GENERAL BOTANY

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BIOMES AND
ECOLOGY
Mark Airon Cane & Joey Besin
 IDENTIFY AND
DESCRIBE THE
CHARACTERISTICS
AND PRINCIPAL
LIVING MEMBERS OF
THE WORLD MAJOR
BIOMES
A tropical rainforest is a dense and lush
forest ecosystem found in regions near the
equator, characterized by high rainfall and
consistently warm temperatures. These
forests are known for their incredible
biodiversity and are considered to be the
most biologically diverse ecosystems on
Earth.
 Tropical Rainforest:

Characteristics: High temperatures, abundant rainfall,

high humidity, and rich biodiversity.

Principal Living Members: Tropical rainforests are

home to a wide variety of plants, including tall trees,
epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants), and
lianas. They also support diverse animal life, such as
monkeys, sloths, toucans, and jaguars.
A temperate deciduous forest is a biome
characterized by moderate temperatures
and distinct seasons. These forests are
found in regions with a temperate climate,
typically between 40 and 60 degrees
latitude in the Northern Hemisphere,
including parts of North America, Europe,
and Asia.
 Temperate Deciduous Forest:

Characteristics: Moderate temperatures, well-defined

seasons, and plentiful rainfall.

Principal Living Members: Temperate deciduous

forests are characterized by broadleaf trees that shed
their leaves in the fall. Common tree species include
oak, maple, and beech. Animals found in this biome
include deer, squirrels, foxes, and various bird species.
The taiga, also known as the boreal forest
or snow forest, is a biome characterized by
its vast stretches of coniferous forests. It is
the largest terrestrial biome on Earth,
covering extensive areas in the Northern
Hemisphere, particularly in Canada, Russia,
Alaska, and Scandinavia.
 Taiga (Boreal Forest):

Characteristics: Long, cold winters, short summers, and

low precipitation.

Principal Living Members: The taiga is dominated by

evergreen coniferous trees like spruce, fir, and pine.
Animals adapted to this biome include moose, wolves,
bears, and migratory birds.
Grasslands, also known as prairies, steppes,
or savannas, are biomes characterized by
vast areas covered in grasses and
herbaceous plants, with few or scattered
trees. Grasslands are found on every
continent except Antarctica and occur in
regions with a wide range of climates, from
temperate to tropical.
 Grassland:

Characteristics: Varying temperatures, moderate

rainfall, and extensive grasses.

Principal Living Members: Grasslands are dominated

by grasses with few trees. They support grazing
animals such as bison, gazelles, zebras, and
pronghorns. Predators like lions, cheetahs, and coyotes
also inhabit grassland biomes.
Deserts are arid regions characterized by
low rainfall and sparse vegetation. They are
found in various parts of the world and
cover about one-third of the Earth's land
surface. Deserts can be classified into four
main types: hot deserts, cold deserts,
coastal deserts, and semi-arid deserts.
 Desert:

Characteristics: Low precipitation, extreme

temperatures (hot during the day and cold at night),
and sparse vegetation.

Principal Living Members: Desert plants have

adaptations to conserve water, such as succulents
(e.g., cacti) and shrubs with small leaves. Desert
animals include camels, reptiles like lizards and snakes,
scorpions, and certain rodents1
The tundra is a cold and treeless biome that
is primarily found in the Arctic and Alpine
regions of the world. It is characterized by
low temperatures, short growing seasons,
and a layer of permanently frozen subsoil
called permafrost.
 Tundra:

Characteristics: Cold and dry with short growing

seasons, permafrost (permanently frozen ground),
and low-growing vegetation.

Principal Living Members: Tundra plants include

mosses, lichens, and small shrubs adapted to the harsh
conditions. Common tundra animals are reindeer,
Arctic foxes, polar bears, migratory birds, and rodents
like lemmings.
The marine biome encompasses the vast
bodies of saltwater found in the Earth's
oceans, as well as other water bodies such
as seas, coral reefs, and estuaries. Covering
more than 70% of the planet's surface, the
marine biome is the largest and most
diverse ecosystem on Earth.
 Marine:

Characteristics: Saltwater, covering about 71% of the

Earth's surface, with varying temperatures and depths.

