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2007-Approaches To Energy Efficient BuildingDevelopment-2007
2007-Approaches To Energy Efficient BuildingDevelopment-2007
Development –
Studying under Chinese Contexts
Zhenhong Gu
Licentiate thesis
Industrial Ecology
School of Industrial Engineering and Management
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, October 2007
Title:
Approaches to Energy Efficient Building Development –
Studying under Chinese Contexts
Author:
Zhenhong Gu
Registration:
ISSN 1402 - 7615
TRITA-IM 2007:23
Published by:
Royal Institute of Technology
School of Industrial Engineering and Management
Division of Industrial Ecology
SE – 100 44 STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN
Phone: (+46) 8 790 87 93 (distribution)
(+46) 8 790 87 61 (author)
Fax: (+46) 8 790 50 34
E-mail:guzhenhong@msn.com
Print by:
Universitetsservice US AB, Stockholm, Sweden, 2007
Abstract
This thesis presents a general description of approaches to energy efficient building development
under Chinese contexts. The purpose of the work is to discuss how Chinese building development
can be approved from an energy saving perspective.
Building development is a complicated process that relates to many stakeholders’ interests. The
developed countries have studied in this field extensively for several decades. Generally, the
approaches to energy saving can be set at three levels: administration, construction industry and
architectural design. More new strict codes for energy efficient buildings are being issued for
enforcement. At the same time, many research institutes have developed Building Environmental
Assessment (BEA) methods, where energy efficiency is an important factor in the models. Various
technical solutions for energy efficiency are developed as well.
The administrative approaches are not the main objective discussed in the thesis, though the
importance of them is undeniable. BEA systems are not only assessment methods, but also market-
based stimulating approaches for sustainability of construction market. Technical methods have
been developed for a long period. Passive House and Low Exergy (LowEx) Systems are two
representative examples in European countries.
All of these approaches are relatively unfamiliar to Chinese architects and developers, let alone their
effect and applicability. The thesis tries to analyse this situation and their applicability within
Chinese context.
In China to a certain project, the importance of technical issues is relatively recognized. However, a
few successful individual cases in technique can not change the reality that most of new building
development has failed in energy efficiency in China. This is a serious situation when China is in an
enormous expansion phase in building new houses. The thesis tries to discuss the reasons for this
phenomenon. One reason could be that the stakeholders in the developing process are not aware of
the importance of collaboration which is the only method to get “Both Win” according to Game
theory. The thesis discusses a paradigm to replace two traditional linear paradigms in building
developing process. Architects should act as coordinators of different stakeholders rather than
technical supporters.
The thesis tries to discuss the propositional route of developing energy efficient buildings.
Technical approaches are basic research, which presents the concepts that have been proved
realizable; BEA encourages developers to develop more energy efficient buildings for economic
benefit, which will make good demonstrations for whole market; national laws and policies are final
approaches, which ensure that every project will have good performance of energy efficiency.
When the old standardization and legislation are finished, a new cycle will begin with more
advanced techniques.
China government has started the progress to enhance energy efficiency. However, this process will
be tough and slow. The thesis discusses Chinese special conditions and the problems that cry out for
solution in the future.
Keywords: Energy efficiency, China, Passive House, Low Exergy system, Built Environmental
Assessment, LCA, Swedish housing, Hammarby Sjöstad, Eco-village, Game theory, System theory,
Soft Systems Methodology
i
Acknowledgements
This research results from the cooperation between Industrial Ecology, Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Sweden, and Architectural School, Southeast University (SEU), China. As a
part of the cooperation, some Chinese young teachers came to Sweden to attend in advanced
courses. In autumn 2004, as one of these students, I came to KTH to begin the doctoral program
under the direction of my supervisor, Prof. Ronald Wennersten, the head of Industrial Ecology.
Prof. Ronald Wennersten realized the contrast between advanced technologies and unsatisfactory
developing status of building development, which shows the importance of social aspects. Without
appropriate mechanisms, technologies are only theoretical but unfeasible. He had worked in the
field of mechanisms of sustainable development, including environmental assessment, risk
management, and water management of communities, for a long time. I have been fortunate enough
to work with him. His intelligent and acute comments have inspired me. I am grateful for his
important guidance and help.
Dr. Getachew Assefa and Prof. Dick Urban Vestbro at School of Architecture and Built
Environment, KTH helped me to improve the papers and gave me valuable guidance. Ester Galli
has helped me to perfect the structure of thesis and language corrections. I appreciate your
collaboration.
My sincere gratitude goes to all my colleagues at Industrial Ecology, KTH and Architectural School,
SEU, for their valuable comments, support and friendship. Prof. Dongqing Han, Prof. Wei Dong
and Prof. Tong Zhang introduced and guided me to study at KTH. Karin Orve, the Education
Administrator of the Industrial Ecology at KTH, has untiringly provided me warm assistance. Kosta
Wallin has kept my most important working tool, the computer and printer, in order. Xingqiang
Song, Xiangjun Wang and other colleagues present many important comments on my work. I am
indebted to you all.
