Postgraduate Diploma in Education

Microteaching
Guide

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

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 THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG
FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Post-Graduate Diploma in Education

EFFECTIVE TEACHING
THROUGH A MICROTEACHING FRAMEWORK
1. Introduction

1.1. Effective teaching is dependent on many factors. Sensitivity, insight, force of personality,
knowledge and enthusiasm (amongst others) all contribute to the effectiveness of the individual
teacher. Those who train or educate teachers have always tried to influence and channel these
general characteristics.

1.2. In addition to the characteristics listed above there are certain basic skills and techniques which
successful teachers use when teaching. Research has attempted to identify these skills, and,
while many of the investigations have produced conflicting results, the possession of certain
basic skills by effective teachers is supported by evidence.

1.3. In the early days of teaching, in particular, it is important to devote attention to basic skills and to
practise each skill to improve mastery of it. This is not to give the impression that particular
skills are to be practised in isolation; teaching remains an art in which basic skills form just
one part of a holistic approach. At times, however, we can highlight a particular skill and
concentrate on evaluating it.

1.4. The basis of MICROTEACHING is to provide an environment whereby some of these basic
skills and techniques can be highlighted and focused on. Microteaching is scaled down teaching.
It is generally associated with the teaching of a short segment of a lesson (perhaps from 3 to 20
minutes) in which a particular skill is emphasised, to a small group of “pupils” who may be
children or peers. Although not essential, lessons are usually video recorded and then viewed,
discussed and analysed by the student teacher, the supervisor and also the fellow
student-teachers.

1.5. In this approach to effective teaching, we focus on introducing a limited range of skills which
concern all teachers within a microteaching context. We will work together as teachers rather
than as subject specialists. In your Major Methods courses you also study and practise skills
which are particularly relevant to your own subject.

1.6. The chief value, of course, lies in seeing you teach and also in seeing others who may have
similar problems and in sharing the comments and criticisms. In trying to analyse and evaluate
other people’s lessons you are enabled to analyse and evaluate your own classroom efforts more
effectively. The greatest advantage of Microteaching, however, is that it helps not only to detect
weaknesses, but highlights your own and other people’s strengths and successes and thereby
builds up your confidence.

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1.7. Three components of teaching in general apply to Microteaching namely:-

PLANNING PERFORMANCE PERCEPTION

leading to

Teacher intends by Teacher, Pupils

that pupil shall (peers)
learn X (Fact, concept
or skill through Y (Method) Evaluation

Feedback

1.8. Evaluation and feedback is by peers and supervisors with comments, checklists and rating
schedules. No assessment grades are given.

1.9. The more relaxed and the more frank are your comments about each other the more value they
have. If an element of humour creeps in, this will not detract from the value!

1.10. Your supervisors will guide your microteaching experience. In addition, you may refer to
George Brown (1975) Microteaching: a Programme of Teaching Skills, which is a useful source
of information and examples, from which some of the course materials are derived. There is also
a paper on the purpose of Microteaching in Appendix 1.

1.11. Other useful references are:

Moore, K.D. (2005) Effective Instructional Strategies: from theory to practice. Thousand Oaks:
SAGE publications.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2004) (5th Ed.) A Guide to Teaching Practice. London;
New York: Routledge Falmer.

ABOUT THIS BOOKLET

This booklet was originally loosely prepared by Dr. Tammy Kwan, subsequently organized by Dr.
Philip Stimpson to form a coherent reading guide. Verbal permission was obtained from Professor
George Brown to have one of his draft paper included at the end of this guide. This Microteaching
Guide focuses on three aspects which can be practised in a microteaching framework: 1. liveliness; 2.
explanation; and 3. questioning. During the programme you will concentrate on these aspects.
Your supervisor will advise you on the particular sections you should read at different times.
However, the booklet contains materials you will need every session and therefore it should be taken
to all microteaching classes.

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 EFFECTIVE TEACHING
2. COMMUNICATION AND TEACHER LIVELINESS

2.1. General

Teaching is verbal. Teachers need to talk a lot, though many talk too much. They also need to talk in
different ways to achieve different purposes, though the talk of many is not sufficiently varied. The
talk of lively teachers has certain important qualities which are discussed below.

There is strong evidence that enthusiastic, lively teachers produce the greatest student involvement
and learning. Remember if you don’t look as though the topic is important, how will your pupils feel?
Part of a teacher’s liveliness also involves non-verbal cues and gestures that are the signals which we
give with our bodies. They convey emotions and feelings, and they influence the verbal cues which
we give. Smiles, or fierce glares, can alter the meaning of an utterance quite dramatically. To teach
well we must communicate with our class.

Communication involves: “the transfer of some meaningful ideas and information from the mind of
the teacher into the mind of the students through the use of some effective medium.”

This is a much simplified definition of the complicated communication process. Let us look at the
model of communication below and examine its component elements:-

Sender Receiver

Intentions in encoded as medium of understood

decoded
Teacher's mind a message transmission by students

F E E D B A CK

The basic elements in the model of communication are:

Sender - a person who possesses knowledge or information to be sent to another person.

Message - information or ideas the sender wants to give out.
Receiver(s) -a person, or group of people, to whom the message is intended to be sent.
Encoding - the mental process of the sender used to express his/her idea. This process is thus not
observable by outsiders.
Decoding - the mental process of the receiver(s) used to interpret the message sent by the sender.
Feedback - any act of showing whether or not the receiver is receiving the message the sender
intends to give out.
Methods of communication - these include the “formal” methods of communication by the use of the
five senses.

The principles of good and effective communication are:-

(a) The sender should organise his/her message systematically and have a clear objective in mind.
(b) The message must be carefully chosen by the sender. Omit irrelevant points. Too much
information or too many unrelated ideas will confuse your receiver.
(c) The sender must consider the differences between the receiver and the sender during the
encoding process. Be aware of the background and knowledge of the receiver.
(d) The sender must be aware of the receiver’s feedback (reaction or response).

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 (Cartoons drawn by Dr. Tammy Kwan)

What is wrong with the sender in each cartoon?

(e) The language must be appropriate to the pupils.

We usually communicate with the pupils through talking, questioning and discussion. In all
these activities, language is the medium of communication; therefore the use of language affects
the effectiveness of communication. Teachers who are careful in the choice of words, use of
sentence structure, speed of speech will be more successful in conveying the intended meaning
to the pupils. This issue is especially important in Hong Kong as the medium of instruction is
usually not the pupils’ mother tongue.

Both verbal and non-verbal qualities are of vital importance in the impact a teacher makes on a
class, from the first lesson on.