Principal Living Members: Marine biomes are home to

a tremendous diversity of organisms. They include
microscopic plankton, fish, marine mammals (such as
whales and dolphins), coral reefs, seagrasses, and
various types of algae.
Freshwater refers to the relatively low-
salinity water found in lakes, rivers,
streams, wetlands, and groundwater. It is an
essential natural resource that supports
various ecosystems and is vital for human
survival, agriculture, industry, and
recreation.
 Freshwater:

Characteristics: Low salt concentration, found in lakes,

rivers, and wetlands.

Principal Living Members: Freshwater biomes host a

range of plants and animals, including aquatic plants
like lilies and reeds, fish (such as trout and salmon),
amphibians like frogs and turtles, and numerous
invertebrates like insects and snails.
 "The energy flow
through an ecosystem
refers to the transfer of
energy from one
organism to another
within a biological
community.
How Does Energy
Move Through an
Ecosystem?
The first trophic level consists of producers. Plants
constitute these producers. They are the ones that
have the primary responsibility of transferring energy
to others. Producers i.e. plants can synthesize
nutrients. They get it from the sun and turn it into
nutrients that can be absorbed by other species. This
is how the energy flow begins in an ecosystem.
The second is the consumers. These are the herbivores
that are at the second trophic level. They make use of
plants and make them their food which in turn gives them
energy. The functions of metabolism of these animals for
example breathing and digesting food happens due to the
use of this energy. This energy also supports the growth of
tissues, maintains blood circulation along with the body
temperature of animals.
The third trophic level is of carnivores.
They eat the herbivores and get their
energy for growth and survival on this
planet. Within carnivores also, there
are larger animals that eat other
animals. These represent a higher
trophic level within the third level.
There are some other organisms
too which are called decomposers.
These consist of organisms like
bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and
insects amongst many others.
These decomposers break down
the wastes produced by other
animals and the organic dead
matter left by them.
The Flow of Energy Within Trophic Levels
of An Ecosystem:

The flow of energy in So , it moves from and then onto

an ecosystem is only primary producers to secondary and tertiary
in one direction. primary consumers consumers as well.
 An interesting fact about the
trophic levels is that only 10%
pass to the next level. So, 90% of
energy is consumed by organisms
themselves and when some other
animal eats them, then that
animal gets only 10% of the
energy. This is also known as the
ten percent rule.
Ecological
Succession
 Primary succession
Primary succession happens when a new patch of
land is created or exposed for the first time. This can
happen, for example, when lava cools and creates
new rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes
rocks without any soil. During primary succession,
organisms must start from scratch. First, lichens
might attach themselves to rocks, and a few small
plants able to live without much soil might appear.
These are known as “pioneer species.”
 Secondary succession
Secondary succession happens when a climax community
or intermediate community is impacted by a disturbance.
This restarts the cycle of succession, but not back to the
beginning—soil and nutrients are still present.

For example, after a forest fire that kills all the mature
trees on a particular landscape, grasses might grow,
followed by shrubs and a variety of tree species, until
eventually the community that existed before the fire is
present again.
Ecotype
They are frequently called physiological or ecological races. In
regard to certain environmental or habitat conditions, Turesson
(1922) invented the term "ecotype" to describe groups of
populations, ecological races, or subspecies of a species.

The several ecotypes of a species are each considered a single

biological species despite the fact that they differ physically and
genetically from one another. The outcome of a population's
genetic response to a habitat is an ecotype. Due to the long-term
nature of ecotype adaptations, they keep characteristics even when
transplanted into an environment that is unbiased.

