CELL &

CELLULAR
FUNCTION
FOHP 111
COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL THERAPY
OLFU- ANTIPOLO S.Y. 2023-2024
DR SONNIE P. TALAVERA
Two Major Classes of Cells

Prokaryotic cells
✓ Are the simplex and smallest cells
✓ Generally solitary with the nuclear material unenclosed in a
membrane

Eukaryotic cell
✓ Multicellular and provided with a nuclear membrane and
organelle
Organization of the Cell

✓ major parts are the nucleus and the

cytoplasm
✓ nuclear membrane/plasma membrane.
✓ different substances that make up the cell
are collectively called protoplasm.

✓ Protoplasm
✓ composed mainly of five basic substances:
water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates.
Organization of the Cell
✓ Water
✓ The principal fluid medium of the cell is water
✓ concentration of 70 to 85 per cent.
✓ chemicals are dissolved in the water.
✓ Chemical reactions take place

✓ Ions.
✓ most important ions in the cell are potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate,
and smaller quantities of sodium, chloride, and calcium.
✓ cellular reactions.
✓ operation of some of the cellular control mechanisms.
✓ nerve and muscle fibers.
Organization of the Cell
✓ Proteins.
✓ After water, the most abundant substances in most cells
✓ 10 to 20 per cent of the cell mass.
✓ two types: structural proteins and functional proteins.

✓ Structural proteins
✓ long filaments that themselves are polymers of many individual protein molecules.
✓ intracellular filaments
✓ form microtubules =“cytoskeletons”
✓ cilia, nerve axons, mitoticspindles of mitosing cells
Organization of the Cell
✓ Extracellularly, fibrillar proteins
✓ collagenand elastin fibers of connective tissue and in blood vessel walls, tendons,
ligaments, and so forth.

✓ functional proteins
✓ composedof combinations of a few molecules in tubular-globular form.
✓ enzymes of the cell
✓ often mobile /adherent to membranous structures inside the cell
✓ catalyze specific intracellular chemical reactions.
Organization of the Cell
✓ Lipids.
✓ phospholipids and cholesterol,
✓ 2 per cent of the total
✓ form the cell membrane and intracellular membrane barriers
✓ triglycerides, also called neutral fat. In the fat cells,
✓ 95 per cent of the cell
✓ storehouse of energy-giving nutrients
Organization of the Cell
✓ Carbohydrates

✓ little structural function in the cell except as parts of glycoprotein molecules,

✓ play a major role in nutrition of the cell
✓ 1 per cent of their total mass / 3 per cent in muscle cells / 6 percent in liver cells.
✓ small amount of carbohydrate stored in the cells --glycogen, --cells’ energy needs.
Membranous Structures of the Cell
✓ Most organelles of the cell are covered by membranes composed primarily of
lipids and proteins.
✓ cell membrane
✓ nuclear membrane
✓ membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum
✓ membranes of the mitochondria, lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus.
Cell Membrane
✓ called the plasma membrane
✓ 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick.
✓ composed almost entirely of proteins and lipids.
✓ proteins, 55 per cent
✓ phospholipids, 25 per cent
✓ cholesterol, 13 per cent
✓ other lipids, 4 per cent
✓ carbohydrates, 3 per cent
 Cell Membrane
✓ Lipid Barrier of the Cell
Membrane Impedes Water
Penetration.
✓ lipid bilayer, double-layered film
✓ Interspersed in this lipid film are large globular
protein molecules.
✓ composed of phospholipid
✓ soluble in water; that is, it is hydrophilic.
✓ soluble only in fats; that is, it is hydrophobic
✓ phosphate end of the phospholipid is hydrophilic
✓ fatty acid portion is hydrophobic.
Cell Membrane
✓ Lipid Barrier of the Cell Membrane Impedes Water Penetration.
✓ lipid layer
✓ middle of the membrane --impermeable to the usual water-soluble substances,
✓ ions, glucose, and urea.
✓ fat-soluble substances
✓ oxygen, carbon dioxide, and alcohol, can penetrate

✓ cholesterol
✓ steroid nucleus
✓ Dissolved in the bilayer of the membrane controls much of the fluidity
 Cell Membrane
✓ Cell Membrane Proteins.

