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Natural Antioxidants Used in Meat Products
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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-45299-5_10-1
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Natural Antioxidants Used in Meat Products
Jéssica Souza Ribeiro, Larissa Kauly Rosa Silva, and

Marcondes Viana da Silva
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Oxidative Processes in Meat and Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1 Lipid Peroxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Protein Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Oxidation of Pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Antioxidants Used in Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1 Classes of Antioxidants and Mechanisms of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Synthetic Antioxidants and Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Natural Antioxidants and Possibilities of Use in Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5 Natural Antioxidants and Reduction of Toxic Substances Produced by Oxidation
in Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.1 Malonaldehyde (MDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2 Cholesterol Oxidation Products (COP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.3 N-Nitrosamines and N-Nitrosamides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.5 Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines (HCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 Effects on Health and Bioavailability of Natural Antioxidants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7 Effects of Natural Antioxidants on Microbial Development and Conservation of Meat
Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
J. S. Ribeiro (*)
Center for Science and Technology in Energy and Sustainability (CETENS), Federal University of
Recôncavo of Bahia (UFRB), Feira de Santana, Brazil
e-mail: jessica.ribeiro@ufrb.edu.br
L. K. R. Silva
Federal University of Western Bahia (UFOB), Barreiras, Brazil
M. V. da Silva
Department of Exact and Natural Sciences (DCEN), State University of Southwest Bahia (UESB),
Itapetinga, Brazil
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

H. M. Ekiert et al. (eds.), Plant Antioxidants and Health, Reference Series in
Phytochemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45299-5_10-2
2 J. S. Ribeiro et al.
8 Assessment Methods for Oxidation in Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Abstract
Meat products are highly nutritious foods, as they are sources of proteins, fats,
vitamins, and minerals. Due to their chemical characteristics and modifications
resulting from processing, meat products are very susceptible to oxidation and
microbial contamination, which justifies the use of various food additives, such as
antioxidants and preservatives, represented mainly by synthetic compounds
whose consumption is related to several health risk factors. Therefore, there is
an urgent need to replace these substances, and bioactive phytochemicals appear
as a promising alternative. In this chapter, we discuss various aspects related to the
use of natural antioxidants in meat products, comprehending chemical composition
of meat and its derivatives, their oxidative processes, the toxic compounds due to
oxidation, the use of natural antioxidants, and the other observed effects of isolated
compounds, extracts, and essential oils, such as antimicrobial activity, demonstrat-
ing their potential in reducing the use of synthetic food additives.
Keywords
Antioxidants · Natural additives · Ultra-processed meats · Active packaging ·
Phytochemicals · Bioactive compounds · Food technology
1 Introduction
Meat products are foods obtained through the processing of fresh meat from different
animals through one or more types of processes such as fractionation, cooking,
drying, salting, smoking, fermentation, and the addition of condiments, seasonings,
or other additives. The processing of fresh meat may reduce their perishability and
increase their shelf life, minimize costs with transport and storage, as well as add
value to waste (shavings, tendons, fat, etc.) and to less valued cuts or the ones that
generally would not be consumed in their fresh state, generating alternatives for their
commercialization. The processing of meat does not have a significant impact on
their nutritional quality; however, it gives characteristics such as color, flavor, and
aroma that are typical of each process employed [1].
Processing can contribute to the occurrence of oxidative processes because it
involves a high level of manipulation. Oxidation affects attributes such as flavor,
color, texture, and nutritional value, due to the attack of free radicals on lipids,
pigments, proteins, and vitamins, being a limiting factor in the quality and accept-
ability of meat and meat products [2–4].
Various artificial additives with antioxidant function are used in meat products to
avoid undesirable changes in their sensory and nutritional attributes. However, due
to the risks that their high consumption can offer such as the development of
Natural Antioxidants Used in Meat Products 3
neoplasms, allergies, and other manifestations of toxicity, the search for natural
alternatives in the food industry is growing [5].
The use of natural antioxidants in meat products is as an alternative to synthetic
additives. Most sources of natural antioxidant compounds have shown to be poten-
tially safer, since they have been widely consumed by the general population and
have not shown signs of toxicity, and they also provide beneficial functional
activities to human health [6–9].
