Journal of Archaeological Science 100 (2018) 74–79

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Starch grain evidence of potato consumption at the Late Moche T

(AD 600–850) site of Wasi Huachuma, Peru
Guy S. Dukea,∗, Victor F. Vásquez-Sanchezb, Teresa E. Rosales-Thamb
a
Department of Sociology & Anthropology, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W. University Dr., Edinburg, TX, 78539, USA
b
Arqueobios, Centro de Investigaciones Arqueobiológicas y Paleoecológicas Andinas, Apartado Postal 595, Trujillo, Peru

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Due to the arid environment and excellent preservation on the north coast of Peru, the evidence obtained from
Starch grain analysis macrobotanical remains are the primary sources of information on plant use. However, some plants, such as
Archaeobotany potatoes, are infrequently recovered as macrobotanicals because they are usually consumed in their entirety. For
Moche this reason, we have applied starch grain analyses to ceramic and lithic materials recovered from the Late Moche
Peru
(AD 600–850) site of Wasi Huachuma (Je-65) in the lower Jequetepeque valley, Peru. The results of these
analyses revealed the presence of potato (Solanum tuberosum) on the ceramics indicating the regular con-
sumption of potato at this site during this period. Prior to this, physical evidence of potato had only been
recovered from one other Moche context—dental calculus from Huaca Cao Viejo. This indicates that macro-
botanical analyses alone are insufficient for uncovering the spectrum of foodstuffs utilized by the Moche. We
argue for a more rigorous and consistent application of starch grain analysis, in order to obtain as much in-
formation as possible about past plant utilization, rather than relying on macrobotanical remains alone.

1. Introduction
Due to the arid environment and subsequent excellent preservation
on the north coast of Peru, evidence obtained from macrobotanical
remains has been the primary source of information on plant use in this
region. This rich and varied database has been invaluable in building an
understanding of the uses of a wide range of plants and marine algae.
Despite this, the biological characteristics of many plants and modes of
processing often preclude macrobotanical evidence of their use. The
application of starch grain analyses on the north coast of Peru, and
other regions with excellent plant preservation, can only improve our
understanding of plant usage as well as reduce the impact of pre-
servational bias on the evidentiary record.
Starch grain analyses of residues are not particularly new to ar-
chaeology nor to Peru (see Briuer, 1976; Duncan et al., 2009; Loy et al.,
1992; Piperno and Dillehay, 2008; Ugent et al., 1986). Analyses of
starch grains provides complementary evidence for plant use to sup-
plement the data from macrobotanical materials. Importantly, many
plants used by past societies are not easily recovered in situ as whole or
partial specimens or through flotation due to a number of reasons, in-
cluding environmental conditions such as wet or acidic soils hastening
their biodegradation or the consumption by humans (or animals) of the
entire item. For these reasons, soft bodied plants that are eaten in their
entirety, including potatoes and other tubers, would be essentially in-
visible in the macrobotanical record, even in areas with excellent pre-
servation. Thus, it is necessary to seek information regarding the use of
these types of materials via others means, including conducting starch
grain analyses on the processing tools and serving implements re-
covered archaeologically (Louderback and Pavlik, 2017; Rumold and
Aldenderfer, 2016; Ugent and Peterson, 1988). What we argue is that
starch grain analysis is an essential element in recovering as much in-
formation as possible on the plants that were utilized in this region in
the past, in addition to the rich and varied macrobotanical evidence
available on the north coast of Peru.
This case study comes from the Late Moche (AD 600–850) site of
Wasi Huachuma (Je-65; Fig. 1). The recovery of potato (Solanum tu-
berosum) starch grains from residues on ceramics was a surprising de-
velopment due the previous lack of evidence of potato from other
Moche sites. Potato has been found at only one other Moche site, Huaca
Cao Viejo, as starch grains from the dental calculus of a sacrificed in-
dividual (Vásquez et al., 2014). It has long been presumed that potatoes
constituted an insignificant part of the Moche culinary repertoire as a
specialty crop (Bourget, 1990, 2006; Reinhard et al., 2007:535; Ugent
et al., 1982). This argument has been based partly on their highland
origin and prevalence (Salaman, 1949; Towle, 1961:84–87), but mostly
because of their relative absence from the excavated botanical material

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: guy.duke@utrgv.edu (G.S. Duke).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2018.10.006
Received 22 June 2018; Received in revised form 3 October 2018; Accepted 16 October 2018
0305-4403/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.S. Duke et al.
