a body (jism)
finite in certain directions when He comes
into contact with the Throne.[115][67][116]
Anthropopathy in the history of

Ghulāt Shīʿīsm
The belief of Incarnation was first

emerged in Sabaʾiyya, and later some
personalities like Muhammad ibn al-
Hanafiyyah, Abu Muslim, Sunpadh, Ishaq
al-Turk, Al-Muqanna, Babak Khorramdin,
Maziar and Ismail I had become the
subject of God incarnates.
Ahmadiyya
The Ahmadis' beliefs are more aligned
with the Sunni tradition, such as The Five
Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of
Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept
the Qur'an as their holy text, face the
Kaaba during prayer, accept the authority
of Hadiths (reported sayings of and stories
about Muhammad) and practice the
Sunnah (traditions) of Muhammad.[117]
However, Many Muslims consider
Ahmadis as heretics.[118][119][120][121]
Ahmadi teachings state that the founders

of all the major world religions had divine
origins. God was working towards the
establishment of Islam as the final
religion, because it was the most complete
and included all the previous teachings of
other religion[122] (but they believe that all
other religions have gone astray in their
present form). The completion and
consummation of the development of
religion came about with the coming of
Muhammad; and that the perfection of the
‘manifestation’ of Muhammad's
prophethood and of the conveyance of his
message was destined to occur with the
coming of the Mahdi.[123]
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community are

not Muslims but regard Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad, who claimed to be the promised
Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ") the
Mahdi awaited by the Muslims and a
'subordinate' prophet to Muhammad
whose job was to restore the Sharia given
to Muhammad by guiding or rallying
disenchanted Ummah back to Islam and
thwart attacks on Islam by its opponents,
as the "Promised One" of all religions
fulfilling eschatological prophecies found
in the scriptures of the Abrahamic
religions, as well as Zoroastrianism, the
Indian religions, Native American
traditions and others.[124] Ahmadi Muslims
believe that Ahmad was divinely
commissioned as a true reflection of
Muhammad's prophethood to establish
the unity of God and to remind mankind of
their duties towards God and God's
creation.[125][126]
See also
Outline of Islam
Glossary of Islam
Abdol Hamid Khosro Shahi
Index of Islam-related articles
Islamic eschatology
Islamic schools and branches
Islamic studies
List of extinct Shia sects
Shia–Sunni relations
Shi'ite Crescent
Succession to Muhammad
Sunni Islam
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Further reading
Bulğen, Mehmet (December 2019). "al-
Māturīdī and Atomism (İmam Mâtüridî ve
Atomculuk)" (https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/down
load/article-file/913963) (PDF). ULUM:
Journal of Religious Inquiries. Ankara: ULUM
İslami İlimler Eğitim ve Araştırma Merkezi. 2
(2): 223–264. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3601654
(https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.360165
4) . eISSN 2645-9132 (https://www.worldcat.
org/issn/2645-9132) . Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20201127235117/https://d
ergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/9139
63) from the original on 27 November 2020.
Retrieved 19 January 2022.
Caspar, Robert (1998). A Historical
Introduction to Islamic Theology: Muḥammad
and the Classical Period. Studi arabo-islamici
del PISAI. Vol. 11. Rome: Pontifical Institute
of Arab and Islamic Studies.
ISBN 9788885907102. OCLC 42577199 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42577199) .
Kars, Aydogan (2019). Unsaying God:
Negative Theology in Medieval Islam (https://
books.google.com/books?id=ANqUDwAAQB
AJ) . Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press.
doi:10.1093/oso/9780190942458.001.0001
(https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190
942458.001.0001) . ISBN 9780190942458.
8048099) . OCLC 1147875085 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/1147875085) . Archived
09/https://books.google.com/books?id=ANq
UDwAAQBAJ) from the original on 2022-11-
18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
Madelung, Wilferd; Schmidtke, Sabine, eds.
(2016). "Al-Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād, Promoter of
Rational Theology: Two Muʿtazilī kalām texts
from the Cairo Geniza" (https://books.google.
com/books?id=ONM6DQAAQBAJ) . Al-Ṣāḥib
Ibn ʿAbbād Promoter of Rational Theology.
Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 132.
Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. i–
102. doi:10.1163/9789004323735_001 (http
s://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004323735_00
1) . ISBN 978-90-04-32373-5. ISSN 0929-
2403 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0929-2
403) . OCLC 952470870 (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/952470870) . Archived (https://w
s://books.google.com/books?id=ONM6DQA
AQBAJ) from the original on 2022-11-18.
el-Omari, Racha (2016). The Theology of Abū
l-Qāsim al-Balkhī/al-Kaʿbī (d. 319/931) (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=9nwJDAAA
QBAJ) . Islamic Philosophy, Theology and
Science: Texts and Studies. Vol. 99. Leiden
and Boston: Brill Publishers.
doi:10.1163/9789004259683_001 (https://do
i.org/10.1163%2F9789004259683_001) .
ISBN 978-90-04-25968-3. ISSN 0169-8729 (ht
tps://www.worldcat.org/issn/0169-8729) .
4034960) . OCLC 1041077026 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/1041077026) . Archived
11/https://books.google.com/books?id=9nw
JDAAAQBAJ) from the original on 2022-11-
18. Retrieved 2022-01-20.
Renard, John, ed. (2014). Islamic Theological
Themes: A Primary Source Reader (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=AAYlDQAAQBA
J) . Berkeley and Oakland: University of
California Press. ISBN 9780520281899.
JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt6wqbpp (https://www.jst
or.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt6wqbpp) .
4005897) . Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20221118051708/https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=AAYlDQAAQBAJ) from the
2022-01-20.
Rudolph, Ulrich (2015). Al-Māturīdī and the
Development of Sunnī Theology in Samarqand
(https://books.google.com/books?id=LwOjB
QAAQBAJ) . Islamic History and Civilization.
Vol. 100. Translated by Adem, Rodrigo.
doi:10.1163/9789004261846_001 (https://do
i.org/10.1163%2F9789004261846_001) .
ISBN 978-90-04-26184-6. ISSN 0929-2403 (ht
tps://www.worldcat.org/issn/0929-2403) .
4034960) . OCLC 900892852 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/oclc/900892852) . Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20221118051708/h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=LwOjBQA
AQBAJ) from the original on 2022-11-18.
Sabra, A. I. (January 2009). "The Simple
Ontology of Kalām Atomism: An Outline".
Early Science and Medicine. Leiden and
Boston: Brill Publishers. 14 (1-3: Evidence
and Interpretation: Studies on Early Science
and Medicine in Honor of John E. Murdoch):
68–78. doi:10.1163/157338209X425506 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1163%2F157338209X42550
6) . ISSN 1573-3823 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/issn/1573-3823) . JSTOR 20617778 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/20617778) .
PMID 19831225 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/19831225) .
al-Salimi, Abdulrahman, ed. (2021). Early
Ibadi Theology: New Material on Rational
Thought in Islam from the Pen of al-Fazārī
(2nd/8th Century) (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=CIs5EAAAQBAJ) . Islamic
History and Civilization. Vol. 182. Leiden and
Boston: Brill Publishers.
doi:10.1163/9789004459571 (https://doi.or
g/10.1163%2F9789004459571) . ISBN 978-
90-04-45957-1. ISSN 0929-2403 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/0929-2403) .
OCLC 1256592318 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/1256592318) . S2CID 243595906 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2435
95906) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20221118051709/https://books.google.c
om/books?id=CIs5EAAAQBAJ) from the
2022-01-20.
Thiele, Jan (December 2018). "Recent
Scholarship in the Field of kalām". Studia
Islamica. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers.
113 (2): 223–243. doi:10.1163/19585705-
12341378 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1958
5705-12341378) . hdl:10261/173270 (http
s://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F173270) .
ISSN 1958-5705 (https://www.worldcat.org/i
ssn/1958-5705) . S2CID 159335485 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15933548
5) .
External links
Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New
International Encyclopedia article about
"Islamic schools and branches".
The Four Sunni Schools of Thought (htt
p://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/ahm/new
madhh.htm)
Ask Imam – Islam Q&A (http://www.aski
mam.org)
Online Islamic Learning (http://www.sun
nipath.com)
Sufism – Islamic Science of Spirituality
115516/http://www.tasawwuf.org/)
(archived 3 December 2001)
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Schools_of_Islamic_theology&oldid=1176903
301"
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Schools of Islamic