For better understanding of the oxidative processes in meat products and how the
natural antioxidants can be used for prevention, this chapter will present the various
oxidation mechanisms, types of antioxidant activity, and studies related to the use of
natural antioxidants directly in the formulation as well as in active packaging used in
meat products.
2 Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Meat
Meat is a food that has great importance in human nutrition for its high protein
content, the presence of essential fatty acids and B vitamins, such as vitamin B12 and
cobalamin, found essentially in products of animal origin, in addition to minerals
such as iron and zinc [10].
Table 1 shows the nutritional composition of some types of commonly consumed
meat worldwide.
Water is the main component of meat, which directly influences its quality,
juiciness, texture, color, and flavor. Regardless of age, race, sex, and region of
production, meat is a source of protein of high biological value, since the amino
acids present in meat are essential for human needs, provided in adequate quantity
and variety. Fat is a determining factor of quality, as it influences sensory properties,
such as palatability, and the nutritional value. However, fat is also primarily respon-
sible for the oxidative process in meat products [12, 13].
3 Oxidative Processes in Meat and Meat Products
Meat processing generally involves a high level of manipulation, often with a great
fractionation of the meat, which can contribute to the occurrence of oxidative
processes, either by the decompartmentalization of cellular structures, which allows
the interaction of previously isolated compounds, or by exposure of these molecules
to oxygen and light, which contributes to the formation of free radicals and the
spread of oxidative reactions [5].
Several factors can affect oxidation in meat products, such as the content of
vitamin E (α-tocopherol), pro-oxidizing agents, such as copper and free iron found in
muscles, and free radicals which are also fundamental in preventing, delaying, or
promoting oxidative processes in meat [14]. Free radicals, which are highly unstable
and active for chemical reactions with other molecules, are derived from the
following elements: oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur, generating reactive oxygen species
Table 1 Nutritional composition of meats of different species, per 100 g [11]

Species Energy (kcal) Proteins (g) Lipids (g) Iron (mg)
Bovine (lean meat) 148.0 21.5 6.1 3.2
Pork (lean meat) 165.0 19.5 9.1 2.9
Goat (lean meat) 179.0 18.0 11.3 2.6
Sheep (lean meat) 206.0 17.1 14.8 2.6
Chicken (lean meat) 124.0 22.0 3.3 1.3
Turkey (lean meat) 162.0 24.0 6.6 1.5
Goose 167.0 15.4 11.2 3.5
Duck 326.0 16.0 28.6 1.8
Paca 98.0 19.0 1.6 1.9
Rabbit 162.0 21.0 8.0 1.3
Alligator 108.0 22.6 1.2 1.0
Fishes and seafood
Tilapia 100.0 17.5 3.5 0.7
Salmon 146.0 23.2 5.1 0.7
Golden 88.0 20.1 0.2 1.7
Tuna Fish 121.0 22.6 2.7 2.7
Corvina 100.0 20.8 1.2 1.1
Merluza 142.0 21.8 5.4 0.7
Sardine 124.0 17.7 5.4 1.3
Shrimp 87.0 17.8 0.9 1.6
Lobster 94.0 17.9 1.4 1.0
Crab 100.0 17.9 2.0 1.8
Oyster 71.0 8.3 1.2 7.2
Octopus 64.0 13.7 0.6 1.0
Squid 87.0 16.4 1.1 1.9
(ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and reactive sulfur species (RSS). The free
radicals in meat products attack mainly lipids, proteins, and pigments [15], which
will be discussed in more detail below.
Oxidation is responsible for the loss of quality in various foods, promoting
changes in color, texture, flavor, and aroma, causing nutritional losses of lipids,
proteins, and pigments, in addition to producing several potentially toxic com-
pounds. Lipid oxidation is the most studied one due to the significant quality loss
generated by it, but the oxidation of the other compounds cannot be neglected.
Figure 1 shows a summary of the changes caused by the oxidation of meat products
and the effects on their quality.