2.2. Verbal aspects

Voice
a) Clarity: Speak clearly and distinctly. Write new words on the blackboard. Talk
to your class and not to the desk, the ceiling or your notes.
b) Audibility: Project your voice, so that students at the back can hear. Speak to the
whole class, not to the front row (or the walls, windows or
blackboard).
c) Tone and Loudness: Vary your voice for expression. Avoid boring monotones and keeping
the same voice level throughout.
d) Speed: Do not speak too quickly or too slowly. Vary the speed for effect and
attention.
e) Pause/silence: A pause before an important point can hold or suspense attention.
Pause after asking questions, or if you want impact. A pause, when
questioning, is likely to prompt pupils continue to consider answers
f) Speech mannerisms: Some mannerisms have a negative effect, which is they do not add to
the meaning of what is being said. They may, in fact, distract from it.
(Mannerisms which can be irritating include “Hm”, “O.K.?”, “Now”,
“You Know”, “I mean” etc). Be aware of your own mannerisms, and
the impact they might have on your students.
g) Vocabulary: It must suit the level of your pupils.

2.3. Non-Verbal aspects

a) Movement
Generally, a moving object is more interesting than a stationary one. Use your teaching space
purposefully. Don’t stick yourself to the blackboard. Move towards the class, and amongst them.
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 In this way you, as the teacher, can create and convey various meanings: friendliness, firmness,
hostility, anger, pleasure. Movement can also help to exercise students’ eyeballs and prevent
them from falling asleep!

b) Gestures and Facial Expressions

The way you use your hands, body and head, and the way you vary your facial expressions will
also convey meaning and emphasis. Many gestures are used in communication and interpersonal
contact. Think of ways in which you can encourage attention or positive response from your
students by your gestures and facial expressions.

(Cartoons drawn by Mr. William Pang.)

c) Eye-contact
The eyes are crucial in conveying meaning, emotion, influencing interaction gaining and
holding attention. Use your eyes purposefully, inexperienced teachers are often too nervous to
look at the class. Scan the whole of your class. In general, look at students while you are
teaching. You will obtain response, control and feedback of their interest and understanding in
this way. Looking in to their eyes will help to convey messages and meaning, and is an
effective device for controlling class discipline.

d) Interaction
Don’t talk too much yourself. Use strategies to encourage various interaction patterns such as
T-P, P-P, T-group. Involve your pupils.

e) Switching sensory channel

Vary the stimulus between audio and visual etc. to hold attention.

2.4. Teacher liveliness basically involves changing patterns of stimulation of the learner, to gain
and hold interest and attention. It means use of these various qualities and cues in
combination, and for most people it requires practice. You may have experience of
teachers, or lecturers, who use very few cues, rarely change facial expressions, are limited in
movements and speak in a dull, flat, monotonous voice. They probably bored you. What
lessons do you learn from them?

2.5. A SUGGESTED TASK

Select a short story (3 mins) and tell it to the class.

a) Teaching steps

1. Teacher’s preparation
a) Selection of a story suited to the age, interest, etc. of the students; this can be fiction or non
fiction.
b) Memorization of story
c) Practice in telling story (alone in front of mirror, etc.)

Stories may on some occasions be read:

a) to arouse interest in books and reading

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 b) to retain the original prose (expression, dialogue)

2. Preparation of class
a) Suitable position (to see, hear and be seen)
b) Provision to avoid interruptions (e.g. notice on door, no other distractions on tables, etc.)
c) Background to story (such as pictures, discussion)
d) Vocabulary

3. Presentation
The aim is to stimulate vivid mental images – the class should become utterly absorbed in
story.

Two-fold role of story-teller:

1) Tells story. Attention of the class is on the story, but not on teacher’s behaviour.
2) Watches reaction of class, modifies telling, and varies stimulation.

b) Self evaluation of Activity

To assist in evaluating your activity, asks yourself the following questions after teaching.
Observers may also help you answer these questions.
1. Were the students absorbed in the story?
2. Did I succeed in watching the reactions of the students whilst I was telling the story?
3. Did I respond to the listeners’ reactions?
4. Did I make use of all the verbal and non-verbal techniques suggested? (See above)
5. How did the group react after the story was cover?

Rating Guide: Teacher Liveliness

Assess microteaching performance of each item rigorously. Ring the number which most closely
indicates your view of the performance. (6 = outstanding, 1 = weak)

NO YES
1. Voice
(I) Audibility volume clarity. 1 2 3 4 5 6
(II) Variation in tone and loudness. 1 2 3 4 5 6
(III) Speed and variation for effect and attention. 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. Pausing
The teacher used pauses to give the class time to think, 1 2 3 4 5 6
to pay attention, to emphasis a point.
3. Movements
At appropriate points in the lesson the teacher moved about 1 2 3 4 5 6
the teaching space purposefully.
4. Gestures
Gestures (hands, body, head, and face) were used to convey 1 2 3 4 5 6
extra meaning.
5. Eye-contact
Was used, variously, to convey meaning and control 1 2 3 4 5 6
interaction.

Comments on overall performance

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 EFFECTIVE TEACHING
3. EXPLANATION

Explanation is a key skill. In this section we will look at explanation in general and then at the specific
skills of setting up (introducing) and concluding an explanation.

3.1. EXPLANATION

a) General
The skill of explanation is complex. Explanation is a term which, through daily use, has
acquired several meanings. For example, it can be functional, causal or sequential; and
inductive or deductive.

b) What is explanation?
To explain is to give understanding (to another person). It leads from the known to the
unknown; it bridges the gap between a person’s knowledge or experience and new
phenomena; it may also aim to show the interdependence of phenomena in a generalisable
manner. It assists the learner to assimilate and accommodate new data or experience.

c) Effective explanation
At its best, it should be simple, clear, concise and interesting. In general it should not be
rambling, long or dull. However, what is to be explained may be complex and abstract.
Effective explanation requires careful and sensitive planning. It requires the recognition of a
number of essential characteristics when putting it into operation.

(i) Planning
 establish clearly, in advance, the major point or points you wish to communicate to your
pupils. These may be ideas, rules, relationships, generalisation, etc. Establish links
between ideas.
 obtain information from pupils about their knowledge, experience, and interest to guide
your planning. Your explanation must appeal to your class.
 decide the means by which explanation is likely to be effective.
 be flexible. Be prepared to modify your plans in the light of feedback from pupils during
the lesson. Adapt to pupil needs.
 be brief. Think how much you recall after 10 minutes.

(ii) Operation
 consider other skills on which Explanation partly rests (e.g. teacher liveliness) – React to
your class.
 Structure: introduction, elaboration, summary.
- emphasize the main points, so that their importance is clear.
- Show them the relationship between the main points.
- Determine (if necessary) the general principles involved.

