History

A Greek mathematician Georg Cantor generated a theory of abstract sets of entities and formed it into a
mathematical discipline between the years 1874 and 1897. This theory in maths is built out of his research of
some definite problems about specific types of infinite sets of numbers which are real. According to Cantor,
the set is a collection of definite, distinct objects or items of observation as a whole. These items are called
elements or members of the set. However, he found it by a single paper based on the property of the
combination of all real numbers (or real algebraic numbers).

Mathematics Set Theory Symbols

Let us see the different types of symbols used in Mathematics set theory with their meanings and examples.
Consider a Universal set (U) = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning Example

{} set a collection of elements A = {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23},

B = {7, 13, 15, 21}

A∪B union Elements that belong to set A or set A ∪ B = {1, 7, 9, 13, 15,
B 21, 23}

A∩B intersection Elements that belong to both the sets, A ∩ B = {7, 13, 15 }
A and B

A⊆B subset subset has few or all elements equal {7, 15} ⊆ {7, 13, 15, 21}
to the set

A⊄B not subset left set is not a subset of right set {1, 23} ⊄ B

A⊂B proper subset / strict subset subset has fewer elements than the {7, 13, 15} ⊂ {1, 7, 9,
set 13, 15, 23}

A⊃B proper superset / strict set A has more elements than set B {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23} ⊃
superset {7, 13, 15, }

A⊇B superset set A has more elements or equal to {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23} ⊃
the set B {7, 13, 15, 21}

Ø empty set Ø={} C = {Ø}

P (C) power set all subsets of C C = {4,7},

P(C) = {{}, {4}, {7},
{4,7}}
Given by 2s, s is number
of elements in set C

A⊅B not superset set X is not a superset of set Y {1, 2, 5} ⊅{1, 6}

A=B equality both sets have the same members {7, 13,15} = {7, 13, 15}

A \ B or relative complement objects that belong to A and not to B {1, 9, 23}

A-B

Ac complement all the objects that do not belong to We know, U = {1, 2, 7,

set A 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}
Ac = {2, 21, 28, 30}

A∆B symmetric difference objects that belong to A or B but not A ∆ B = {1, 9, 21, 23}
to their intersection
 a∈B element of set membership B = {7, 13, 15, 21},
13 ∈ B

(a,b) ordered pair collection of 2 elements (1, 2)

x∉A not element of no set membership A = {1, 7, 8, 13, 15, 23},

5∉A

|B|, #B cardinality the number of elements of set B B = {7, 13, 15, 21}, |B|
=4

A×B cartesian product set of all ordered pairs from A and B {3,5} × {7,8} = {(3,7),
(3,8), (5,7), (5, 8) }

N1 natural numbers / whole N1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…} 6 ∈ N1

numbers set (without zero)

N0 natural numbers / whole N0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…} 0 ∈ N0

numbers set (with zero)

Q rational numbers set Q= {x | x=a/b, a, b∈Z} 2/6 ∈ Q

Z integer numbers set Z= {…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…} -6 ∈ Z

C complex numbers set C= {z | z=a+bi, -∞<a<∞, 6+2i ∈ C

-∞<b<∞}

R real numbers set R= {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434 ∈ R

Basic Concepts of Set Theory

In set theory, various concepts are discussed at various levels of education. The basic concepts include
representation of a set, types of sets, operations on sets (such as union, intersection), the cardinality of a set and
relations, etc. Some of the basic concepts involved in set theory are as follows:

Universal Set
A universal set is usually denoted by the capital letter ‘U’. Also, sometimes it is denoted by ε(epsilon). It is a
set that contains all the elements of other sets including its own elements.
U = {counting numbers}
U = Set of integers

Complement of set
If A is a set, then the complement of set A will contain all the elements in the given universal set (U), that are
not in set A. It is usually denoted by A’ or Ac.
A’ = = {x ∈ U : x ∉ A}

Set Builder Notation

The examples of notation of set in a set builder form are:

 If A is the set of real numbers.

A = {x: x∈R} [x belongs to all real numbers]
  If A is a set of natural numbers
A = {x: x>0]

Applications
Set theory has many applications in mathematics and other fields. They are used in graphs, vector spaces, ring
theory, and so on. All these concepts can be defined as sets satisfying specific properties (or axioms) of sets.
Also, the set theory is considered as the foundation for many topics such as topology, mathematical analysis,
discrete mathematics, abstract algebra, etc.

Solved Examples
1. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) = 20, n(B) = 28 and n(A ∪ B) = 36, find n(A ∩ B).
Solution: Since, n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B).
So, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∪ B)
= 20 + 28 – 36
= 48 – 36
= 12
2. Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of 18} and B = {x : x is a natural number and less than
6}. Find A ∪ B.
Solution: Given,
A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Therefore, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 18}
3. Let A = {3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 3, 4, 6}. Find (A ∩ B)’.
Solution: Given, A = {3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 3, 4, 6}
A ∩ B = {3}
Therefore,
(A ∩ B)’ = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
4. If A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}, then find (i) A – B and (ii) B – A.
Solution: Given,
A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}
(i) A – B = = {2, 4, 6}
(ii) B – A = = {9, 11, 13

Venn diagrams and set theory

There are more than 30 symbols used in set theory, but only three you
need to know to understand the basics. Once you’ve mastered these,
feel free to move on to the more complicated stuff.

Union of two sets: ∪

Each circle or ellipse represents a category. The union of two sets is

represented by ∪. (Don't confuse this symbol with the letter “u.”)

This is a two-circle Venn diagram. The green circle is A, and the blue
circle is B. The complete Venn diagram represents the union of A and
B, or A ∪ B. Feel free to click on the image to try this diagram as a
template.

Union of Two Sets Venn Diagram

What would the union of two sets look like in the real world? Set A
could represent a group of people who play the piano. Set B could
represent guitar players. A ∪ B represents those who play piano,
guitar, or both.

Intersection of two sets: ∩

In making a Venn diagram, we are often interested in the intersection
of two sets—that is, what items are shared between categories. In this
diagram, the teal area (where blue and green overlap) represents the
intersection of A and B, or A ∩ B.

Intersection of Two Sets Venn Diagram

To continue the example, the intersection of piano and guitar players

includes those who have mastered both instruments.

Complement of a set: Ac

In making a Venn diagram, you may also want to consider what is not
represented in a set. This is the complement of a set, or A c, for set A.

The absolute complement of a set is everything that is not included in

the set. This means that given a universe (U, the letter this time),
everything that is in the universe, except for A, is the absolute
complement of A in U. This can be represented by the equation A c = U
\ A.

The following is a Lucidchart diagram for the absolute complement of

A in U. The gray section shows everything outside A. In the musical
instrument case, that would be everyone who does not play the piano.