3.1 Lipid Peroxidation
Lipid oxidation reduces the quality and acceptability of meat and meat products. It
affects the taste, aroma, color, texture, and nutritional value of product, promoting
the development of undesirable flavors (off-flavors), discoloration, the production of
Fig. 1 Changes caused by oxidation in meat and meat products
potentially toxic substances, such as malonaldehyde and cholesterol oxides, and also
reduces in the nutritional value due to the decomposition of antioxidant fat-soluble
vitamins and essential fatty acids [2]. In Fig. 2, the general scheme of the lipid
oxidation reactions (oxidative rancidity), more prominent in unsaturated fatty acids,
is presented [16, 17].
Lipoperoxidation in meats and meat products is influenced by several factors,
with emphasis on the composition of fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated ones in
cell membrane phospholipids, which are the main targets of oxidative rancidity
[14]. The mechanisms of the different types of lipid oxidation in foods are shown
in Table 2.
The photooxidation and self-oxidation processes, characteristic of lipid peroxi-
dation, involve initiation, propagation, and termination phases. The onset comes
from the interaction of a radical with oxygen, which, once activated, can react with
the unsaturated fatty acid, removing a hydrogen atom from the methylene carbon
adjacent to the cis double bond of the unsaturated fatty acid, forming radicals
[17]. Propagation occurs by reaction of free radicals of fatty acids with oxygen,
with the formation of peroxide and hydroperoxide radicals, which are tasteless and
odorless. Heat, catalyzation by metal ion or photosensitizers and light can cause the
decomposition of hydroperoxide, resulting in secondary products responsible for the
odor, flavor, and texture characteristic of rancidity [18]. Once started, the reaction
follows the chain and only ends when the reserves of unsaturated fatty acids and
Fig. 2 General scheme of lipid oxidation
Table 2 Mechanisms of the different types of lipid oxidation in food [16, 17, 19]
Type of oxidation Mechanism of action
Hydrolytic They are catalyzed by enzymes in the lipase group or by the action of heat and
reactions humidity, with the formation of free fatty acids.
Enzymatic It occurs through the action of lipoxygenase enzymes, which act on
oxidation polyunsaturated fatty acids, catalyzing the addition of oxygen to the
polyunsaturated hydrocarbon chain; results in the formation of peroxides and
hydroperoxides with double conjugated bonds that can be involved in
different degradative reactions.
Photooxidation It occurs in unsaturated lipids, being promoted essentially by ultraviolet
radiation in the presence of photosensitizing compounds (such as chlorophyll,
myoglobin, riboflavin, among others), which absorb the energy of the
wavelength range of visible light and transfer it to the triplet oxygen (3O2),
generating the singlet state (1O2), which reacts with the double bonds of the
lipid by addition, forming hydroperoxides different from those formed in the
absence of light and sensitizers, and which give rise to aldehydes, alcohols,
and hydrocarbons by further degradation.
Self-oxidation Main oxidation mechanism of oils and fats; it is characterized by a sequence
of chain reactions resulting from the abstraction of hydrogens from
unsaturated fatty acids by singlet oxygen, favored by the presence of light
and heat.
oxygen are exhausted. With the depletion of substrates, the propagation reactions
cease and the termination begins, characterized by the formation of stable or non-
reactive end products, which comprise the derivatives of the decomposition of hydro-
peroxides, such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, and other hydrocarbons [19].
Free radicals and most lipid oxidation products, such as malonaldehydes and
cholesterol oxidation products present in rancid products, have attracted the attention
of the scientific community, as they are toxic to cells and possibly have a relationship
with the development of diseases with known and unknown etiology [20, 21], such
as: carcinogenesis [22], atherosclerosis [23], organ ischemia [24], rheumatoid arthri-
tis [25], Alzheimer’s [26] and Parkinson’s disease [27], gastrointestinal disorders
[28], and with aging [29].
3.2 Protein Oxidation
The oxidative modification of proteins can happen through the oxidative modifica-
tion of a specific amino acid, by peptide cleavage mediated by free radicals or by the
formation of complexes resulting from the binding of the protein with lipid perox-
idation products. Amino acids such as methionine, cysteine, arginine, and histidine
seem to make proteins more vulnerable to oxidation, and their modifications medi-
ated by free radicals increase the susceptibility to enzymatic proteolysis [21].