In Summary there are 7 considerations for effective explanation:-

1. Is the explanation understood?
2. Does it interest your class?
3. Does it cover the main elements?
4. Did you respond to your pupils understanding?
5. Did you classify their responses?
6. Are illustrations interesting?
7. Are illustrations relevant?

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 We will now look a little more at the question of examples. Effective explanation relies on
illustration, analogy and the use of examples. In the task below, attention should be given in
particular to the last of these.

d) Examples
These are central to teaching new ideas and to obtaining feedback as to whether the ideas have
been understood. Examples may be used:
 To provide concrete instances or information within the learner’s experience and understanding, to
lead pupils to perceive common features, and to abstract generalisations appropriate to all the
specific instances.
 To test understanding of an idea, concept or principle, it may be applied to particular situations, e.g.
to produce examples of the general category, to determine whether a particular phenomenon is an
instance of the general relationship, or to use the general principle to solve a specific problem.

e) Using Examples
Inductive approach: start with examples, and infer generalisation from them.
Major claims are to:
 help students acquire skills for looking for order in an apparently patternless set of data; and
 encourage divergent and creative thinking.

Deductive approach: state the generalisation first, then apply it to a number of examples.
The initial statement, even if not fully understood by students, helps to focus their attention on
those aspects of examples on which teacher wishes them to concentrate.

Classroom observation suggests that effective explanation often occurs when first statement of a
rule is followed by examples and then by a second statement of the rule – i.e. clarity in
establishing relationship between general rule and specific examples.

In all cases, it is essential for the teacher to use examples which are relevant to student’s
experience and interests, and their present level of understanding.

3.2. SET

a) “Set” is any device or process which induces a pupil to attend and learn. It directs the learner’s
attention to a specific task or learning sequence. It excludes the perception and learning of other
activities. It is important to choose the introductory set carefully so that it is interesting in
itself to the pupils and there is obvious link between it and what is to be learnt.
b) Why use set induction?
 To focus attention on what is to be learnt.
 To create a frame of reference before or during a lesson.
 To give meaning to a new concept or principle.
 To stimulate student interest and involvement.

c) How to induce a set to learn?

(Cartoons drawn by Mr. William Pang)

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 1. Gaining preliminary attention:
Make sure your pupils are attending before you begin. This is a best achieved by pausing,
looking around the class and waiting until the class is ready. Shouting and bawling lose their
effect rapidly.

2. Orientation:
Select an event, object, process, or device which will interest your pupils, and match your
objectives in the lesson. If your choice is too far away from either your pupils’ interests or your
objectives, then it will block learning and may lead to discipline problems. Choose something
that will provide a structure or focus for your pupils. Choose something that will help make the
objectives of the lesson clear. Analogies, examples and puzzling questions are useful devices.

d) When to induce a set?

1. At the beginning of a lesson.
2. When changing topics
3. Before a question and answer session.
4. Before a panel discussion.
5. Before films, filmstrips, radio or TV programmes.

e) Some examples of simple set induction devices

Each of these has been used to induce:

1. Do something unusual at the beginning of a lesson. For example, emptying one’s pockets on
to the desk as an introduction to counting and classifying objects.
2. Start a lesson on rhythm by playing a record of drum beats i.e. by pupils on teacher
performing a task which leads to the topic.
3. Using a set of instructions. Example: “As you read this report on the Civil War, think about
how you could have stopped it if you had (i) a cloak which made you invisible or (ii) a
million pounds.”
4. Use an announcement. Example: “All Muslim children must leave school at noon today. In
future no Muslim child can attend school”. This could serve as an introduction to a discussion
of freedom of religion.
5. Show them an object picture or map and ask questions about it. Example: A machete as an
introduction to a lesson on tribal feuds.
6. Ask a provocative question. Example: “Would you walk down the main street of Causeway
Bay in broad daylight, stark naked, if I gave you $1,000,000 to support starving people in
Nigeria? Would you do this, if you could never tell anyone why you did it?” This could be an
introduction to a discussion on morality and tabcos.
7. Use an analogy (serious or humorous).
8. Use a “startle” set. Example: Strike a match for a lesson on the importance and dangers of
fire to mankind.
Note: Too many “startle” sets cease to startle a class. Too startling an event might disrupt
learning.
9. Renew, or get the pupils to review the main points of the topic in the previous lesson.

3.3. CLOSURE

The main purpose is to signify that the task or learning sequence is complete. The aim is partly
social, i.e. to end the lesson, but more importantly it is also to consolidate what has been learnt
and focus attention on the main points. This is its cognitive link. It is important pupils leave with
a sense of achievement so that they feel the lesson was worthwhile and hence are interested next
time. This is the so called social link and is important if we are to encourage our pupils for
further work.

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 Effective closure does not mean just summarising but it also involves putting a new question
that pupils can think about i.e. it must interest and reinforce. It is vital in doing this that pupils
link the conclusion with the main part of the lesson. Remember closure does not only occur at
its end of the lesson. Like “set” it should be used after each major section, e.g. after viewing a
section of video or on completing an exercise.

In order to close a lesson, or a part of a lesson, we may:

 review the main points which have been made. It is important to be brief and well focused.
 return to the original question posed at the beginning of the lesson and apply the new
knowledge gained.

3.4. A SUGGESTED TASK

You and your partner are to plan two 4-6 min. micro-lesson on a topic in your major subject.
The lesson should include a set and some explanations which involve giving examples.
Each of you will teach a lesson while the other acts as observer.

TEACHER EXPLANATION APPRAISAL GUIDE

Teach / Reteach (ring appropriate word)

Please read the guide before you teach the micro-lesson, and look through it whilst you are viewing
the teaching session. Assess your microteaching performance on each of the items rigorously, as if you
were about to qualify as a teacher. Put a ring round the number which most closely indicates your
view of your performance.

7 represents “truly outstanding” (for a person about to qualify) and 1 represent “weak”.

Explanations
NO YES
1. Your explanations were clearly understood by the pupils. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. Your explanations appealed to the pupils. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. Your explanations covered the essential feature. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. You listened carefully to the pupils’ responses. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. You clarified their responses, so helping the pupils to gain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
greater understanding.
6. The analogies, illustration and examples you used were 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
interesting to the pupils.
7. The analogies, illustrations and examples you used were 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
relevant to your explanations

Skill comments:

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 RATING GUIDE: SET AND CLOSURE

Assess the micro-teaching performance on each of the items rigorously. Ring the number which most
closely indicates your view of the performance (7 = outstanding, 1 = weak).