My special gratitude goes to Yingfang He at International Office of KTH. During the period of my
studying at Sweden, her warm help gave me homely feeling in a foreign land. I am grateful to you.
My parents and wife always are my strong backers. Thank you for your patience and understanding.
Finally I want to thank all of my collaborators and friends who have been supportive and helpful
during my work. Thank you all.
ii
Outline and list of appended papers
The outline of this thesis is based on four papers, which constitutes a flow of how this research has
developed. The three first papers form a base for the fourth and final article where a preliminary
study on the approaches to energy efficient building development. Paper one describes the
sustainability assessment of residential areas and sustainable building design within Chinese context.
Paper two compares two methods of energy efficient house and the implemental discussion in
China. Paper three carry out a sensitivity analysis of most widely used building environmental
assessment methods. These two papers describe the technical methods of energy efficient buildings.
Paper four compares two housing paradigms in Sweden and presents the developing strategies to
energy efficient housing development within Chinese context combined with game theory and
Swedish experiences.
I. Gu, ZH., Wang, XJ., Wennersten, R., and Dong, W. (2005) Sustainability Assessment of
Residential Areas and Sustainable Building Design in China, the 3rd international conference
of the International Society for Industrial Ecology.
I described the situation of current sustainability assessment tools and sustainable buildings,
presented potential ideas to be developed in China. I wrote parts of the paper.
II. Gu, ZH., Wennersten, R. (2006) Comparison of Two Methods of Energy Efficient Houses:
Implemental Discussion in China, Conference Proceedings, 10th international Passive House
conference.
I carried out the literature survey, the comparison of two methods of energy efficient houses
and wrote the paper.
III. Gu, ZH., Wennersten, R., Assefa, G. (2006) Analysis of the most widely used Building
Environmental Assessment methods, Environmental Sciences September 2006; 3(3): pp. 175
– 192.
I carried out the literature survey, the comparison of the BEA methods, made the diagrams,
and wrote the paper.
IV. Gu, ZH., Wennersten, R. (2006) A study about Chinese developing strategies to energy
efficient housing development in architect’s perspective, combined with Swedish experiences
and Game Theory, Submitted to Journal of Housing and the Built Environment.
I presented the strategies for energy efficient building development based on Swedish case
studies and wrote the paper.
iii
List of abbreviations
BEA Built Environmental Assessment
BREEAM BRE Environmental Assessment Method
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
LEH Low-energy House
LowEx Low Exergy
NABERS National Australian Built Environment Rating System
RH Relative Humidity
SSM Soft Systems Methodology
USGBC U.S. Green Building Council
iv
Table of contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ i
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. ii
Outline and list of appended papers ................................................................................................... iii
List of abbreviations........................................................................................................................... iv
Table of contents ................................................................................................................................. v
1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 China’s situation .................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Aim and objectives............................................................................................................... 3
2 Research methodology............................................................................................................. 4
3 Theoretical framework............................................................................................................. 5
3.1 Classification of approaches ................................................................................................ 5
3.2 Social concepts and methods ............................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 Game theory ................................................................................................................. 6
3.2.2 Soft Systems Methodology........................................................................................... 7
3.2.3 Provider paradigm and support paradigm .................................................................... 7
3.2.4 Standardization and legislation..................................................................................... 8
3.3 Economic concepts and methods ......................................................................................... 9
3.3.1 Life Cycle Assessment ................................................................................................. 9
3.3.2 Building Environmental Assessment............................................................................ 9
3.3.3 Commercialized BEA systems ................................................................................... 10
3.4 Technical concepts and methods........................................................................................ 10
3.4.1 Energy consumption of buildings............................................................................... 10
3.4.2 Indoor Comfort........................................................................................................... 11
3.4.3 Passive House............................................................................................................. 12
3.4.4 Low Exergy Systems.................................................................................................. 14
4 Proposals................................................................................................................................ 16
5 Summary of appended papers................................................................................................ 17
5.1 Paper I ................................................................................................................................ 17
5.2 Paper II............................................................................................................................... 17
5.3 Paper III.............................................................................................................................. 18
5.4 Paper IV ............................................................................................................................. 19
6 Discussions ............................................................................................................................ 20
6.1 Chinese special conditions ................................................................................................. 20
v
6.1.1 A developing country ................................................................................................. 20
6.1.2 Large area of construction in a short time .................................................................. 20
6.1.3 Chinese culture is different from western culture ...................................................... 20
6.2 Important issues to promote China’s energy efficiency..................................................... 21
6.2.1 Improve technologies suitable for China.................................................................... 21
6.2.2 Sustainable development needs systems thinking ...................................................... 22
6.2.3 Market transformation and legislation........................................................................ 22
6.3 Further research.................................................................................................................. 23
7 Conclusions............................................................................................................................ 24
References ......................................................................................................................................... 25
vi
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
With the development of the world economy, the situation of Energy Crisis and Environmental
Impact is serious. During the past years, crude oil soared to new records one after another (Financial
Times, 2007). The high energy consumption and climate change due to globe warming are being
big challenges to human being’s development.