✓ Globular masses floating in the

lipid bilayer - glycoproteins.

Two types of proteins

✓ integral proteins
✓ protrude all the way through the membrane
✓ Structural channels (or pores) through which water
molecules and water-soluble substances,
✓ act as carrier proteins -- “active transport.”

✓ peripheral proteins
✓ attached only to one surface of the membrane
✓ act as enzymes.
 Cell Membrane
✓ Integral membrane proteins
✓ Receptors for water-soluble chemicals,
such as peptide hormones,
✓ Specific ligands that bind to the
receptor causes conformational
changes in the receptor protein
✓ enzymatically activates the
intracellular part of the protein or
induces interactions between the
receptor and proteins
✓ act as second messengers,
Cell Membrane

✓ Membrane Carbohydrates—
The Cell “Glycocalyx.”
✓ glycoproteins or glycolipids.
✓ protrude to the outside of the
cell,
✓ Proteoglycans
✓ Carbohydrate substances
bound to small protein has a
✓ loose carbohydrate coat
called the glycocalyx.
Cell Membrane
✓ important functions:

✓ (1) negative electrical charge, which gives most cells an overall negative surface charge that
repels other negative objects.
✓ (2) attaches to the glycocalyx of other cells, thus attaching cells to one another.
✓ (3) act as receptor substances for binding hormones, such as insulin-activate a cascade of
intracellular enzymes.
✓ (4) Some carbohydrate -immune reactions.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
✓ network of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm;
✓ tubules and vesicles interconnect with one another.
✓ Liver cells -- 30 to 40 times the cell membrane area.

✓ Endoplasmic matrix
✓ watery medium --connected with the space between the two membrane
surfaces of the nuclear membrane.

✓ Vast surface area of this reticulum

✓ multiple enzyme systems attached to its membranes provide machinery
for a major share of the metabolic functions of the cell.
ER Endoplasmic Reticulum
✓ Ribosomes and the Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum.

✓ Attached = ribosomes.
✓ ribosomes are composed of a
mixture of RNA and proteins
✓ function to synthesize new protein molecules in the cell

✓ Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum.

✓ reticulum has no attached

ribosomes.
✓ Synthesis of lipid substances and
cholesterol
✓ Breakdown and fat
metabolism
✓ detoxification of drugs
✓ Calcium storage
✓ Glycogen synthesis
Golgi Apparatus

✓ composed of four or more

stacked layers of thin, flat,
enclosed vesicles lying near
one side of the nucleus.
✓ Prominent in secretory cells

✓ functions in association with

the endoplasmic reticulum.
 ✓ small “transport vesicles” (also called
endoplasmic reticulum vesicles, or ER
vesicles)
✓ continually pinch off from the endoplasmic
reticulum -- fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
Golgi Apparatus ✓ Substances transported from the endoplasmic
reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.

✓ substances are then processed in the Golgi

apparatus
✓ to form lysosomes, secretory vesicles, and
other cytoplasmic components that are
discussed
 Vesicles are coated with clathrin and COP I & II

✓ COP I
Golgi apparatus ✓ coat transport protein from ER to golgi apparatus
✓ COP II
✓ unclear function whether transport protein between golgi
and cisternae or recycle from golgi to ER
 Golgi apparatus

Faces of ER
Cis face
✓ Convex forming face adjacent to dilated ER
✓ Fuses with vesicles that transport newly
synthesized protein
Trans face
✓ Concave or maturing face- part of golgi that
faces away from the nucleus
✓ Origin of vesicles of processed protein
Specific Functions of the Golgi Apparatus
Synthetic Functions of the Golgi Apparatus.
✓ Capability of synthesizing certain carbohydrates
✓ large saccharide polymers bound with small amounts of protein
✓ hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate.