SET NO YES
Interest
1. The method of introducing the lesson was in itself 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
interesting.
2. The method of introducing the lesson helped students to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
become interested in the main part of the lesson.
Cognitive Link
3. The relationship between the introduction and the main 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
part of the lesson was clear.

CLOSURE
Interest
4. The method of ending was in itself interesting. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. The method of ending reinforced the student’s interest in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the lesson.
Cognitive Link
6. The relationship between the ending and main part of the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
lesson was clear.
Social Link
7. The lesson created a sense of achievement in your pupils. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

EFFECTIVE TEACHING

4. QUESTIONING AND RECEIVING ANSWERS

4.1. QUESTIONING

a) General

Teachers use questions to increase pupil participation. The way in which questions are asked and
distributed, and the variety of the questions, is likely to have a significant effect on student
achievement and the degree of involvement within the classroom.

A question asks for a reply or a response from a pupil. For this reason a question should be realistic in
its demands if it is not to create confusion, or to pose a threat to the respondent.

Questions in the classroom should range widely in the level and type of demand they make on the
mind and feelings of the listeners. Unfortunately there is classroom evidence which suggests that
many teachers ascribe a limited role to oral questioning. In a recent study it was found that about two
thirds of a sample of 190 teachers thought of questions as a technique for checking pupil learning
whilst only 7% considered that questions were important for motivating children. None of the teachers
surveyed suggested that questions helped pupils learn from each other or assisted them to process
information better.

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 (Cartoons drawn by Mr. William Pang)
b) Components of Questioning

In using questioning in the classroom the following principles should be observed.

1. Clear and economical phrasing of the question.

2. The purpose of the question (its relationship to the topic being discussed) should be clear. Ensure
you have attention first.
3. Focusing: the question can aim at eliciting either a number of responses or restrict attention to a
single task.
4. Variety: vary the type, purpose and difficulty of questions.
5. Re-direction – the degree of student participation can be increased by the re-direction of questions
to a series of students. This maximises interaction.
6. Distribution: it is advisable to distribute questions evenly through class. Pose questions to the
whole class, pause and direct to a specific pupil. Avoid always asking the bright ones.
7. Pause after a question has been asked. Give pupils time to think. Use eye contact to maintain a link
with your class.

c) Varying the Level

One of the principles of using questioning in the classroom is to vary the type, purpose and difficulty
of questions. As mentioned earlier, classroom questioning is often restricted to checking what has
been learnt. The idea that questioning is only a form of “testing” may lead to a severe restriction on
the type of questions which are asked. In order to illustrate the variety of responses which questions
can evoke, a method of categorizing questions is described below. It should be stressed that what
follows is only one way of looking at different categories of questions and is set down merely to
illustrate the range of questions which are available.

1. Memory questions – call for facts or other items which can be recall.
2. Closed/Convergent Questions – call for the analysis and integration of remembered or given data.
3. Open/Divergent Questions – call for answers which are creative and imaginative and which move
in new directions.
4. Evaluative Questions – deal with matters of judgement, value or choice.

4.2. RECEIVING ANSWERS

a) General

Probably the most important element in successful questioning is an atmosphere of trust. If teachers
show that they are interested in their pupils exploring and searching for answers rather than
identifying who cannot respond correctly, pupils will develop trust. Of course, there is no mechanical
way one can develop this atmosphere. But teachers can start by asking whether they really listen and
respond to the pupils’ contributions. Often the teacher is so intent on having one particular answer
phrased in a specific way that what a pupil is saying is completely ignored.

It is demoralising when a teacher gives the “perfect answer” after pupils have, in fact, given a correct
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reply but which was wondered in a different way. Teachers have even been known to give “inferior”
answers to ones offered by his pupils merely because the teacher wasn’t listening carefully.
Techniques listed below can help to develop an atmosphere of trust.

b) Positive reinforcement

Reinforcement is the technical term used to describe any technique which modifies or changes
behaviour. It gives the recipient information or feedback about his action. It thus acts as a corrective
to his behaviour. Reinforcement may be positive or negative.

Praise and help not only change behaviour, they develop confidence and a positive image of oneself.
Their absence may lead to a poor self-image and an unwillingness to keep trying. Not all pupils need
sustained praise and help. A pupil who is clever and happy may not need positive reinforcement for
each success. At the other extreme, a pupil who is weak academically and unhappy may need
considerable help and praise, particularly during the early stages of learning a new task. Younger
pupils seem to require more praise than older pupils and younger children are sensitive to the absence
or withdrawal of praise.

The praise may be verbal such as “That’s splendid!” “Very good!” “Well done”, “A good answer”. It
may be non-verbal such as a smile, a nod of the head or friendly eye contact. It may be extra-verbal
such as “Hmmmmm” or “Aaaaah!” Usually praise is a mixture of the three. Too frequent verbal
praise results in loss of its rewarding properties. The pupils are likely to think you are not
discriminating if you praise everything.

One can also praise a pupil for contributing even when his answer is incorrect for example, “good
try,” “yes, a sensible conclusion, but it’s not what the author say,” “No, not quite, but I’m glad you
brought this problem up – I’m sure most of you found this one difficult.”

Another way to accept contributions is to restate or summarise a pupil’s ideas or to acknowledge

“authorship” of the various ideas presented in a discussion. For example, “As Judy described
earlier …,” “Perhaps Lai Suk Fun’s suggestions are relevant here,” “Yim-lin and Chi-ming have all
had such an experience,” “alright let’s look at all of the arguments, Albert said …”

c) Corrective feedback

Corrective feedback is a kind of negative reinforcement and is essential to learning. It, too, may be
verbal, extra-verbal or non-verbal.

Corrective verbal feedback consists of prompts, probes and giving directions. Examples of appropriate
corrective feedback statements and questions are: No, not quite, Try again.
Could you say a bit more about it?
Look at your book again and check your answer.
Oh, you mean …?
Could you give an example?

d) Prompting

To prompt is to give pupils “hints” to help them answer a question and to give encouragement. There
are several types of prompts: a) the teacher breaks down a difficult question into smaller, more
concrete questions b) the teacher puts the pupil’s answer in a different perspective c) the teacher gives
hints on strategies to use for finding the answer d) the teacher tells the pupil which part of his answer
is correct.