Fig. 1. Map of the Lower Jequetepeque Valley and some important Moche sites.
record. However, starch grains from potatoes were found within mul-
tiple quotidian contexts at Wasi Huachuma as part of a relatively con-
stricted range of plant materials indicating that they were a common
part of the daily diet at this site.
2. Research site and context
The Moche period in the Jequetepeque valley, which spanned from
approximately AD 200–850, was characterized by a number of shared
practices and traditions, from ceramic styles to modes of architectural
construction, as well as the expansion of irrigation systems and urba-
nization. While these practices and traditions obviously were altered
and modified over the centuries, it is clear that a definitive “Moche
tradition” was present throughout the north coast valleys, including the
Jequetepeque. By the Late Moche period, from AD 600–850, political
control of the Jequetepeque had splintered, likely due to a combination
of environmental instability and political or military disruption from
external groups leading to a period of internecine conflict (Castillo,
2001; Dillehay, 2001; Dillehay et al., 2004; Johnson et al., 2011;
Quilter and Koons, 2012; Shimada et al., 1991; Swenson, 2007, 2008).
Wasi Huachuma is located on the lower northeast slope of the
Catalina Hills in the lower Jequetepeque valley, in relatively close
proximity to three major regional centers of political power: Cerro
Chepén, San José de Moro, and Pacatnamú (Cusicanqui, 2010; Donnan
and Cock, 1997; Rosas, 2010) (Fig. 1). Radiocarbon dates from five
secure contexts place its occupation firmly within the Late Moche
period from AD 600–850 (see Duke, 2017:123–149). The site consists of
seven distinct sectors delineated by three dry arroyos running northeast
from the top of the hills to the irrigated plain below (Dillehay et al.,
2009:86–89; Duke, 2017:100–109; Swenson, 2004:609–617) (Fig. 2).
Sector B is the lower, central area of the site. It features a three-tiered,
ramped platform mound (Structure B) and associated out-buildings.
The low ridge rising along the northwest side of Sector B demarcates
Sector C, where the data in this paper derive, with a hill at the north
end designated Sector E. Along this ridge are a number of stone
alignments and disinterred burials. This area of the site has been
identified as Wasi Huachuma's primary residential area (Dillehay et al.,
2009:86–89; Duke, 2017:130–161; Swenson, 2004:609–617).
There is significant evidence of habitation and food processing in
Sector C, including burnt floors, hearths, food processing implements,
such as grinding stones, cutters and scrapers, and ceramic graters, and
the remains of food items themselves (Duke, 2017:130–161). The
macrobotanical materials recovered both in situ and via flotation from
Sector C included maize (Zea mays), squash (Cucurbita sp.), lúcuma
(Pouteria lucuma), and sapote (Capparis sp.) as well as reeds (Phragmites
australis) and algarroba (Prosopis sp.). Flotation processing recovered
75
Journal of Archaeological Science 100 (2018) 74–79
evidence of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), cotton (Gossypium bar-
badense), coca (Erythroxylum coca), and chilli pepper (Capsicum sp.)
(Vásquez and Rosales, 2014:17–24). Faunal materials included camelid
(Lama sp.), guinea pig (Cavia porcellus), eared dove (Zenaida auriculata),
marine fish (Mugil cephalus, Galeichthys peruvianus, Stellifer minor, Cy-
noscion sp., Sardinops sagax), mollusks (Tegula atra, Donax obesulus,
Prisogaster niger, Polinices uber, Thais chocolata), and arthropods (Pla-
tyxanthus orbignyi, Macrobrachium sp., Hypolobocera sp.) (Vásquez and
Rosales, 2014:8–16). For the most part, each of these materials was
available locally, either from the nearby irrigated fields or the Pacific
Ocean (see Chiou, 2017:58–61). All are common elements recovered
from Moche sites in the Jequetepeque and elsewhere. Notably, neither
tubers nor other underground storage organs (USOs) such as sweet
potato were recovered as macroremains at Wasi Huachuma.
3. Microbotanical methods and results
In addition to the macrobotanical and faunal materials, four arti-
facts—a small grinding stone (Fig. 3a), two non-diagnostic ceramic
body sherds, and a large, intact pot (Fig. 3b)—were analyzed for starch
grains. The grinding stone and one of the ceramic sherds were re-
covered from the same sub-floor fill within a domestic structure on the
south edge of Sector C. The other ceramic sherd came from a domestic
floor on the north side of Sector C. The whole vessel was found on its
side within a sand matrix below the floor in the northern domestic
structure. Its mouth opened to the east with botanical and faunal ma-
terials around it (Duke, 2017:137–143).