More than thirty percent of primary energy, mostly is from fossil fuel, is consumed by non-
industrial buildings, including houses, offices, schools, hospitals and so on (Anink et al. 1996). In
recent years, the situation of electrical shortage is becoming more serious in Chinese developed
areas1 (Chongqing Economic News, 2004). It demands immediate action to develop energy efficient
buildings to reduce consumption.
Many developed countries have been leading the forefront in the energy efficient buildings’
development. Technical measures to increase building’s energy saving performance have been
developed for a long time. Performance Rating Systems and Tools for Sustainable Building Design
have been well developed in many countries since early 1990s. Integrated methods (or toolboxes)
for sustainable community planning were also developed. China, as the biggest building market
now, is eager to apply their experiences in Chinese development.
1
In Chongqing, a big city in the south, air-conditionings have been increased from 0.08 per family in 1993 to 1.11 per
family in 2004, which consumed more than 1000kWh electricity per family in summer. The top capacity of Chinese air-
conditionings is 45,000MW in 2003, which is equal to 2.5 times of the installed capacity of the Three Gorges Dam (world
biggest dam) when it was completed. As the current trend, the top capacity of air-conditionings is equal to 10 times of the
full capacity of the Three Gorges Dam in 2020.
1
energy efficient building should be analysed, classified and adjusted to fit Chinese different
climates.
Figure 1. Thermal design zones of China (Source: Code for design of civil buildings, GB 50352-
2005)
To deal with this challenge, Chinese government mapped out the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006 - 2010),
which laid out a roadmap for China’s sustainable development. Energy efficiency is an important
sector in the plan. Ten energy-saving programmes were presented: high energy efficient boiler;
regional combined heat and power (CHP); utilization of industrial waste heat; substitute for oil;
energy efficiency of electrical systems; energy efficiency of power systems; energy efficiency of
buildings; energy efficiency of illuminations; energy efficiency in governmental offices;
establishment of inspecting systems and technical support systems for energy efficiency (State
Council of China, 2006).
Though the government has identified the policy of energy efficiency, it has less power to guide the
building markets like several decades ago. Before 1978, almost all buildings were planned, invested
and constructed by the states. Today, most of Chinese housing development is operated under
market-based principles and all kinds of capitals, most of them private, are participating in Chinese
real estate market. During the past decade, the investment in residential buildings increased rapidly
(Figure 2).
Billion Chinese
Yuan
1600
Total
1400
1200 Urban
1000
800
Real estate
development
600
Rural
400
200 Rural
Households
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Figure 2. Annual Chinese Investment in Residential Buildings, 1 Chinese Yuan ≈ 1/8 US Dollar
(Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China 2006).
2
Initially, the investors tried their best to grasp more benefits in spite of other responsibility. With the
early crazy atmosphere slowly calming down and the energy crisis gradually appeared, Chinese
authorities, developers, architects, and consumers began to be aware of the importance of energy
efficiency. However, they have few experiences in these areas. The preliminary rules of building
markets have just been established but far from perfection, which makes the situation more complex:
on one hand, the government needs investors to build more buildings to solve housing problem; on
the other hand, the large-scale low-standard development will induce higher environmental impact
and energy pressure. Hence it is necessary to study the experiences of industrialized countries.
3
2 Research methodology
The purpose of this research is to look at Chinese problems with the add of industrialized countries’
experiences. Thus case study is the first step of the research. Many cases of energy efficient
buildings have been developed in European countries, as well as many methods and theories for
energy efficiency. By case study the research tries to analyzes and compare the advantages and
shortcomings of them as the bases for discussion of the applicability to China’s situation. The
research compares Hammarby Sjöstad and Eco-village, two representative cases of sustainable
housing development in Sweden. Three most widely used BEA methods are also analyzed during
the research process. These cases provided many experiences to the further research.
Systems analysis and system thinking are another important methodology used in the research.
Systems methodology is not a new theory, but it is unfamiliar to architects. Traditionally, architects
are accustomed to personal work and their aesthetic and technical world. They consider buildings as
their artworks. Architects’ opinion represents one side of buildings. On the other side, a building
project is a system. A residential community, composed with some projects, is a bigger system. The
whole national building market is a much bigger system. Modern buildings, especially large-scale
projects, are so complicated that they are difficult to be grasped by one architect using traditional
architectural methodology. The system thinking is helpful to architects to identify their roles and
strategies in the systems.