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Example:
Teacher: What can you infer about Charlie’s attitude to school?
Pupil: (No response).
Teacher: Alright, what are some of the things he does on the way to school?
Pupil: He stopped to watch a beetle.
Teacher: Yes – anything else?
Pupil: He sits on a fence to watch the calves and he tries to catch some fish.
Teacher: And what time was it when he left home for school?
Pupil: He was already five minutes late to school.
Teacher: Now imagine yourself late for school. Describe your behaviour between leaving the flat and arriving
at school.
Pupil: I’d run and keep looking at my watch and pace up and down until the bus arrived.
Teacher: O.K. now think back to the original question. What might you assume about Charlie’s attitude
toward school from his behaviour? etc.

e) Probing

Here the teacher use (probing) questions to try to help the pupil to think more deeply and express
himself more clearly.

Probing questions are supplementary questions based on a student’s reply to an initial question.

(a) Clarification questions probing by asking students to clarify their first answer. e.g. “I’m not sure
what you mean by that”.
(b) support questions: probing by asking students to supply the evidence which they used in reaching
a particular point of view. “Can you think of events anywhere else which might throw light on
that?”
(a) consensus questions: probing by seeing how much agreement or disagreement there is within the
class towards the views being expressed. e.g. “How many of you agree with Jack’s opinion
that …”
(b) accuracy questions: drawing student’s attention to an error in, or a dispute about, a fact he has
sued. e.g. “When you say “tangent”, do you mean …”
(c) relevance questions: asking students to show how their answer is relevant. e.g. “How does you
answer relate to what we are discussing about …”
(d) examples questions: asking students to support what is at first a rather vague or general statement.
e.g. “Can you give an example?”
(e) complexity questions: searching for further ideas of importance to an issue by pressing a group to
go beyond simple statements. e.g. “How would we start looking for bias?”

Extra-verbal feedback consists of Mmm’s, Ah’s and Ah ha’s. This sort of feedback may be coupled
with non-verbal cues such as a puzzled frown, raising the eyebrows, frowning, scratching one’s head,
looking at a pupil in a thoughtful way or looking in silence.

f) Handling a “No Response”

The first rule is DO NOT ANSWER YOUR OWN QUESTIONS. Teachers who consistently receive
“no response” from their pupils usually answer their own questions. Their pupils have learned that if
they do not respond, the teacher will give them the answer. Some teachers are so conditioned that they
don’t even bother to pause between the question and their own answers.

If you have tried every technique mentioned above and you still do not receive a reply from anybody,
then you might try the “buzz-group” technique. Have everyone work out an answer with their nearest
neighbors, and then ask for “pair-answers.” If this fails, give the question as homework. It won’t take
too many pieces of homework before pupils learn that an attempt, even if wrong, is perhaps better
than extra homework to take home. Tell your pupils if they need a little more time to think about it

15
and you will ask the question again tomorrow. You expect everyone in the class to prepare an
answer.

When an individual cannot reply, call on another pupil but always return to the one who couldn’t
answer. In this way the pupil will not consider himself “off the hook” just because he or she hasn’t
replied, for example, “O.K. Lee Lan pun, I will ask you the same question in a moment. Perhaps some
others can give some ideas. Ho Shiu Yan can you help Lee Lan Pun out? … (later) O.K. Lee Lan Pun
can you summarise everyone’s suggestion?”

4.3. A SUGGESTED TASK

You and your partner will plan two 4-6 min, micro-lessons on a topic in your major subject. The
lesson should include as much questioning as possible. Various types of questions should be used.

In teaching the micro-lesson, pay special attention on how you respond students’ answers.

The following notes will assist in preparing and evaluating your lesson. Include them in planning and
in the write-up of your self evaluation.

1. Factual material that you wish the students to comprehend by the end of the lesson and teaching procedures
to be used during its presentation.
2. Teaching aids that will assist students’ learning through
(a) motivation
(b) illustration
(c) summarizing and “clinching”
Plan ways in which these aids will be used.
3. List the key questions you intend to ask during the lesson.
(Give particular thought as to how these should be phrased and sequenced.)
4. Remember that different types of questions exist. Indicate the variety of your questions by categorizing
them.

RATING GUIDE: QUESTIONING AND RECEIVING ANSWERS

Assess the performance on each of the items (6 = outstanding; 1 = weak).

NO YES
Questioning
1. The questions were usually clearly understood by the pupils. 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. The questions were usually coherently expressed. 1 2 3 4 5 6
3. Pauses were made after asking most of the questions. 1 2 3 4 5 6
4. The pace at which he asked questions were varied. 1 2 3 4 5 6
5. Some of the questions were directed at individual pupils. 1 2 3 4 5 6
6. The questions were distributed amongst the whole group of 1 2 3 4 5 6
pupils.
7. Questions were asked at various levels appropriately. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Receiving Answers
1. Pupil answers and questions were responded to with such words 1 2 3 4 5 6
as good, fine, splendid.
2. Pupils were encouraged to participate by using cues such as ah 1 2 3 4 5 6
ha, mmmm, mm’mm, etc.
3. Pupils were encouraged to participate by using cues such as 1 2 3 4 5 6
smiling, nodding the head, writing answers on the blackboard,
looking and listening in a variety of friendly ways.
4. Prompting techniques were used to help pupils formulate their 1 2 3 4 5 6
answers.

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5. Probing techniques were used to help pupils think more deeply 1 2 3 4 5 6
about their answers
6. Simple directions such as “Think again”, “Look again”, were 1 2 3 4 5 6
given which helped pupils to arrive at appropriate answers.
7. Credit for the correct part of a pupil’s answer was given. 1 2 3 4 5 6
8. Pupils’ responses were linked to other pupil responses made 1 2 3 4 5 6
earlier in the lesson.

Comments on overall performance

THE BIAS SYSTEM

The categories of BIAS system are fairly clear-cut provided that you remember that what determines
the category are intentions and knowledge grammatical structures. Here are a few examples:
 In a lesson on plants and animals on a nearby shore, one nine-year-old pupil said, “Do you mean Miss, it’s
like an ecosystem?” This would be coded PV (information and volunteered) because one does not expect
nine-year-olds to know and use this term nor did the teacher intend to draw this conceptual point so
succinctly from the class. The same remark by a sixth former in a grammar school could legitimately be
coded as PR (predictable response).
 “Peter, tell us a bit more about that” is a question (TQ) not a direction (TL).
 “Peter, will you please close the window” is a direction (TL) not a question (TQ).
 “Peter, will you please shut up” is a reprimand (X) not a question.
 “That’s not quite correct, Peter’ is a mild criticism (TR) not a reprimand (X).
 “Well, what are the five main points about the Civil War? They are …” This type is usually part of a
description (TL) not a question. The context and speed of delivery are important clues.