Four different ecotypes of
Physcomitrella patens, stored at the
International Moss Stock Center.
Rangifer tarandus caribou, a member of the woodland
ecotype.
Dean Biggins (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) - US FWS,
DIVISION OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS, WO3772-023
Male caribou in Alaska
 The following methods can now be used to construct ecotypes:

· Hybridization:
It is the product of an exact cross between two species. Through the mating of two
individuals or animals with separate ancestries, new plant or animal species can be
produced. The cross can be intraspecific if it is created between two individuals of the
same species, and it can be interspecific if it is made between individuals of different
species.
· Mutation:
Natural mutation and recombination cause small gene pools to develop in a
segregating population, which increases the population's capacity to adapt to a given
habitat or environment. Due to the absence of cooperative selection, several distinct
ecotypes also arise from cultivation or protected growth.
· Chromosomal Transformations:
Genetic structural changes, including as translocations, inversions, and chromosomal
segment losses or additions, which affect genetics and traits, result in the creation of
new ecotypes.
Eutrophication

Eutrophication can cause algal blooms like
this one in a river near Chengdu, Sichuan,
China. Such blooms are often harmful algal
blooms.
Felix Andrews (Floybix) - Own work
Algal bloom in village river. Taken in a small
village in mountains near Chengdu, Sichuan,
China.
Eutrophication is the process
through which a body of water, or
certain areas within it, gradually
become more abundant in minerals
and nutrients, particularly nitrogen
and phosphorus.
The building up of nutrients,
especially phosphorus compounds
and organic waste, in water bodies
is a result of the very slow natural
process known as eutrophication.
 TWO TYPES OF
EUTROPHICATION
Cultural Eutrophication
Because of human activities, cultural processes increase natural
eutrophication. As a result of land clearing and urban development,
lakes and rivers receive more nutrients like phosphates and nitrate,
which are then provided to beaches and bays. When too many
nutrients from human activity wind up in water bodies, they cause
nutrient pollution and quicken the natural process of eutrophication.
This is known as cultural eutrophication.
Natural Eutrophication
Eutrophication can occur naturally, particularly in lakes, despite the
fact that it is frequently brought on by human activity. Man-made
ponds and lakes, which initially have a tendency to be incredibly
blocked before becoming more nutrient-rich over time, can be used to
examine this process. Natural eutrophication is much slower than
artificial eutrophication since it happens on ancient time scales.
Climax Vegetation
Climax communities, often referred to as climatic climax
communities, are groups of plants, animals, and fungi that
have evolved into a stable condition as a result of
ecological succession and the long-term increase of a
region's vegetation. It was expected that this balance
could develop since the climax community consists of
species that are best adapted to the normal
environmental conditions of the area. The term is
currently used in relation to soil development. It has been
found that a "steady state" is more observable than it
actually is, especially over very long time scales. In spite
of this, the idea is still beneficial.

Warren Woods in Michigan, USA, is an
example of a beech-maple climax forest.
Beech (center) and sugar maple (bottom
left) dominate the forest due to their
towering height and tolerance of shade.
Climax community in Tongass National Forest, Alaska,
a Sitka spruce-western hemlock forest. The primary
disturbances are floods, landslides, and salt spray, all
of which occur only in small areas, allowing for a
relatively stable equilibrium.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle is a
biogeochemical process
through which nitrogen is
converted into many forms,
consecutively passing from
the atmosphere to the soil to
organism and back into the
atmosphere. Process of the
Nitrogen Cycle consists of
the following steps –
Nitrogen fixation,
Nitrification, Assimilation,
Ammonification and
Denitrification.
Nitrogen Fixation
The inert form of nitrogen gas, which is released into the
atmosphere and surface waters during the nitrogen
fixation process, is primarily deposited into soils through
precipitation. Nitrogen can be fixed in two ways: either
through atmospheric fixation, which involves lightning, or
through industrial fixation, which is accomplished by
producing ammonia under extreme heat and pressure.
This can also be repaired by using artificial processes,
typically industrial processes that produce ammonia and
fertilizers high in nitrogen.
 Types of Nitrogen Fixation

Atmospheric fixation: A natural phenomenon where the energy

of lightning breaks the nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, which are
then used by plants.