✓ functions of hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate

✓ (1) major components of proteoglycans
✓ (2) major components of ground substance
✓ (3) principal components of the organic matrix -cartilage and bone.
Lysosomes
✓ Vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus and then
dispersing throughout the cytoplasm.

✓ provide an intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest

✓ (1) damaged cellular structures,
✓ (2) food particles that have been ingested by the cell, and
✓ (3) unwanted matter such as bacteria.

✓ filled with large numbers of small granules 5 to 8 nanometers in diameter,

Lysosomes
✓ 40 different hydrolase (digestive) enzymes.
✓ hydrolytic enzyme is capable of splitting an organic compound
into two or more parts by combining hydrogen from a water
molecule
✓ Protein is hydrolyzed to form amino acids
✓ glycogen is hydrolyzed to form glucose
✓ lipids are hydrolysed to form fatty acids and glycerol.

✓ digestive actions.
✓ cell break the membranes --allowing release of the digestive enzymes.
Peroxisomes
✓ similar physically to lysosomes, except
✓ formed by self-replication (budding off from the SER) rather than from the Golgi apparatus.
✓ contain oxidases.

✓ oxidases
✓ capable of combining oxygen with hydrogen ions derived from different intracellular chemicals to form
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
✓ highly oxidizing substance and is used in association with catalase
✓ oxidize many substances that might otherwise be poisonous to the cell.
✓ liver cells.
Secretory Vesicles
✓ important functions –secretion of special chemical
substances.
✓ secretory substances
✓ formed by the endoplasmic reticulum–Golgi apparatus
system
✓ released from the Golgi apparatus into the cytoplasm
✓ in the form of storage vesicles called secretory vesicles or
secretory granules.

✓ pancreatic acinar cells

Mitochondria
✓ “powerhouses” of the cell.
✓ number per cell varies from less than a
hundred up to several thousand,
✓ Depending on the amount of energy
required by the cell.

✓ responsible for the major share of its

energy metabolism.
Mitochondria
✓ “composed mainly of two lipid
bilayer–protein membranes:
✓ an outer membrane and an
inner membrane
✓ infoldings of the inner
membrane form shelves --
oxidative enzyme
 Mitochondria
✓ inner cavity -- filled with a matrix that
contains large quantities of dissolved
enzymes that are necessary for extracting
energy from nutrients.
✓ in association with the oxidative
enzymes to cause oxidation of the
nutrients,
✓ forming carbon dioxide and water and at
the same time releasing energy
Mitochondria
✓ liberated energy is used to synthesize a
“high-energy” substance called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

✓ energy wherever it is needed for

performing cellular functions.
 Mitochondria

✓ self-replicative--whenever there is
a need in the cell for increased
amounts of ATP.
✓ contain DNA
✓ controlling replication of the
mitochondrion itself.
Extraction of Energy from Nutrients
Function of the Mitochondria
✓ principal energy
✓ foodstuffs that react with oxygen—carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
✓ carbohydrates converted into glucose
✓ proteins converted into amino acids
✓ fats into fatty acids.
✓ oxidative reactions -- inside the mitochondria
✓ high-energy compound ATP.
ATP
✓ ATP is a nucleotide composed of
✓ nitrogenous base adenine, pentose sugar ribose, 3 phosphate radicals.
✓ high-energy phosphate bonds
✓ 12,000 calories of energy per mole of ATP
✓ To reconstitute the cellular ATP as it is used up,
✓ energy derived from the cellular nutrients causes ADP and phosphoric acid to recombine to
form new ATP

✓ ATP has been called the energy currency of the cell

Chemical Processes in the Formation of ATP—
Role of the Mitochondria.