Time Segments
TL
TQ
TR
PV
PR
S
X

The BIAS Categories

TL Teacher lecturers – describes, explains, narrates, directs
TQ Teacher questions about the content or the procedure which pupils are intended to answer.
TR Teacher responds – accepts feelings of the class : describes past and future feelings in a non-threatening way.
Praises, encourages and jokes with pupils. Accepts or uses pupils’ ideas. Builds upon their responses. Uses
mild criticism such as “no, not quite.Try again”
PR Pupils respond directly and predictably to a teacher questions and directions.
PV Pupils volunteer information, comments or questions.
S Silence, Pauses, short periods of silence.
X Unclassifiable. Confusion in which communications cannot be understood. Unusual activities such as
reprimanding or criticizing pupils. Demonstrating without accompanying teacher or pupils talk. Short spates of
blackboard work without accompanying teacher or pupil talk.
Note: The system was designed for use during verbal exchanges. It is wasteful to use it for other activities such as
class tests, copying notes for long periods, individual pupil learning, play acting.

You will not always agree on difficult cases, particularly those on the PV/PR border. In case of doubt,
code as PV first. When doubtful about use of pupil ideas or use of teacher ideas, code as TR. If “mild
criticism” or “”reprimand” is difficult, code as X.
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 POST TEACHING SESSION SELF EVALUATION

A micro-lesson plan

Name: ______________________ Group: __________________Date: ________________

Topic of lesson: _____________________________________________________________
Subject: ______________________________ Level: _______________________________
Skill(s) under review: __________________________________________________________

1. Specific objectives:

2. Content and procedure:

3. Post-lesson impression:

4. Post-viewing impression:

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 Appendix 1

MICROTEACHING IN PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE EDUCATION

G.A. Brown, University of Nottingham
WHAT IS MICROTEACHING?

Microteaching may be described as a scaled down teaching situation in which a teacher teaches a brief lesson to
small group of pupils or fellow trainees. The lesson may last from three or four minutes to twenty minutes. In
most cases about 10 minutes is preferred. The small group may consist of three or four pupils or peers, or up to
fifteen pupils or peers. The lessons are usually videorecorded and then viewed, discussed and analysed by the
student teacher, his supervisor and perhaps, his fellow students. The student teacher may then be given an
opportunity to teach another lesson to different group of pupils and view, discuss and analyse this lesson. In
in-service courses it is customary to use peer group microteaching in which each member of the group teaches
the other members. After videorecording the set of teaching episodes they are analysed and discussed by the
group who should, preferably, use checklists and other observation instruments to analyse the process and
structure of the teaching episode.

Microteaching was begun at Stanford University in 1964 and since then it has become widely used in most
English speaking countries. It is also used extensively in Northern Europe and in many Asian and African
countries. Not surprisingly, microteaching has changed in many ways since it was first used at Stanford.
Whereas the Stanford School of Education gave practice in very narrowly defined skills, such as set
(introducing a lesson), one at a time, most microteaching programmes nowadays require the students to teach
realistic but brief lessons and to focus sharply upon a particular skill or set of skills during the viewing and
discussion sessions. There are now so many different forms of microteaching that the term microteaching must
be regarded as generic rather than specific. Writers who claim to have developed or use the only true
microteaching should be regarded with some skepticism.

Nonetheless all microteaching programme are based upon three common principles:-

1. Identify the skills involved in successful performance (Task analysis)

2. Provide a relatively safe opportunity for practice with feedback of these skills in a simplified situation.
3. Discuss and analyse the feedback.

SOME USES OF MICROTEACHING

It is obvious from the above principles that microteaching has a rich potential as a method of training in
communication skills as well as is teacher education.

In Teacher Education and Curriculum Development

In teacher education, microteaching may be used as a supplement to teaching practice, as part of a gradual
process of training – from microteaching to the real classroom, as a form of diagnostic and remedial training
and as a method of enriching the skills of experienced teachers. In short, microteaching may be used to develop
new skills of teaching and to refine existing skills.

Perhaps more important more than these obvious uses of microteaching is the role that microteaching can take
in curriculum development in teacher education and in curriculum development in schools. Microteaching may
be used as a core activity in Education Studies and the curriculum built around the themes of teaching and
learning. Alternatively it may be used as the core of methods courses so that students are given the
opportunities to practise the strategies and skills which are being discussed in lectures. Used in this way
microteaching becomes a powerful integrator of methods course. The lectures, tutorials and microteaching
mutually reinforce and so lay a firm foundation on which future in-service courses may be built.

Microteaching may also be used in curriculum development in schools. Often a curriculum development
project founders, not because of the quality of the materials but because of the neglect of appropriate teaching
methods. Microteaching provides an opportunity to try out some materials with students and teachers. The
results may be analysed and the materials modified if necessary and some of the videotapes obtained may also

19
be used in seminars and workshops with teachers to provide examples of different ways of using the same
materials.

However, if microteaching is to be used successfully pre-service teacher education, then it is important that it is
seen as a joint enterprise of teacher educators, inspectors, head teachers, student teachers – even parents and
pupils. Hence one should consult, discuss and take account of various views on what skills, knowledge and
attitude are regarded as important and as far as possible ensure that the training in microteaching, in school
practice and in actual school experience during the probationary year are in harmony, not conflict.

Microcounselling and Interviewing

Microteaching techniques have also been used in the training of counsellors, doctors, managers, head teachers,
agricultural workers, social workers, community development workers and family planning officers. The work
of these professionals requires them to teach, discuss, negotiate and appraise in one-to-one situations.
Micro-techniques with videotape feedback provides them with the opportunity for safe practice and analysis of
their own skills. The ‘trainees’ are often required to play the role of their clients in these training programmes
and this procedure in itself can generate greater understanding of their clients and therefore of ways of helping
them.

Microteaching and Staff Development

Recently microteaching has become an important method of staff training and development for lecturers who
are working in further and higher education. Lecturing, small group teaching and tutorials are complex,
demanding activities. Nonetheless, these teaching methods may be analysed and training programmes devised
to improve them. The present author has been actively engaged in developing such programmes (see Brown,
1978; Brown, 1980).

Some Components of Microteaching

It is not possible in a brief paper to detail all the components of microteaching. The major components are the
supervisor or tutor, the equipment, the methods of analysis, the supporting materials or lectures, and of course
the tasks for the trainees. (Brown, 1975 & 1978).

The Supervisor or Tutor

The role of the supervisor or tutor is clearly to provide guidance and support to the trainees until such times that
the trainee no longer requires it. The ultimate goal of supervision is therefore to help the trainee to become a
fully-fledged professional. Hence the supervisor has, as far as possible, to encourage the trainee to be self
critical and to help him by providing hints, suggestion and question. This is a subtle inter-personal task and it is
perhaps for this reason that the form of microteaching known as ‘minicourses’ have abandoned the use of
supervisors (Perrott, 1977). Instead, they rely solely upon model tapes and written instructions. Nonetheless it
is likely that most students, teachers and other professionals prefer to work with a skilled sympathetic
supervisor than with no supervisor.