The research generally includes three processes: definitions, analysis, and proposals. Firstly, the
boundary of the system should be defined. There are different sizes of systems when we try to
discuss about the energy efficient building development, from a single project to the whole building
market. Hence methods for energy efficient building development are discussed at different level
respectively. To a single building project, the discussed range is limited in building developers,
customers, and designers, basically are direct stakeholders. To the whole market, administrations
and other social institutions are added in the system boundary. Most of them are indirect
stakeholders. Secondly, the factors of systems that influence the energy efficient building
development and their relationship are analyzed. The factors may be technical, economic, or social.
In a system, each factor has its special effect to promote energy efficiency, or not. Finally, aimed at
the result of analysis, the proposals to energy efficient building development in China are presented.
The positive factors should be enhanced, and negative factors should be reduced by the rational
approaches.
In addition to the theoretical research, the implementation of approaches is also schemed in the
further research works. Then a cycle from case to theory to practice is perfected. The simplex
theoretical research that lack of practice is always flawed.
4
3 Theoretical framework
3.1 Classification of approaches
To promote energy efficient building development many approaches have been developed at three
levels: administration, building industry and architectural design (Figure 3). Due to the uncertainties
in energy supply and concern over the risk of global warming, many countries have introduced
target values for reducing energy consumption in buildings. New strict codes for energy efficient
buildings are issued for enforcement (ECBCS). At the same time, many research institutes
developed Building Environmental Assessment (BEA) methods, where energy efficiency is an
important factor. Various technical solutions for energy efficiency are developed as well. In many
European countries, a series of measures was developed to minimize energy consumption.
5
Summer and Cold Winter Zone” also rules shape coefficients2 (Ministry of Construction of P.R.
China, 2001). Here all discussed approaches are classified into one of three types based on their
main contents. It is for the sake of the thesis structure, and does not mean that one approach belongs
strictly to a certain method.
Table 1. The criteria to be classified of three methods
Property Range Object
Social methods Soft Whole society Systematic problem Mental
Economic methods ↓↑ ↓↑ ↓↑ ↓↑
Technical methods Hard Individual case Single problem Physical
2
Shape coefficient is ratio of exterior surface to floor area. The smaller it is, the energy loss area is less and the energy
efficiency is higher. Hence control shape coefficient is a basic technical method for energy efficiency in an architectural
design. China’s “Design standard for energy efficiency of residential buildings in Hot Summer and Cold Winter Zone”
4.0.3 rules shape coefficients of rectangular buildings can not over 0.35 and shape coefficients of punctual buildings can
not over 0.4.
3
“Prisoner's dilemma” is a famous model of non-zero-sum game. There are two accused persons. They are being
interrogated separately and do not know what the other is saying. If one pleads not guilty and the other person confesses,
one will stay in jail for 10 years, and the other one will be released. If they both plead not guilty, they will both receive a
sentence of one year. If both plead guilty, they will both receive a sentence of five years. Obviously, pleading guilty is the
most rational choice to each of them, whether the other one pleads guilty or pleads not guilty. Consequently, both of them
have to stay in jail for five years. Although the best result to the system is they both have a one-year sentence, it is
impossible in practice.
6
3.2.2 Soft Systems Methodology
Systems theory was proposed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in 1936, which was later called
General System Theory (Wikipedia, Systems theory). It is one of the most important theories
established during the 20th century. It is successful in solving many structural problems, such as
railway schedule and mass production management. However, General System Theory is difficult
to be used in solving unstructured problems, such as social problems. It is because traditional
systems theory is Hard Systems Methodology, which considers that the raw world is structured and
mechanical. Humans can identify the rules of this world and use them in practice. However, there
are so many indefinite factors in the human world that makes traditional engineering weak in areas
such as social, cultural, educational, health issues and management. The Soft Systems Thinking
presents a different thinking mode which does not consider the world to be mechanical and can be
absolutely controlled by humans. However, humans can influence and organize the world by using
limited, internalized actions, which are iterative process of interaction and communication between
problem solver or manager and real world problem situation, rather than a result (Checkland, 1999).
Stakeholders related to a building development also form a social system. Soft Systems
Methodology can be used in the project management.
7
Neighbourhoods and Cities
Top-down
Developers Developers Developers
Bottom-up
Design Construction
Architects Architects Architects
Implementation Scheme and Design
Inhabitants Inhabitants Inhabitants
Architects Architects
Clients
8
demonstration and extend the concept, but the availability of them is limited. The comprehensive
energy efficient building development still relies on administrative methods at last.
Water Management
Eco-design
BEA Category
Building Environments Living performance
9
The goal of BEA is to identify and evaluate the environmental impacts of building development and
operation. On one hand, for a new construction, the conclusion of the assessment could support
decision making and promote sustainable design and plan. On the other hand, for an existing
building, an objective assessment is a useful starting point for the identification of disadvantages
and for reforming design. Whatever the style of the object, these assessments do not determine
decision making, but they do influence the process.