All of the above materials were carefully excavated using clean tools
and gloves. The grinding stone and ceramic sherds were small enough
to be securely wrapped in foil and plastic to prevent contamination and
sent to the laboratory for analysis. The whole vessel, however, was too
large for this. Instead, while in the field we poured a small amount of
unadulterated distilled water into the vessel, then used a new tooth-
brush, boiled and cleaned in distilled water, to gently scour the inside
bottom, and poured the resulting mixture into a sterile bottle.
The samples containing microbotanical remains were treated at the
Archeobios laboratory in Trujillo by Victor Vásquez and Teresa Rosales.
The ceramic sherds and grinding stone were cleaned with compressed
air to remove the adhered dust and other particles to ensure that the
starch grains analyzed were obtained directly from the object rather
than from the sediments from which they were uncovered. A sterile
needle (one for each item) was used to scrape areas of the grinding
stone with white-to-yellow sediments that could contain starch grains.
The residue was transferred directly to a slide where a few drops of
saline solution had been previously added. This procedure was per-
formed on each sample three to five times separately by sampling the
G.S. Duke et al.
Fig. 2. Topographic map of Wasi Huachuma with inset of Sector C.
different areas such as the interstices and fissures of each sample. A
solution of distilled water and glycerin v/v was then applied, which was
added to the suspension of residues to retard the drying and to allow the
grains to be easier to manipulate when detected. Starch grains from the
bottled sample from the whole vessel were sampled with a sterile
Pasteur pipette. Three drops of the suspension were placed on a moon
slide which was covered with a moon coverslip.
The recovered microbotanical samples were dried at ambient tem-
perature and conditioned for taxonomic identification. The taxonomic
identification of the remains was carried out by using a 400× com-
pound microscope under both standard and polarized light. The iden-
tification was based on comparing the morphological characteristics of
the archaeological samples with documented examples from other re-
searchers (Guevara, 1973; Loy, 1990; Piperno et al., 2006; Reichert,
1913; Torrence and Barton, 2006).
For the identification of starch grains, a modern reference collection
76
Journal of Archaeological Science 100 (2018) 74–79
of edible plants was used, including tubers, roots, cereals, beans of
various species and native fruits. The starch grains were identifiable
because they retained their shape and characteristics of the surface, and
some still exhibited the typical cross that is produced with polarized
light. Once the starch grains were identified, they were measured using
a micron measuring reticle inserted into the microscope eyepiece. The
starch grains were photographed with a SONY Cybershot 12 megapixel
digital camera. The results from these assays revealed potato starch
from all of the ceramics, as well as maize starch from the whole vessel
and the grinding stone (Fig. 4a–d; Table 1) (Vásquez and Rosales,
2014:23–24).
4. Implications for research
The larger project compared culinary materials from Wasi
Huachuma with those from Huaca Colorada on the south side of the
G.S. Duke et al.
Fig. 3. a. Grinding stone from Unit 3, Level 5, Wasi Huachuma. b. Whole vessel from Unit 5, Level 5, Feature 4, Wasi Huachuma.
river (see Duke, 2017; Swenson et al., 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015).
With one exception,1 potato was the only plant species found solely at
Wasi Huachuma (Vásquez and Rosales, 2014). While this could be due
to any number of reasons, including exclusive use on the north side of
the valley or use as a one-time novelty import, the sheer variety of plant
remains at Huaca Colorada (30 distinct species/genera) in comparison
to the relatively limited scope at Wasi Huachuma (14 distinct species/
1
A generic desert shrub (Encelia sp.), which grows wild along the hills and
arroyos in the area (Vásquez and Rosales, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).
77
Journal of Archaeological Science 100 (2018) 74–79
Fig. 4. Potato starch grains from Wasi Huachuma. a.
A typical Solanum tuberosum (potato) starch grain
with the lamellae indicated by the arrow. This starch
grain measures 39 microns long by 20.8 microns
wide, captured under 400× microscope. From Wasi
Huachuma, Sector C, Unit 3–13, Level 5. Scale: 10
microns. b. The same starch grain from the previous
image under polarized light showing the typical
Maltese cross and the eccentric position of the hilum
as characteristic of potato starch grains. c. Solanum
tuberosum (potato) starch grain measuring 28.6 mi-
crons long by 16.9 microns wide. The arrow points to
the eccentric position of the hilum. Captured by
400× microscope. From Wasi Huachuma, Sector C,
Unit 5–13, Level 3. d. The same starch grain from the
previous image under polarized light showing the
Maltese cross and the eccentric position of the hilum.
genera) (Duke, 2017:415–448) indicates that these are unlikely sce-
narios. Importantly, starch grain analyses were not conducted on ma-
terials from Huaca Colorada. Thus, we argue that the lack of evidence
for potato there2 is more likely due to a lack of microbotanical analysis
2
Solanum sp. at Huaca Colorada were only recovered from flotation samples.