Industrial nitrogen fixation: It is a man-made alternative that

aids in nitrogen fixation by the use of ammonia. Ammonia is
produced by the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Later, it is converted into various fertilizers such as urea.

Biological nitrogen fixation: We already know that nitrogen is

not used directly from the air by plants and animals. Bacteria
like Rhizobium and blue-green algae transform the unusable
form of nitrogen into other compounds that are more readily
usable. These nitrogen compounds get fixed in the soil by
these microbes.
Nitrification
 By nature of the microorganisms present in
the soil, ammonia is changed into nitrate
throughout this process. Ammonia is oxidized
to create nitrates with the aid of the
Nitrosomonas bacterial species. Nitrobacter
afterwards transforms the nitrites that were
generated into nitrates. Since ammonia gas is
poisonous to plants, the transformation is very
important.
Assimilation
 Primary producers, or plants, use their roots
to absorb nitrogen molecules from the soil,
which are present as ammonia, nitrite ions,
nitrate ions, or ammonium ions and are
necessary for the creation of both plant and
animal proteins. When the main consumers eat
the plants, it therefore enters the food chain.
Ammonification
 The nitrogen contained in organic matter is
released back into the soil when plants or
animals died. The soil's bacteria or fungi, which
are the decomposers, change the organic
waste back into ammonium. Ammonia is
created during this decomposition process and
can be used in other biological activities.
Denitrification
 By turning nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous
nitrogen (N), a process known as denitrification
allows nitrogen compounds to return to the
atmosphere. This final stage of the nitrogen
cycle takes place in the absence of oxygen.
The denitrifying bacteria Clostridium and
Pseudomonas use nitrate to produce oxygen
and release nitrogen gases that are free as a
result while they carry out the process.
The nitrogen cycle is significant in the following ways:

i. Aids in the production of chlorophyll by plants from

nitrogen molecules.
ii. Helps a chemical reaction that turns inert nitrogen gas
into a form that plants can use.
iii. Bacteria aid in the decomposition of animal and plant
particles during the ammonification process, indirectly
assisting in environmental cleanup.
iv. The release of nitrates and nitrites into the soil assists
in restocking it with the essential nutrients needed for
growth.
v. The formation of numerous essential chemicals and
significant biomolecules by nitrogen makes it an
essential component of the cell.
Carbon Cycle
 The carbon cycle describes
the movement of carbon on
earth in both its elemental
and mixed forms. The
elemental forms of carbon
are diamond and graphite,
and when they are mixed,
they are found as carbonates
in minerals and as carbon
dioxide gas in the
atmosphere.
The following are the key steps in the carbon cycle process:

a. Plants use carbon from the atmosphere to produce

photosynthesis.
b. Animals eat these plants, which causes carbon to build up
in their bodies.
c. When these creatures and plants eventually pass away
and decay, carbon is returned to the atmosphere.
d. Fossil fuels are eventually created from some of the
carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere.
e. After their use for man-made purposes, these fossil fuels
release extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle on Land
 Carbon dioxide is the main form of carbon in
the atmosphere. Natural processes like
breathing and industrial operations like
burning fossil fuels release carbon into the
atmosphere. Plants absorb CO2 during the
process of photosynthesis to create
carbohydrates.
Oceanic Carbon Cycle
 In simple terms, a carbon cycle is occurring here, but in
the sea. Oceans absorb more carbon than they release in
terms of ecology. Organisms from the ocean convert
carbon to calcium carbonate, which is the basic material
needed to construct hard shells similar to those found in
shells and oysters. Hence, it is known as a "carbon sink."

When an organism with a calcium carbonate shell passes

away, its body decomposes and its hard shell is left
behind. These build up on the ocean floor, where they are
eventually broken down by the waves and compressed
under extreme pressure to produce limestone.
 Importance of Carbon Cycle

Despite being present in just minimal

amounts in the atmosphere, carbon
dioxide is essential for energy balancing
and traps long-wave solar radiation. As a
result, it covers the planet like a blanket.
The interruption of the carbon cycle will
have significant effects, including
climatic changes and global warming.
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