Generally, BEA has functions such as:
• Presenting a set of quantitative environmental measure and evaluating methods for sustainable
buildings and communities;
• Promoting official policies and regulations aimed at sustainable construction;
• Raising consumer awareness of environmental issues and standards;
• Recognizing and encouraging environmental design for buildings, and stimulating the market
for sustainable construction;
• Improving environmental management of the built environment;
• Forcing the building market to pay more attention to ecological issues.
10
less relation with architectural design. Mechanical ventilation consumes the least energy. Therefore
in more narrow sense, the energy consumption of house mainly means space heating and cooling.
In broad sense, energy consumption should be discussed in LCA perspective, which should include
the energy consumption during the whole life cycle of a building, not only in its operating period,
but also its material production, transportation, construction, and demolition periods. The LCA
principle has been adapted in most modern environmental assessment methods, as well energy
consumption assessment. E.g. from a LCA perspective, aluminium is not recommended even if it
has good physical characteristic, because of its high energy consumption in production phase.
However, less than 10% of energy is consumed in construction phase and most of energy is
consumed in the operating phase of the buildings. Hence the article mainly discusses the energy
consumption in narrow sense.
Figure 7. Heat exchanges of human body. (Source: Szokolay S.V. Introduction to Architectural
Science, the Basis of Sustainable Design, p16)
11
To keep the indoor fresh air it is necessary to exchange air with outdoor, which is the main function
of ventilation system (Table 2).
Table 2. Typical Ventilation Requirements. (Source: Szokolay S.V. Introduction to Architectural
Science, the Basis of Sustainable Design, p264)
Function Air changes per hour
Kitchen, other than domestic 20
Kitchen, domestic 10
Laundry, boiler room, operating theatre 15
Canteen, restaurant, dance hall 10 ~ 15
Cinema, theatre, lavatory 6 ~ 10
Bathroom, bank hall, parking station 6
Office, laboratory 4~6
Library 3~4
Staircase, corridor (non-domestic) 2
All other domestic rooms 1
Air inhaled: at sedentary activity 0.5m3/h
at heavy work, up to 5m3/h
Limitation: CO2 content, absolute limit 0.5%
markedly ‘used air” effect 0.15%
A problem of ventilation system that should be solved is the thermal loss. The difficulty of house’s
ventilation system is the building’s small space, which requires a relatively simple system. The
most rational solution should be ventilation systems with chimney effect instead of large-scale
central ventilation systems applied in commercial buildings (Figure 8).
12
envelope increased continuously with the development of material science and construction
technologies. However, the best passive system still has a disadvantage: relying on the surrounding
natural environment but lack of the ability of active adjustment when the situation may be
extremely tough.
“Active” systems are equipments which can adjust the temperature, humidity, air flow, brightness
and other elements of indoor climate. They may be old fireplaces or modern air conditionings, old
candles or modern electric bulbs. Whatever, active systems need the external energy to drive. In the
most occasions, the external energy is fossil fuels. Most of the active systems are independently
working and do not necessarily work with passive systems.
Passive systems usually do not consume energy, so they are the total energy efficient systems.
The term “Passive House” refers to a construction standard, which is a refinement of the Low-
energy House (LEH) standard (Table 3). The main point of LEH standard is that no more than 65
kw/m² of energy may be used for heating purposes. Application of this standard would reduce the
consumption of oil for heating purposes from 12-15 litres to 6.5 litres per square metre heated
(European Commission). To get the LEH standard, the house should have better heat insulation: not
less than 14cm thickness of insulation material, no heat bridge, windows with double glazing and
good air tight frames.
"Passive Houses" are buildings which assure a comfortable indoor climate in summer and in
winter without needing a conventional heat distribution system (Feist et al. 2001). The heat
insulation of Passive Houses is so good that the heat radiation from human bodies and house
appliances can meet the heating requirements. The house heats itself, so it is called “zero-energy
house” too. For European passive construction, prerequisite to this capability is an annual heating
requirement that is less than 15 kWh/(m²a), and the combined primary energy consumption of
living area may not exceed 42kWh/(m²a) for heat, hot water and household electricity. With this as
a starting point, additional energy requirements may be completely covered using renewable energy
sources (Passive House).
Table 3. Technical Index of Passive House (Source: Passive House homepage)
Requirements
Items
Measure Specification
Passive solar Passive solar gain Optimized south-facing glazing Close to 40% contribution to space
gain heating demand
Super-glazing Low-Emissivity triple glazing U-value ≤ 0.75 W/(m²K), solar
transmission factor ≥ 50%
Super-frames Super-insulated window frames U-value ≤ 0.8 W/(m²K)
Super- Building shell Superinsulation U-value ca. 0.15 W/(m²K)
insulation Building element Thermal-bridge-free construction Ψ (linear thermal transmittance, exterior
junctions dimensions) < 0.01 W/(mK)
Air-tightness Airtight building envelope less than 0.6 air changes per hour at n50
Combining Hygienic ventilation Directed air flow through whole Around 30 m³ per hour and person
efficient heat building; exhaust air extracted
recovery with from damp rooms
supplementary Heat recovery Counterflow air-to-air heat Heat transfer efficiency η ≥ 80%
supply air exchanger
heating Latent heat recovery Compact heat pump unit Max. heat load 10 W/m²
from exhaust air
Subsoil heat exchanger Fresh air preheating Fresh air temperature ≥ 8°C
Electric efficiency means efficient Through fitting the Passive Houses with efficient household appliances, hot
appliances water connections for washing machines and dishwashers, airing cabinets
and compact fluorescent lamps, electricity consumption is also slashed – by
50% compared to the average housing stock, without any loss of comfort or
convenience.