The specific parts of the plant were not identified. These materials could be
potato or any other member of the Solanum genus present in the region during
this period, such as Solanum muricatum (pepino) (Fernández and Rodríquez,
2007:209–212) or Solanum betaceum (tree tomato) (Fernández and Rodríquez,
2007:204–207).
G.S. Duke et al.
Table 1
Identified starch grains and observations from Wasi Huachuma during the 2013 field season.
Material Context Identified species
Whole ceramic vessel (tinaja) Sector C, Unit 5–13, Level 5, Solanum tuberosum
Feature 4
Zea mays
Non-diagnostic ceramic body sherd Sector C, Unit 3–13, Level 5 Solanum tuberosum
Non-diagnostic ceramic body sherd Sector C, Unit 5–13, Level 3, SE Solanum tuberosum
portion
Grinding stone Sector C, Unit 3–13, Level 5 Zea mays
at this site rather than a reflection of past consumption.
This is not an issue restricted to Huaca Colorada, nor should it be
construed as an indictment of their collection practices. The only other
example of potato recovered from a Moche context were starch grains
found in the dental calculus from a burial at Huaca Cao Viejo (Vásquez
et al., 2014). However, the Moche depicted potatoes in their icono-
graphy (Bourget, 2006:25–26, 85, 147–148) and potato starch grains
were also recovered from post-Moche sites in the Jequetepeque valley
(Cutright, 2009:145–149). For this reason, we believe the paucity of
direct, physical evidence for potato from more Moche contexts is due to
the over-reliance on macrobotanical analyses (where those are sys-
tematically undertaken) and the under-use of starch grain analyses.
Crucially, this information would not have been available had we
only collected macrobotanical and flotation samples. Recovering mac-
robotanical evidence of potato is not unheard of on the coast of Peru, as
documented at Pachacamac and in the Casma valley (Towle, 1961;
Ugent et al., 1982), but rare, and as yet, unheard of in Moche contexts.
To more consistently find potato requires utilizing additional methods
of acquisition and analysis—in this case, starch grain residue analyses.
We argue for a more rigorous and consistent application of starch grain
residue analyses, in order to obtain as much information as possible
about past plant utilization, rather than relying on macrobotanical re-
mains alone.
Ultimately, the identification of potato as part of the common diet at
a Late Moche site alters our understanding of Moche culinary traditions.
Potato has been understood as a highland food with some presence on
the coast, but mostly as a novelty food for irregular consumption by
elites (Hastorf, 1991; Kolata, 1986; Rumold and Aldenderfer, 2016;
Salaman, 1949:34; Ugent and Peterson, 1988; Ugent et al., 1982). The
evidence from Wasi Huachuma, however, indicates that potato was
consumed regularly and across socioeconomic status lines. If this were
the case at other sites, as it likely was, then this greatly increases our
understanding of Moche subsistence, adding potato to the list of dietary
staples such as maize and beans. While starch grain evidence from other
sites is necessary to definitively make such a statement, it is critical that
more microbotanical studies are undertaken in the region in order to
investigate this possibility.
Data availability statement
All data discussed in this report are available at http://hdl.handle.
net/1807/78507 (Duke, 2017).
Declarations of interest
None.
78
Journal of Archaeological Science 100 (2018) 74–79
Measurements L × W (microns) Observations Image
28.6 × 20.8 damaged
20.8 × 15.6 hydrolyzed
18.2 × 15.6 damaged
15.6 × 15.6 damaged
26 × 20.8 damaged
18.2 × 18.2 with fissures in hilum
39 × 20.8 typical, well-preserved Fig. 4a and b
15.6 × 15.6 ovoid
28.6 × 16.9 elliptical, well-preserved
20.8 × 16.9 polyhedral Fig. 4c and d
26.3 × 26.3 polyhedral, with fissures in
hilum
Acknowledgements
Much appreciation to Edward Swenson, Sarah M. Rowe, Sara
Juengst, Katie Chiou, and David Goldstein for commentary on earlier
drafts of this paper. Research at Wasi Huachuma was funded by the
Wenner-Gren Foundation (Doctoral Dissertation Grant #Gr. 8640).
Fieldwork at Wasi Huachuma was conducted under Ministerio de
Cultura de Peru permit #136-2013-DGPA-VMPCIC/MC. Lastly, many
thanks to Edward Swenson and John P. Warner for providing access to
the data from Huaca Colorada.
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