✓ series of enzymes ( mitochondrion matrix)

✓ Sequence of chemical reactions
✓ called citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle.

✓ acetyl-CoA is split into its component parts

✓ hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide.

✓ processes of these reactions

✓ requiring large numbers of protein enzymes
Uses of ATP for Cellular Function.
Energy from ATP is used to promote three major categories of cellular
functions:

✓ (1) transport of substances through multiple membranes in the cell,

✓ (2) synthesis of chemical compounds throughout the cell
✓ (3) mechanical work.
Uses of ATP for Cellular Function.
uses of ATP
✓ (1) supply energy for transport of sodium through the cell membrane
✓ (2) promote protein synthesis by ribosomes
✓ (3) supply energy needed during muscle contraction.

✓ Indeed, some cells use as much as 75 per cent of all the ATP formed in
the cell
Filament and Tubular Structures of the Cell

✓ fibrillar proteins of the cell are usually organized into filaments or tubules
✓ synthesized by ribosomes
✓ large numbers of actin filaments –ectoplasm
✓ Elastic support for the cell membrane
✓ muscle cells, actin and myosin filaments
✓ contractile machine
Filament and Tubular Structures of the Cell

✓ special type of stiff filament -- tubulin molecules

✓ Construct very strong tubular structures, the microtubules.
✓ flagellum of a sperm.
✓ microtubules --- cilium
✓ Centrioles and the mitotic spindle ---mitoses
✓ primary function of microtubules
✓ act as a cytoskeleton
✓ rigid physical structures for certain parts of cells.
Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Cytoskeleton
•Three different types
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate
filaments
• Microtubules
cytoskeleton

Microfilaments
✓ Thiniest
✓ Appears as single globulatr molecules (G-actin) and in filaments (F-
actin)
✓ Usually composed of one or several types of actin filament
✓ Ex. Ankyrin, filamin
cytoskeleton

Intermediate filament
✓ Diameter between micro filament and microtubules
✓ Similar appearance and diameter with protein of widely differing
molecular weight
✓ Maintaining cell shape and component of microtrabecular lattice
✓ Ex. Vimentin, desmin, keratin,. Neurofiulament, and GFAP(glial fibrillary
acidic protein)
cytoskeleton

Microtubule
✓ Thickest
✓ Polymers of tubulin which is heterodimer, alpha and beta
✓ Serve as track for the movement of organelles and which are effected
by kinesin and dyein
✓ Are building block of centrioles and axoneme of cilia and flagellyum
cytoskeleton

Centrioles
✓ Cylindrinc group of 9microtubules triplets in a pinwheel array
✓ Organiuzed cytosolic microtubules t9o mitotic spinbdle during
cell division
✓ Divides by bilar4y fission
Ameboid Movement

✓ Ameboid movement
✓ movement of white blood cells through tissues.
✓ ameboid locomotion
✓ begins with protrusion of a pseudopodium from one end of the cell.
✓ away from the cell body, and partially secures itself in a new tissue area.
✓ elongated cell, the right-hand end of which is a protruding
pseudopodium
✓ continually moving forward-- membrane at the left-hand end of
the cell is continually following along as the cell moves.
 Mechanism of Ameboid Locomotion

✓ second essential effect for

locomotion
✓ provide the energy required to
pull the cell body in
thedirection of the
pseudopodium. –
✓ large amount of the protein
actin.
✓ Contraction also occurs
Types of Cells That Exhibit Ameboid
Locomotion.
✓ Most common cells
✓ white blood cells
✓ Move out of the blood into the tissues in the form of tissue macrophages.
✓ fibroblasts
✓ move into a damaged area to help repair the damage
✓ germinal cells of the skin
✓ Move toward a cut area to repair the rent.
✓ cell locomotion
✓ development of the embryo and fetus after fertilization of an ovum.
✓ embryonic cells
✓ migrate long distances from their sites of origin to new areas during development of special structures.
Control of Ameboid Locomotion—Chemotaxis