Meeting the remaining energy demand Cost-optimized solar thermal systems should meet about 40–60% of the
with renewable entire low-temperature heat demand. Over the annual balance, the
remaining energy consumption (for space heating, domestic hot water and
household electricity) is offset completely by renewable sources.
13
Advantages of Passive House
• Low primary energy consumption.
• Simple concept.
• Developed constructions and productions.
Shortcomings of Passive House
• Difficult to obtain the highest indoor comfort.
• High costs for buildings.
14
accessories of buildings, but also the parts of constructions. So it should be considered during the
architecture design overall.
Advantages of LowEx systems
• High indoor comfort compared with Passive House.
• Energy efficiency.
• Wide applicability.
• Space efficiency.
Shortcomings of LowEx systems
• Not more energy efficient than Passive House.
• Complicated constructions.
• High costs.
It should be emphasized that either Passive House or LowEx is not a single technical method, but a
group of a series of relative technical methods. Both of them include tens of techniques and some of
them are repeated.
15
4 Proposals
New technical methods, such as Passive House or LowEx systems, are innovations for current
buildings. They are usually discussed in academic world, but not more cases are implemented,
compared with large numbers of new buildings, the much less can get all scientists’ strict criteria.
However, they are still significant to energy efficient buildings. They present the concepts that have
been proved realizable.
The previous paragraph mentions that LCA for building industry is not developed very well because
of certain building’s uniqueness, which means every concrete assessment is almost meaningless for
other projects. Each successful building case is so complicated that it is hard to be copied in another
place. Hence, most rational developers, they are businessmen, will not make environmental
assessments to their building development only for technical reasons, especially when the nation
does not make a strict standard for energy efficiency of building development.
Why LCA for certain building development and BEA are regarded as economic methods? The
purposes that building developers make assessment is not only they want to know how “green” their
buildings are, but more important, they want the customers to know how “green” their buildings are.
Only a certification from the third institution with high reliability, such as LEED, can make the
customers believe it is true. Then the role of environmental assessment is changing from a simply
technical feature into an important key point that links the two sides of players in the game of
building development. It makes the game change from non-cooperative game into cooperative game.
The role of assessment in the building development game can not be explained from technical
perspective, but the Game theory can explain it very well.
BEA is a method that encourages clients to develop more energy efficient buildings for economic
benefits. BEA acts as an important role in establishing sustainable building markets. Its main
achievement is making more theoretical models into the realistic development. As optimistic
inference, with more and more energy efficient building projects certificated, the effects of
demonstration will influence the whole building market.
However, when we extend the discussing scope into the whole national building market, the
situation is becoming more complex than single project. A single project is a game between one
developer and a couple of customer, but the whole building market is a game between many
developers and many customers. A developer, as a rational businessman, has to consider the
consequence of more investment in energy efficiency, which increases the costs and decreases the
price competitiveness. He must not only persuade customers to trust that his building is good
enough to the price, but also win the competition with other developers’ low-price buildings with
low energy efficient performance. The Game theory explains the importance of standardization and
legislation at the market level. Only under strongly authoritative safeguard, the developers can
relieve the fear from others cheap buildings, and be absorbed in their own buildings’ performance.
Laws and codes regulate the basic standards of buildings. Comparing with laws, policies are less
mandatory, but their effects are still countrywide. In China, a centralized country, not any
nongovernmental methods can be mentioned in the same level.
These three sets of methods represented the three phases in the route of developing energy efficient
buildings: basic research, making demonstrations, and spreading to the whole society. When the old
standardization and legislation is finished, the new cycle is beginning with more advanced
techniques.
16
5 Summary of appended papers
Appended papers constitute a theoretical basis for the approaches for Chinese energy efficient
building development as well as the authors’ practice in Chinese projects. In addition, to the work
presented here the author has taken an active part in the research at Architectural School, Southeast
University, China.
5.1 Paper I
Gu, ZH., Wang, XJ., Wennersten, R., and Dong, W. (2005) Sustainability Assessment of
Residential Areas and Sustainable Building Design in China, the 3rd international conference of the
International Society for Industrial Ecology.
The purpose of this paper was to present potential ideas to be developed in China based on the
situation of current sustainability assessment tools and sustainable buildings.