Schools of Islamic theology are various

The main schism between Sunnī, Shīʿa,

According to the Encyclopaedia of the

The original schism between Kharijites,

ʿAqīdah is an Islamic term meaning "creed"

In the 9th–10th century CE, the Ashʿarī

According to the Afghan-American

Another point of contention was the

Sunnī schools of theology

Sunnī schools of thought[10]

"Most Sunnis have adopted" the Ash‘ariyya

The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did

Atharism (Arabic: ‫ ;أثري‬textualism) is a

For followers of the Athari movement, the

On the other hand, the famous Hanbali

ʿIlm al-Kalām (Arabic: ‫علم الكالم‬, literally

Muʿtazila is a school of theology that

The later Mu'tazila school developed an

Several groups were later influenced by

Ashʿarīyyah is a school of theology that

It established an orthodox guideline[39][40]

Al-Ashʿarī established a middle way

Ashʿarism eventually became the

The Maturidi school was founded by Abu

The Maturidi school takes the middle

Ethics are considered to have objective

The Kharijites considered the caliphate of

The Kharijites thus deemed the arbitrators

Ibadiyya has some common beliefs

The Zaydi denomination of Shīʿa Islam is

The Bāṭen’iyyah was originally introduced

The Ismāʿīlīs differ from Twelvers because

Batini-Twelver ʿAqīdah schools

The followers of Bāṭen’iyyah-Twelver

Alevis are sometimes categorized as part

Alevi Islamic school of divinity

In Turkey, Shīʿa Muslims follow the Ja'fari

The Alevi-Turks have a unique and

What's Alevism, what's the

The founder of the Bektashiyyah sufi order

Baktāshi Islamic School of Divinity

The Bektashiyyah is a Shia Sufi order

In keeping with the central belief of

The Baktāshi ʿaqīdah

Four Spiritual Stations in Bektashiyyah:

The Bektashi Order is a Sufi order and

Bektashis hold that the Qur'an has two

Twelvers believe in the twelve Shīʿa

Followers of the Jaf'ari madh'hab are

The Usuli form the overwhelming majority

Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however reject

Shaykhism is an Islamic religious

Alawites are also called Nusayris, Nusairis,

‘Alawite Islamic School of Divinity

Alawites consider themselves to be

Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed

The ‘Alawite ʿaqīdah

Alawites have always described

Barry Rubin has suggested that Syrian

Some sources have discussed the

We are ‘Alawi Muslims. Our

The Qizilbash ʿaqīdah