Protein products damaged by oxidation can contain reactive groups that contrib-
ute to damaging the membrane and many cellular functions. A peroxide radical is
generally considered to be a species of free radical involved in the oxidation of
proteins. ROS can generate carbonyls, methionine sulfoxide, and peroxides, and the
oxidative damage promoted in protein-rich products such as meat can affect enzyme
activity, receptors, and membrane transport directly related to the meat maturation
process, heat stability, and increasing susceptibility to proteolysis [21].
3.3 Oxidation of Pigments
The color of the meat is defined by the content and shape of myoglobin, a protein
present in muscle cells that is responsible for the transport and storage of oxygen.
This metalloprotein has a polypeptide chain linked to a prosthetic group, formed by a
porphyrin ring containing an iron atom, called heme group. The iron contained in the
heme group binds to oxygen and can take various forms, which are reversible with
each other. Depending on the oxidation state of the iron contained in its molecule, the
color of myoglobin can change considerably [30].
Myoglobin can be presented in a reduced form called deoxymyoglobin, which is
purple red in color, characteristic of fresh meat cuts or the ones subjected to low
oxygen pressures, as in vacuum-packed meat. When subjecting meat to high con-
centrations of oxygen, the iron in the myoglobin molecule keeps its reduced form
(Fe+2), now linked to oxygen, changing its color to bright red, and the protein is now
called oxymyoglobin. When the iron in the myoglobin is in its oxidized state (Fe+3),
the protein starts to have a brown color, and it is called metmyoglobin [1]. In Fig. 3,
the possible changes in meat color due to the oxidation state of myoglobin are
shown.
Fig. 3 Meat color according to the oxidation state of myoglobin
4 Antioxidants Used in Meat Products
4.1 Classes of Antioxidants and Mechanisms of Action
The antioxidant compounds act in the inhibition of the oxidation of nucleic acids,
proteins, pigments, and, mainly, lipids, and are classified in two broad categories:
(1) chain-breaking antioxidants, which act in the radical propagation stage (such as
phenols and aromatic amines) and (2) preventive antioxidants, which act in the
initiation stage of the radical process (such as the enzymes peroxidase and catalase).
Currently, the most used classification for antioxidants subdivides them into primary,
synergists, oxygen removers, biologicals, chelating agents, and mixed antioxidants.
The description of each of these classes is presented in Table 3 [16, 31].
Figure 4 shows the mechanism of action of primary antioxidants in stabilizing
free radicals.
4.2 Synthetic Antioxidants and Toxicity
Ultra-processed foods are industrial formulations manufactured entirely or mostly

from substances extracted from food. They are mixtures of ingredients from different
foodstuffs, in order to create products accessible, palatable, durable, convenient, and
ready for consumption or that only need heating to be consumed, prepared through
processes such as cooking, frying, and making use of additives, as well as the
addition of salting, vitamins and minerals, preserves, and sophisticated forms of
packaging. Examples of ultra-processed meat are pre-prepared dishes of poultry,
fish, and beef, such as nuggets, bologna, sausages, pates, hamburgers, as well as
Table 3 Classification of antioxidant compounds [16, 17]

Classification Mechanism of action
Primary Phenolic compounds that remove or inactivate the free radicals formed
during the initiation or propagation phase, through the donation of
hydrogen atoms, interrupting the chain reaction. The hydrogen in the
antioxidant compound is abstracted by the free radical more easily than the
allylic hydrogen in the molecule to be protected (like an unsaturated fatty
acid), and the species formed by the antioxidant is an inert radical stabilized
by resonance, which stops the chain reaction since it is not able to initiate or
propagate such an oxidative reaction.
Synergists or Compounds with little or no antioxidant activity when used alone, but can
secondary maximize the activity of primary antioxidants when combined with them.
Oxygen removers Compounds that capture the oxygen present in the medium through stable
chemical reactions, making them unavailable to act as propagators of self-
oxidation.