The paper discussed practical methods for sustainability assessment of residential area in China and
sustainable building design in China as well as presented ideas to be developed in a Chinese context:
• Enhance international cooperation and learning process. The Royal Institute of Technology
and Southeast University in Nanjing have established a center for Eco-Architecture in order to
promote experience exchange in the area of sustainable community planning.
• Develop practical assessment methods in a Chinese context. Users should be developers,
planners, designers, engineers, etc. There should be a flexibility to use them in a whole life cycle
approach or in a certain life stage of a community or a building. The assessment methods should
be possible to use in a local or regional context.
• Accelerate the development of legislation and standardization on sustainable building and
ecological community development
• Develop a database for assessment methods and best practice in sustainable architecture and
community planning
• Government and regional authorities, as buyers, could serve as initiators to promote
environmental assessment tools as a real estate management protocol to combine with the market.
This requires extensive expansion of education of key persons.
• Involve public participation in impact assessments and develop indicators in the development
of local sustainability as part of a social learning process.
The paper presented the framework of strategies for sustainable building development in China.
Energy efficiency is no doubt a part of them. The further research about the methods for energy
efficient buildings are based on this framework.
5.2 Paper II
Gu, ZH., Wennersten, R. (2006) Comparison of Two Methods of Energy Efficient Houses:
Implemental Discussion in China, Conference Proceedings, 10th international Passive House
conference.
This paper describes and compares two representative methods in energy conservation for non-
industrial buildings – Passive House and LowEx System. Passive Houses are buildings which
assure a comfortable indoor climate in winter without needing a conventional heating system and
LowEx systems are the heating or cooling systems that allow the use of low valued energy as the
energy source. Both of them have been applied in the developed countries for several years, but in
17
China, world’s biggest construction market, many concrete problems should be solved in the
implemental processes.
The paper summarizes the advantages and shortcomings of them by comparing their characters.
Furthermore, combined with China’s concrete situations of construction and housing, the applicable
areas are presented. China has a vast territory and several different climate zones. Passive Houses
and LowEx systems have their technical problems and cost problems as well. An investigation to
some customers was presented before a project in Nanjing city, to forecast the market responses of
them and the developing strategies.
The conclusions are not simple. Passive Houses are the developing of traditional technologies of
heat preservation, and LowEx systems are often innovative technologies different from traditional
HVAC systems. Both of them have particular advantages, but neither of them can meet all
requirements in the whole Chinese area. Today China’s real estate markets are mass where the
quantitative issues are more considered than qualitative issues, while the future trend is compact,
ingenious and high quality. Passive Houses and LowEx systems will support this trend, which
presents higher demands to Chinese developers, architects and engineers. The combination of
passive and LowEx technologies can get the ultimate energy efficiency, though it will have the
highest costs (Figure 10).
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There are several ways to enhance BEA in the future: expand the studied scope from design levels
to whole life-cycle levels of constructions, enhance international cooperation, accelerate legislation
and standardize and develop user-oriented assessment systems.
5.4 Paper IV
Gu, ZH., Wennersten, R. (2006) A study about Chinese developing strategies to energy efficient
housing development in architect’s perspective, combined with Swedish experiences and Game
Theory, Submitted to Journal of Housing and the Built Environment.
The energy issue is always an important subject of sustainable housing development. Many energy
saving techniques have been developed for several years, which can reduce remarkably the
consumption of primary energy and utilize renewable energy in architectural designs. However, the
real situation is that the energy efficient buildings were slowly developed during the last decades,
especially in developing countries.
The paper compared Hammarby Sjöstad and Eco-village, two representative cases of sustainable
housing development in Sweden, and summarised them into two paradigms – provider paradigm
and support paradigm. One is top-down and the other is bottom-up. The article tried to analyze the
difference between them, especially from energy efficiency perspective.
The aim of this study is to find the most suitable paradigm for Chinese community development.
Game theory provides a new methodology that is different from previous considerations. Housing
development is a game process between diverse stakeholders. All the stakeholders try to choose
different actions in an attempt to maximize their returns. If the architects and engineers’ proposals
are not consistent with other stakeholders’ interests, they will have little opportunities to be applied
in the real projects. The paper presented the systematic developing strategy implemented in an
energy efficient housing project in Nanjing, China.
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6 Discussions
6.1 Chinese special conditions
6.1.1 A developing country
China remains a developing country and its industrialization stage and its economic output per
capita are still quite low (about 1700 USD in 2005, according the IMF’s data). Though the
economic development was relatively fast during recent years, it was unbalanced. Rich cities, which
developed fast, are mostly located at east littoral area; vast middle and west area were developing
slower.
The unbalanced development induced the class differentiation, which means though almost all
Chinese families have the wills to pursuit higher living standard, only a small part of them can
afford it. According to Maslow's hierarchical model of human motivation, the higher needs in the
hierarchy are expressed only after the needs that are lower down in the pyramid are mainly satisfied.