The Equipment

Most microteaching programme use videorecordings on the grounds that audiovisual feedback is richer and
more meaningful for the trainees. The audiovisual feedback may be from one or two camera set ups. The
feedback may be of the teacher only or, more preferably, of the teacher and pupils. Feedback of the pupils’
reactions helps the trainee teacher to become aware of the effects he is having upon his pupils (and vice-versa).
However, feedback is itself not enough. Guidance on what to look for and listen to is also necessary.

Not all institutions can afford to use video equipment for all sessions of microteaching. A useful substitute for
video-recorder is the audio cassette recorder with sensitive microphone. This provides the trainees with
feedback of their language usage and that of their pupils. It is particularly important to provide guidelines for
listening when only audio feedback is available.

Some institutions do not have the resources to provide any form of audio or audiovisual feedback and hence
20
they may consider microteaching is an inappropriate technique for their students. Microteaching has however
been used without any audio or audiovisual feedback. The task analysis is carried out, the opportunity for
practice is provided and the feedback is provided by the student teacher’s peers who use specially devised
report forms or checklists. This method works well provided that the students are trained to use the report forms
and checklists and they work in small groups so that each member of the group takes the role of the teacher and
the observers’ roles. It is usually better to provide different checklists or report forms so that the trainees use in
one session of microteaching a variety of methods of observing teaching. This sharpens their perceptions of
teaching and maintains interests as well as giving them practices in teaching.

The Methods of Analysis

There are several ways of analysing microteaching practice just as there are several ways of analysing teaching
(Brown, 1978). Here are a few examples:-

1. Pupil Learning
This may be used when the topic is known in advance and multiple choice questions set on the topic. This
is a useful research instrument but somewhat time-consuming for everyday use (Brown, 1983).

2. Pupil reactions to the Lesson

A simple checklist or discussion with the pupils may be used. Discussions with pupils may be
illuminative – but timeconsuming. Checklists are more reliable but they should be simple, brief and
understandable to the pupils. Some teachers dislike the use of pupils’ reactions. The use of only pupils or
student reactions is questionable. The total non use of pupil or student reactions is just as questionable in
fully fledged training programme for teaching.

3. Rating Schedules
These provide a list of important items for the trainees as well as the tutors. Each item is assigned a score
say from 6 to 1. The item may be more useful than the scores. If one uses rating schedules one should be
prepared to train the users.

4. Sign System
Specific items such as ‘Used examples’ are ticked if they occur in a fixed time interval such as 30 secs.
Each item is ticked only once per time occurs in that interval. This system provides a sample of the
teaching behaviour of pupil reactions used. The use of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ items such as ‘used
example’, ‘vague statements’ provides a concrete basis for evaluating the lesson.

5. Interaction Analysis
There are several forms of interaction analysis. Essentially the observer codes the major events using a set
of categories. This provides the frequency and possibly the pattern of interaction in a lesson. Training is
required for even the simplest interaction analysis system but training in interaction analysis does sharpen
perception. Interaction analysis can enable one to explore lessons, to compare lessons and to analysis
teaching strategies and styles (Mawer and Brown, 1983).

6. Tapescript Analysis
Analysis of the transcripts of the microteaching lessons can be a powerful method but it is often time
consuming. An eight minute lesson takes about one hour to transcribe. The tapescripts may be analysed
using a category system or by methods skin to literary criticism. The method enables the users to explore
the structure of a lesson and the language used by teacher and pupils. This method was used by the author
in a study of explanatory teaching (Brown, 1983).

7. Phenomenological
Essentially ‘Look and Say’. One observes a lesson and writes notes on it. This method can be subtle and
penetrating in the hands of a skilled and sensitive observer. It can also be disastrous. The method is
probably best used as an adjunct to other methods (Wragg and Kerry, 1983).

The Supporting Materials and Lectures

The supporting materials may be videotaped or audiotaped examples of teaching or tapescripts of teaching. The
21
examples may be of ‘good’ or ‘bad’ teaching and in some programme the examples are supposed to be near
perfect models. The model tapes are sometimes used with a signal which alerts the observer to a particularly
important move or reaction. As far as possible videotaped models of teaching should be realistic and
meaningful to the trainees so that they can identify with the model and so are prepared to try the method
exemplified. Perhaps examples rather than near perfect models are of more value in most training situations for
teaching.

The lecturers may provide examples of the teaching skills under review and perhaps, the related theory and
research. For example, in tackling ‘questioning’ one can in a lecturer refer to different ways of analysing
questioning, the research on questioning, speculate on why questioning is regarded as an important aspect of
teaching, and set tasks on questioning for the trainees.

The Tasks for the Trainees

There are three major tasks for trainees in microteaching: preparation of the teaching materials, the teaching
itself and analysis of the teaching. Frequently preparation and analysis are neglected yet both are essential
constituents of a training programme.

Preparation involves the use of intentions, goals or objectives. Not all teachers and teacher educators favour
precise behavioural objectives. However most agree that lesson preparation is necessary. A microteaching
situation in which students are working in a small group provides an excellent opportunity for training in lesson
preparation and in evaluation of lesson preparation. The students can pool their knowledge and skills and learn
from each others preparation and teaching.

The teaching task in a microteaching situation may be global such as “Teach a short lesson of about eight
minutes to a group of ten first year pupils on any topic you choose”. The topic or method may be specified
precisely and, in addition, the trainee may be asked to pay particular attention to one skill or set of skills. A
sequence of tasks may be used and there may be opportunity to tackle the same tasks more than once. A useful
scheme for an intensive programme is to provide training in the major methods in use in a school system – for
example, exposition teaching, discussion teaching and small group teaching. Each of these methods may be
practised three or four times but in each practice within the method the trainee may be asked to pay particular
attention to one set of skills. Thus in exposition lessons a trainee may be asked to concentrate on first,
explaining; secondly, introducing and ending a topic; and thirdly; and thirdly, stimulus variation (maintaining
the interest of his pupils).

The analytical tasks are designed to sharpen the trainee’s perception of his or her own teaching. For if one can
analyse one’s own teaching, one is equipped to experiment and develop one’s teaching long after the training
programme has ceased. Some suggestions on methods of analysing teaching have already been given in an
earlier section.