✓ Most important initiator of ameboid locomotion is the process

called chemotaxis.
✓ chemical substances in the tissues--chemotactic substance.
✓ from an area of lower concentration toward an area of higher
concentration—
✓ positive chemotaxis.
✓ cells move away from the source
✓ Negative chemotaxis.
Cilia and Ciliary Movements

✓ ciliary movement,
✓ whiplike movement occurs in only two places in the
human body

✓ nasal cavity and lower respiratory

✓ causes layer of mucus to move toward the pharynx,
✓ uterine tubes,
✓ slow movement of fluid from the ostium of the
uterine tube toward the uterus cavity
✓ transports the ovum from the ovary to the uterus.
Cilia and Ciliary Movements

✓ flagellum of a sperm
✓ longer and moves in quasi-sinusoidal waves instead of whiplike movements.
✓ cilium moves forward with a sudden, rapid whiplike stroke 10 to 20 times per
second,
✓ rapid forward-thrusting, whiplike movement pushes the fluid lying adjacent to
the cell in the direction that the cilium moves
✓ fluid is continually propelled in the direction of the fast-forward stroke.
Cytoplasmic inclusions
✓ Not seen in all cells
✓ Sphericxal bodies which serve as storage depots
✓ Less esential to cell viability
✓ Maybe transient

✓ Ex . Glycogen granule, lipid droplets,lipofuscin

Cell surface modification

Microvilli

✓ Non motile cellular extensions that increases the absorptive surface of the cell
✓ Straited border- intestine
✓ Brush border- PCTnephron
✓ Sterocilia- male reproductiuce ducts
 Nucleus
✓ control center of the cell.
✓ contains large quantities of DNA, which
are the genes.
✓ determine the characteristics of the cell’s
proteins, including the structural proteins,
as well as the intracellular enzymes that
control cytoplasmic and nuclear activities.
Nucleus
✓ control and promote reproduction of
the cell itself.
✓ darkly staining chromatin material
throughout the nucleoplasm.
✓ During mitosis
✓ chromatin material organizes in the
form of highly structured
chromosomes,
Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes

✓ nuclei of most cells contain one or

more highly staining structures
called nucleoli.

✓ Accumulation of large amounts of RNA

and proteins
✓ becomes considerably enlarged when
the cell is actively synthesizing
proteins.
Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes

✓ Formation of the nucleoli (and of the ribosomes in the cytoplasm outside the nucleus)

✓ First
✓ specific DNA genes in the chromosomes cause RNA to be synthesized
✓ Stored in the nucleoli, but most of it is transported outward into cytoplasm.
✓ conjunction with specific proteins to assemble “mature” ribosomes that play an essential role in
forming cytoplasmic proteins
Ingestion by the Cell—Endocytosis
✓ Very large particles enter the cell
✓ specialized function of the cell membrane called endocytosis. The
✓ pinocytosis and phagocytosis.

✓ Pinocytosis -- ingestion of minute particles.

✓ Phagocytosis -- ingestion of large particles
✓ as bacteria, whole cells, or portions of degenerating tissue.
 Pinocytosis.
✓ pinocytotic vesicles
✓ most large macromolecules
✓ attach to specialized protein receptors
on the surface
✓ coated pits.
✓ latticework of fibrillar protein called
clathrin,
✓ Actin and myosin.
 Pinocytosis.
✓ molecules have bound with the receptors,
✓ entire pit invaginates inward
✓ fibrillar proteins cause its borders to close over the
attached proteins
✓ invaginated portion of the membrane breaks away from the
surface of the cell,
✓ pinocytotic vesicle
✓ requires energy ATP
✓ presence of calcium ions
✓ react with contractile protein filaments
✓ Provide the force for pinching the vesicles
Phagocytosis
✓ large particles
✓ tissue macrophages ,white
blood cells.
✓ Bacterihagocytosis
✓ bacterium attached to a specific
antibody, and antibody that
attached to receptors, dragging
the bacterium
✓ opsonization
 Phagocytosis
steps:
✓ 1. cell membrane receptors attach to ligands of the
particle.