Biological Several enzymes, such as glucose oxidase, superoxide dismutase,
superoxide reductase, peroxidases, and catalase, which can remove oxygen
or highly reactive compounds from a biological or food system.
Chelating agents Also known as scavengers, they are complex metal ions, mainly copper and
iron, which catalyze lipid oxidation.
Mixed Several plant and animal compounds that have been widely studied as
antioxidants in foods, represented by hydrolyzed proteins, flavonoids, and
derivatives of cinnamic acid, for example.
Fig. 4 Mechanism of action of primary antioxidants
canned, preserved, smoked meat, cured fish, and canned fish in oil, among others.
Since they are chemicals that are purposely added to food, it is essential to know the
properties of the antioxidant additives used in these meat products, as their con-
sumption can have toxic effects [32]. Thus, it is essential to know the maximum
permitted levels of addition of antioxidants.
The artificial antioxidants used in the manufacturing of ultra-processed meat

products, authorized by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, as well as the max-
imum amounts allowed for different products are listed in Table 4.
Studies shown that such substances can have adverse health effects when not used
within the established safety limits [35]. According to Aun et al. [32], the antioxi-
dants butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), can
cause damage and mutations in the DNA, triggering the appearance of neoplasms.
Besides that, they increase the content of lipids and blood cholesterol, increasing the
liver formation of enzymes for their metabolism, with the associated risk of destruc-
tion of important compounds, such as vitamin D. These compounds can also act as
inducers of urticaria and eczematous dermatitis.
Nitrite, widely used as a healing salt, when ingested in excess can interact with
amines and amides, giving rise to N-nitrous compounds such as nitrosamines which
are mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic agents. The high consumption of
sausages is directly related to the development of cancer, mainly of the stomach
and intestine [5, 36].
Also, according to Silva et al. [36], the excessive intake of propyl gallate can
generate adverse reactions such as allergic reactions and gastric irritations, as hives
and rhinitis, changes in vision, and respiratory problems. Such evidence indicates the
importance of studies to replace artificial food additives with natural ones.
4.3 Natural Antioxidants and Possibilities of Use in Meat

Products
The consumption of ultra-processed foods has contributed to an epidemiological and

nutritional transition observed in recent decades worldwide, characterized by a
significant increase in the occurrence of Chronic Noncommunicable Diseases
(CND), such as cardiovascular diseases (infarction, cerebrovascular accident, sys-
temic arterial hypertension), metabolic (diabetes mellitus, obesity), and neoplasms.
The population’s greater access to information on the mechanisms of association of
these diseases with eating habits has led to the growth of a market niche that seeks
more natural and healthier foods [37, 38].
Despite this, the consumption of ultra-processed foods cannot be neglected, since
they have the advantage of a great practicality of preparation and consumption, in
addition to their long shelf life and almost complete use of food, reducing waste. In
that context, the use of natural additives in ultra-processed foods can be a viable
alternative, inhibiting the oxidation of lipids, proteins, and pigments, preserving
attributes such as color, texture, aroma, flavor, and the overall quality of the
product [5].