Microteaching is but one of many relatively new methods of training which are available. Closely allied to
microteaching are the techniques of analysing teaching which were mentioned above. All of these plus
videotaped or audiotaped examples, or tapescripts of micro-lessons or of class lessons may be used without
microteaching practice, so too may various teaching problems. All of these techniques involve the trainee in
analysis and all are based upon the assumption that analysis yields greater understanding and therefore greater
opportunity for change in.
However there is a temptation to focus only on the presentation techniques of teaching. Whilst these are
important, the structure of a teaching episode is at least as important. Hence the importance of encouraging
students and teachers to explore the structure of their lessons, such as the sequence of topics and the
relationship between these topics. Such analyses are best carried out, initially, on tapescripts. The analyses
obtained may be used to evaluate lesson preparation.

POTENTIAL AND LIMITATIONS OF MICROTEACHING

Microteaching has a rich potential in teacher education, staff development in higher education, curriculum
development, in-service education and other forms of education. However, it is not a panacea for all the
problems of education nor is it a substitute for practice in real situations. Nor can microteaching change poor
teachers into gifted ones – but it can help all teachers to become better teachers.

22
But there are two major limitations of microteaching. First, it requires careful planning by the co-ordinator or
lecturer in charge otherwise a microteaching programme is perceived as useless by its users. Second, it required
close co-operation between all the people involved in training teachers – inspectors, head teachers and teachers
as well as the teacher educators and student. Without this co-operation a microteaching programme is unlikely
to be accepted no matter how good it is.

These limitations may also be strengths, for systematic practical courses are likely to be more effective than
unplanned courses or relatively unsupervised school practices. And courses which enable schools, inspectorates
and institutes or departments of education to work closely together are likely to produce a more effective
teacher education programme.

In addition to the above limitations there are often doubts expressed of its artificially. It is said that
microteaching is threatening and that it takes too long. It is artificial and simpler than class teaching. But that
does not prevent it from being useful. Flying a Piper-Aztec is ‘artificial’ if ultimately one wishes to fly
Concorde. Nonetheless Piper-Aztecs are good training vehicles. Microteaching is threatening but most of the
anxiety disappears after the first attempt and, after all, most worthwhile tasks are challenging. Microteaching
does not take up any more time than teaching practice. Indeed a class of forty children divided into four groups
can in one morning provide microteaching practice of thirty-two students providing there is sufficient
equipment. Whereas thirty-two students would require thirty-two whole classes for a morning’s conventional
teaching practice and the conventional teaching practice would not provide the same opportunities for feedback
and analysis.

Perhaps the greatest potential of microteaching and allied techniques is in extending the professional of
teachers. Workshops based upon microteaching exercises can be used in in-service courses to refresh and refine
existing skills of teaching, to sharpen perceptions of teaching and learning and to develop understanding of
teaching and learning.

For example, two essential teaching strategies in teaching physical education are providing guidance and
feedback. The guidance given should be specific, clear and understandable. The feedback should be precise,
informative and help pupils to develop their skills and their understanding. These central strategies may be
developed through a series of carefully designed micro-activities carried out by teachers working in small
groups within a workshop. Some of the activities involve learning a simple interaction system, analysing video
excerpts of teaching and practice in giving guidance and feedback to one’s peers. Participant’s comments and
evaluations of such workshops on P.E. teaching have been very favourable.

SUMMARY AND COMMENT

In this paper I have tried to outline the main features of microteaching, its uses, its components and its
limitations. I have not attempted to review the research on microteaching nor provide detailed example of
microteaching. The bibliography given at the end of this article provides useful sources on research and
development.
At first glance, microteaching appears to be a new method of training. In fact, its basic ideas may be found in
the writings of great educators and its methods related to methods used in colleges and institutes in the 19 th and
early 20th century. But although the ideas and methods of microteaching are not new, the use of microteaching
is new. It offers exciting possibilities for developing pre-service and in-service teacher education and training in
the 1980s.

REFERENCES

BROWN, G.A. (1975) Microteaching: Research and Development in CHANAN, G. and DELAMONT, S. (Eds)
(1975) Frontiers of Classroom Research (NFER) London. Gives a review of research up to 1975 on
microteaching. The book also contains reviews of research on allied techniques.
BROWN, G.A. (1978) Microteaching Methuen, London.
Essentially a practical book for student teachers which contains guidelines, hints and activities on teaching and
on microteaching.
BROWN, G.A. and ARMSTRONG, S.A. (1975) Moire about microteaching in Trends in Education, Feb.
HMSO, London.
This describes the programme of microteaching which was developed at the University of Ulster.
BROWN, G.A. (1978) Lecturing and Explaining Mathuen.
23
A book on explaining and lecturing which uses microteaching and allied techniques to develop the skills of
explaining and lecturing.
BROWN, G.A. (1982) Two days on lecturing Studies in Higher Education 7, 93-103. Describes a two day
course and its evaluation.
BROWN, G.A. (1983) On Explaining in WRAGG, E.C. and KERRY, T. (eds) (1983) Classroom Teaching Skills
Croom Hlem (in press).
This text outlines the research on the skills of teaching conducted in the Nottingham Teacher Education Project.
There are chapters on explaining, questioning, classroom management and control etc. which formed the basis
of the work books on teaching skills for students which were published by Macmillan Publishers in 1982.
McINTYRE, D., McCLEOD, G and GRIGGITHS, R. (1977) Investigation of Microteaching Croom Hlem,
London.
Describes ten years of research and development of microteaching at the University of Stirling.
MAWER, M. and BROWN, G. (1983) Analysing Teaching in Physical Education in MAWER, M. (ed), Trends
in Physical Education University of Hull.
PERROT, E. (1977) Microteaching in Higher Education SRHE c/o University of Surrey. Should be titled “The
minicourse on questioning”. Provides a brief, inaccurate review of microteaching and a detailed description of
the development of the minicourse on questioning and, like Borg’s minicourse, it is a form of unsupervised self
instructional microteaching.
TROTT, A. (ed) (1977) Selected Papers on Microteaching Kogan Page, London.
A brief book which contains reviews and discussions of research and development in microteaching.
TURNEY, C. et al, (1975-1977) Sydney Microskills Series University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.

Five volumes of research on different skills of teaching together with examples of tapescripts of lessons. The
topics covered include explaining, questioning, reinforcing, using audiovisual aids, small group teaching etc.
The volumes are invaluable sources of references and reviews on teaching. But they are not direct practical
guides on teaching. Nonetheless they are worth buying for the library.

Appendix 1 is reproduced for teaching purpose in the Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong
with verbal consensus obtained from Dr. George Brown in 1988 after his seminar given during his
academic visit to the Faculty.

24