✓ 2. edges of the membrane evaginate outward ---

zipper-like manner to form a closed phagocytic
vesicle.

✓ 3. Actin and other contractile fibrils contract around

its outer edge, pushing vesicle to the interior.

✓ 4. contractile proteins then pinch the stem of the

vesicle so completely, leaving the vesicle in the cell
interior
Digestion of Pinocytotic and
Phagocytic Foreign Substances Inside
the Cell—Function of the Lysosomes

✓ after a pinocytotic or phagocytic vesicle appears inside

a cell,
✓ lysosomes attached to the vesicle -- acid hydrolases
✓ digestive vesicle -- hydrolyzing proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, and other substances

✓ left of the digestive vesicle, called residual body

✓ represents indigestible substances
✓ excreted by exocytosis
Regression of Tissues and Autolysis of Cells

✓ Tissues of the body regress to smaller size

✓ uterus after pregnancy
✓ muscles during long periods of inactivity
✓ mammary glands at the end of lactation.

✓ The removal of damaged cells or damaged portions of cells

✓ heat, cold, trauma, chemicals, or any other
Regression of Tissues and Autolysis of Cells

bactericidal agents
✓ kill phagocytized bacteria
✓ lysozyme, lysoferrin, acid at a pH of 5.0.

Necrosis
✓ Result from annoxia, mechanical injury, cellevasion by viruses, exposure toxin or to
irradiation
CELL CYCLE

✓ Interphase
✓ Mitosis
CELL CYCLE
✓ G0

✓ G1 GAP 1
✓ Follows telophase of mitosis
✓ No DNA synthesis but with RNA and
protein synthesis
✓ Daugther cell grow
✓ Longesty and most variable phase
CELL CYCLE
✓ S phase
✓ Synthesis phase
✓ Replication of DNA and centrioles self
duplicate

✓ G2
✓ Final preparation for cell division
✓ Synthesis of tubulin and accumulation
of ATP
✓ A further increase in volume,
synthesis aof enzymes and other
proteins
mitosis
✓ Prophase
✓ chromatin coils extensively to form chromosomes
✓ Nuclear membrane disappear
✓ Centrioles migrate on opposite poles and microtubules assembles as mitotic spindles
mitosis
Metaphase
✓ Chromatids align at the equatorial plate
Anaphase
✓ Chromatid migrates towards trhe opposite poles by the translocation of the spindle microtubules
mitosis
Telophase
✓ Chromosome uncoils,
✓ nuclei and nuclear membrane reappear
✓ a purse string constriction of band of microfilament appear at the equatorial plate dividing the
cytoplasm and eventually daugther cells
meiosis
✓ Cell division of gametes or sex cells
✓ Daugther cell produced are haploid
meiosis

✓ Cell division of gametes or sex cells

✓ Daugther cell produced are haploid

Meiosis 1
✓ Replication of DNA occured before the division
✓ Prophase 1, metaphse 1, anaphse 1 and telophase 1
✓ Prophse 1 is subdivided into P;achytene, Leptopene, Zygotene, Diplotene
Meiosis 2
✓ Division without prior repliucation of DNA after the first meiotic division
Comparison of Mitosis & Meiosis
Mitosis
1 Division
2 daughter cells / cycle
Daughter cells genetically identical
Chromosome no. of daughter cells
is same as that of parent ( 2N )
Occurs in somatic cell
Occurs throughout life cycle
Meiosis
2 Divisions
4 daughter cells / cycle
Daughter cells genetically different
Chromosome no. of daughter cells
half that of parent ( n )
Occurs in germline cells
Completes after sexual maturity
END GAME