Natural antioxidants can be used directly in the formulation of various types of
meat products, including ultra-processed ones, without generating losses in quality
and shelf life, causing effects that are comparable to synthetic antioxidants. In
addition, natural antioxidants can also be added in active packaging, which has
several advantages, such as the reduced amount of active substance in the product, as
Table 4 Antioxidants allowed by Codex Alimentarius for use in meat products

Additive Maximum level permitted
Fresh meat, poultry, and game meat, comminuted
Ascorbic acid GMPa
Calcium ascorbate GMPa
Citric acid GMPa
Butylated hydroxyanisole – BHA 200.0 mg.kg 1
Butylated hydroxytoluene – BHT 100.0 mg.kg 1
Esters of glycerol with sour citrus and fatty GMPa
Isoascorbic acid GMPa
Isopropyl citrate 200.0 mg.kg 1
Lecithin GMPa
Phosphoric acid 200.0 mg.kg 1
Propyl gallate 200.0 mg.kg 1
Tertiary butylhydroquinone – TBHQ 100.0 mg.kg 1
Frozen fish, fish fillets, and processed fish, including mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms
Ascorbic acid GMPa
Ascorbyl stearate and ascorbyl palmitate 1000.0 mg.kg 1
Calcium ascorbate GMPa
Citric and fatty acid esters of glycerol GMPa
Isoascorbic acid GMPa
Ethylene diamine tetra acetates – EDTA 75.0 mg.kg 1
Lecithin GMPa
Phosphoric acid GMPa
Sodium lactate GMPa
Sulfites 100.0 mg.kg 1
Nitrous oxide GMPa
Fish and cooked and/or fried products, including mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms
Ascorbic acid GMPa
Meat, poultry products, in parts, crushed or processed
Tertiary butylhydroquinone – TBHQ 100.0 mg.kg 1
b
Nitrite 80.0 mg.kg 1
Smoked, dried, fermented and/or salted fish including mollusks, crustaceans, and
echinoderms
(continued)
Table 4 (continued)
Additive Maximum level permitted
Citric acid GMPa
Citric and fatty acid esters of glycerol GMPa
Sulfites 30.0 mg.kg 1
Fish and fish products, including mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms, pickles, brine, or
fish paste
Sodium ascorbate GMPa
Isoascorbate sodium GMPa
a
GMP good manufacturing practices, i.e., quantity needed to obtain the necessary technological
effect
b
The antioxidant properties of nitrite in cured meats are explained by the formation of nitrosyl-
mioglobin (MbNO), which has antioxidant properties that, through the action of heat at MbNO,
forms a stable compound, nitrosohemocromo, inhibiting the catalytic activity of heme iron, thus
reducing oxidation [5, 33, 34]
they are released in a controlled manner over time, increasing consumer safety. In
this case, due to the fact that these compounds are not directly added to the product,
their interaction with the various components of the food is reduced, which is an
advantage since some antioxidant agents added to the food may partially lose their
activity due to its interaction with other components of the product [39].
Several researches have been carried out in the last few years to analyze the use of
extracts of spices, fruits, and vegetal residues as antioxidants in meat products. In
Table 5, studies are presented where natural antioxidants were used directly in meat
products or in their packaging, highlighting the plant species from which the extract
was obtained, its concentration, the meat product in which it was applied and the
main results found.
5 Natural Antioxidants and Reduction of Toxic Substances

Produced by Oxidation in Meat Products
5.1 Malonaldehyde (MDA)
Malonaldehyde (MDA) is a short-chain aldehyde formed by the decomposition

of lipid hydroperoxides and their concentration has been used to verify the intensity
of lipid peroxidation in food and biological systems. MDA is the secondary product
of lipid oxidation that contributes to the reduction of the quality of the meat product.
It is suggested that reactive aldehydes generated endogenously during the lipid
peroxidation are associated with oxidative lipid modification. The oxidative
Table 5 Natural antioxidants effective in meat products [5]

Natural sources of antioxidants Product used References
Direct addition to the formulation
Khaki (Diospyros kaki L.) extract Processed and cooked [6]
chicken meat
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) extract Bovine burger [40]
Aqueous lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) seed extract Pork meat and lard [8]
Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) pericarp extract Cooked nuggets of sheep [41]
meat
Marjoram (Origanum majorana L.) extract Hamburger [7]
Bark and grape seeds (Vitis labrusca) extract Processed and cooked [42]
chicken meat
Extract from wine production residue (bark and grape Raw and cooked chicken [43]
seeds – Vitis labrusca) meat
Phenolic extract of pomegranate (Punica granatum) Chicken meat [44]
juice
Urucum (Bixa orellana L.) extract Mixed sausage (beef, [45]
pork, and chicken)