Once an individual has past a level, those needs will no longer be prioritized. If a lower set of needs
is continually unmet, the individual will re-prioritize those needs - dropping down to that level until
those lower needs are reasonably satisfied (Maslow, 1943).
Housing is a key issue to human’s basic needs. The first function of a house it to prevent a shield for
people. After that, aesthetic and ecological features may be considered. Expensive investment is a
big barrier to green buildings even in industrialized countries, let alone to China, a developing
country. Therefore, the extremely high-tech is not adapted for most areas in China. The more
feasible strategy is to find more suitable technologies.
20
middle way. Hence in China intense and extreme actions are not welcome. But the soft and gradual
progress is deeply rooted among people.
Chinese people would like to achieve a balance between performance and costs instead of
extremely high performance at any cost. This Chinese manner displayed in building market is that
most developers will not develop extreme energy efficient buildings at all costs and most customers
will not buy too expensive house at any price. The Way of the Mean makes developers’ capital
more beneficial, but it also makes Chinese lose the opportunity of progress.
In summary, China is a developing country and has not enough fortune to support the high technical
methods to be implemented everywhere. Chinese large area of construction retards advanced
techniques to be implemented in buildings too. Chinese culture also does not encourage the pursuit
of the best performance. To change these states quickly is not easy. Patience should be a key word
in the way to promote sustainability in China.
21
Chinese local low-tech building methods in the solution of energy efficiency, such as natural
ventilation, cave, or house built on stilts.
22
• Technical code for solar water heating system of civil buildings, GB 50364-2005. Date of put
into effect: January 1, 2006;
• Energy Conservation Law. Date of put into effect: January 1, 1998;
• The Renewable Energy Law. Date of put into effect: January 1, 2006.
(GB – National Standard, JGJ – Industrial Standard)
In recent years, China government enhanced the energy efficiency works, including building energy
efficiency. The high frequency of enacting new standards is the evidence. With the serious energy
shortage, the more strict regulations will appear continually.
23
7 Conclusions
• Passive House and Low Exergy Systems in Buildings represent two directions of energy
efficient buildings in future. Passive Houses are the stretch of traditional technologies of heat
preservation, and LowEx systems are much more like innovations, especial many methods to
utilize renewable energy. In energy efficient issues, Passive House is quantitative change and
LowEx is qualitative change, though their goals are same. Moreover, we should notice that
Passive Houses and LowEx systems are not incompatible. The combination of passive and
LowEx technologies can get the ultimate energy efficiency, though it will have the highest costs.
• In general perspective, Either Passive House or LowEx systems are good solutions for energy
efficiency in buildings. However, combined with China’s situations, each technology has its best
applicability. Moreover, the chosen criteria should not only be technical issues but also economic
considerations – the developers’ starting points and consumers’ capabilities. Classified discussing
aiming at different subjects is an effective method to confirm the developing strategies.
• From the comparison of the three most widely used BEA methods, it can be found that BEA
methods are shifting from ecological, indicator-based scientific systems to more integrated
systems covering ecological, social and economic categories. BEA’s methodology is to influence
sustainable design and then to influence the entire life cycle, which is a type of soft systems
thinking. Most BEA systems have been commercialized or are being commercialized.
Commercial operation can stimulate building project teams to consider more environmental
aspects as certification can increase commercial benefits. There are several obvious ways to
enhance BEA methods in the future: expanding the scope from the design level to the whole life-
cycle level of constructions; paying more attention to non-ecological indicators and different
stakeholders’ interests; enhancing international cooperation; accelerating legislation and
standardization; and developing user-oriented assessment systems.
• Housing development is a game process between different players. Both the provider paradigm
and the support paradigm did not get the best energy efficiency. It is difficult to get the goal of
energy efficiency, if all players make strategies based absolute rational self-interest. The method
to break Nash equilibrium is to enhance the cooperation between different stakeholders. The
developing decision makings should involve all the stakeholders in the programmes. Architects
should act as a key player in this process.
• In the route of developing energy efficient buildings, technical approaches are basic research,
which presents the concepts that have been proved realizable; BEA encourages developers to
develop more energy efficient buildings for economic benefit, which will make good
demonstrations for whole market; national laws and policies are final approaches, which ensure
every project must have good performance of energy efficiency. When the standardization and
legislation is finished, the new cycle will begin with more advanced techniques appear and more
strict regulation put into effect.
• The key point to develop more energy efficient buildings is to make the game players
cooperative. All approaches are important to certain players, but the more important issue is
making other players know them and recognize them. Only when all players are convinced of the
values of those approaches, they will be carried out. Otherwise, one player will not insist on his
contribution by himself.
• China is a developing country and has not enough fortune to support the high technical
methods to be implemented everywhere. Chinese large area of construction retards advanced
techniques implemented in buildings too. Chinese culture also does not encourage the pursuit to
the best performance. To change these states there is a need for more patience and effort.
24
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