Mate herb (Ilex paraguariensis) extract Cooked turkey meat [46]
Mate herb (Ilex paraguariensis) extract Italian type salami [47]
Chia (Salvia hispanica) seed extract Fresh pork sausage [9]
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) Nile tilapia burgers [48]
Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) extract Pork meat [49]
Addition in active films used as packaging in meat products
Ascorbic acid, ferulic acid, quercetin, and green tea Salted sardines [50]
(Camellia sinensis) extract (ethylene-vinyl alcohol
copolymer (EVOH))
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) extract (low-density Chicken hamburger [39]
polyethylene)
Oregano (Origanum vulgare) or rosemary (Rosmarinus Cold-smoked sardines [51]
officinalis) extract (edible films based on gelatin)
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) husks (low-density Salmon (Salmo salar L.) [52]
polyethylene film)
Radish (Wasabia japonica Matsum.) extract (ethylene Pork meat and fish fillets [53]
vinyl acetate film coated with microcapsules)
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) extract and oregano Mutton meat [54]
extract (polyethylene and polyamide film)
Oregano (Origanum vulgare) essential oil and green tea foal meat [55]
extract (films: PET/PE/EVOH/PE)
Green tea, oolong tea (partially fermented) and black tea Pork meat [56]
(fermented) (Camellia sinensis) extract (protein films)
Olive (Olea europaea L.) leaves extract (polyethylene – Pork meat [57]
LDPE multilayer films)
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum), cardamom (Elettaria Ground lean and fat [58]
cardamomum) and clove (Allium sativum) powder minced meat
Asparagus (Asparagus racemosus) extract Goat meat [59]
(maltodextrin and calcium alginate films)
degradation generated by the products of the oxidative chain together with

malonaldehydes generates oxidation of fatty acids from the membranes of meat
cells, promoting physical-chemical changes that result in dysfunctions of the cell
membrane [60].
Reactive aldehydes, such as MDA, stay reactive for longer than free radicals and
can react with biological substances, as proteins, RNA, DNA, which become
mutagenic, indicating the need to control their formation. A relationship between
atherosclerosis and peroxidized lipid products has been reported in some studies,
which involves the prevention of lipid oxidation in blood plasma (low-density
protein-LDL), using antioxidants such as vitamins and phenolic compounds [61].
The use of antioxidant-rich spices can also reduce MDA in meat products, such as
hamburgers and dried meat, indicating that the functionality of these spices goes far
beyond sensory characteristics, such as adding color, aroma, and flavor [62, 63].
It was reported by Suryati et al. [61] that the use of spices was considered capable
of reducing the level of MDA in the processing of a traditional Indonesian meat
product (dendeng), made from dried meat. This meat is commonly produced using
sugar and some spices, such as coriander, garlic, galangal, pepper, tamarind, cinna-
mon, cumin, and lemon. In the study, garlic and coriander were added in a concen-
tration higher than usual (between 5% and 10% and 1–2%, respectively), and it was
found that the reduction in the level of MDA was caused by the decrease in the
intensity of the oxidation reaction.
5.2 Cholesterol Oxidation Products (COP)
Cholesterol oxidation products (COP) are formed from cholesterol during pro-
cessing and storage of high-fat foods, such as meat products, mainly under heat
treatment in the presence of oxygen and light. In vivo, these products can be
originated either by endogenous production or by consumption through the diet.
The most common COP in foods are 7a-hydroxycholesterol (7a-OH),
7b-hydroxycholesterol (7b-OH), 5,6a-epoxycholesterol (5,6a-EP), 5,6b-
epoxycholesterol (5,6b-EP), 5a-cholestane-3b, 5-cholesten-3b-25-diol (25-OH),
5,6b-triol (triol), and 7-ketocholesterol (7-keto). The process of formation during
heating is similar to the process of lipid oxidation, which involves reaction of free
radicals, formation, and degradation of hydroperoxide [64, 65].
The presence of COP has been reported in several meat products, such as beef,
ham, meat for children, different types of processed meats, fish products, and
seafood [66], and the number and variety of COP formed in the products depends,
mainly, on processing conditions and meat fat content. Seven types of COP were
detected in meat-based baby foods and the amount of 5,6b-EP was significant,
indicating a strong direct and indirect development of oxidized cholesterol [67].
COPs (7-keto) were also found in dry Iberian hams, with concentrations ranging
from 57 to 71 g.100 g-1 [68]. The formation of COP was also detected by Thurner
and collaborators [69] in different samples of processed meat such as meat patties,
braised meat, and pork fillets.
Since cholesterol is present in a variety of types of food, mainly meat products
which are rich in fat, thermal oxidation, photooxidation, and auto-oxidation can
occur, compromising food safety and human health. In this sense, the development
of COP has been related to possible harmful effects to human health, and its
excessive consumption can lead to oxidative DNA damage, the appearance of
several cardiac, neurovascular, neurodegenerative, and mutagenic diseases with
carcinogenic effects [70].
COP are known for the greater deleterious effect on arterial cells than on pure
cholesterol and are also closely related to negative biological factors in living
organisms. Yin and collaborators [71] reported that COP have the ability to inhibit
cell proliferation, to induce apoptosis of vascular tissue cells, and to associate
themselves with high-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles, especially in hypercho-
lesterolemic patients, contributing to the uptake of LDL by endothelial receptors,
leading to its accumulation in the artery wall [72].
Thus, it is necessary to minimize the formation of COP in meat products during
processing and storing in order to make them safer. The use of antioxidants has been
reported as an excellent alternative to prevent oxidative damage caused by free
radicals and to inhibit lipid oxidation in food systems. The use of natural antioxi-
dants has been a good strategy to prevent the oxidation of sterols, since research on
these compounds and their use in industry has increased, given that their activity is
similar or even higher than that of synthetic antioxidants as well as being safer [73, 74].
Promising results have been reported in model systems, using direct application
of antioxidants: tocopherol, green tea catechins, conjugated linoleic acid, rosemary
extracts, and quercetin, among others [75, 76]. The antioxidant effect of the aqueous
extract of Melissa officinalis on the degradation of cholesterol and formation of COP
during heating (180°C, 0–180 min) was evaluated by Barriuso and collaborators [74]
in beef patties. It was observed that M. officinalis extract was able to protect
cholesterol from thermal degradation, producing reduced levels of COP throughout
the heating process.
Chinese foods (pork and eggs) may also be susceptible to the formation of COP
during prolonged heating. Lee et al. [65] performed an analysis of the effects of
various antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, BHA, and trolox) on the inhibition of
COP in these foods. The antioxidants mentioned were effective in inhibiting the
formation of COP, when used in the appropriate concentrations, to avoid the
pro-oxidant effect.
The consumption of natural antioxidants is also important to avoid the harmful
effects of COP in vivo. Supplementation of 0.15% isoflavone in animal diets
significantly reduced COP for the activating hepatic cholesterol 7a-hydroxylase
and by reducing plasma COP levels, with fecal excretion of bile acids, in addition
to suppressing the oxidative stress [77].
5.3 N-Nitrosamines and N-Nitrosamides
The indiscriminate use of synthetic additives in the meat products industry, such as
nitrites and nitrates, due to the need to increase the useful life, prevent the prolifer-
ation of microorganisms and inhibit the development of their toxins, promotes the
formation of substances hazardous to human health, being potentially carcinogenic,
mutagenic, and teratogenic, such as N-nitrosamines and N-nitrosamides [78].
Sodium nitrate and nitrite can be used as meat curing agents and they can form the
intermediate nitrosating agents N2O3, NO, and NO2. Reactive NO reacts with
myoglobin, producing the nitrosylmyoglobin that generates the typical of red color
of cured meat. Nitrosating agents can react with secondary and tertiary amines and
forming carcinogenic compounds. However, the reactivity of these agents can be
avoided by stabilizing N2O3 using antioxidants, such as natural antioxidants [79].
These natural antioxidants added together with nitrite to meat can prevent the
formation of the undesirable nitrous anhydride (N2O3, the main nitrosating
agent) [80].
N-nitrosamines are N-nitrous, aliphatic, or aromatic compounds that have a
nitrous functional group attached to a nitrogen atom, while N-nitrosamides have a
carbonyl group. The physicochemical properties depend on the radicals attached to
the nitrogen atom, and can be found in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms, which can be
synthesized from nitrous acid and secondary amines [78]. In general, N-nitrosamines
are stable in neutral or strongly basic media, and are difficult to be destroyed when
formed. However, they decompose slowly in a strongly acidic environment, since
there is a cleavage of the nitrous group, a reaction catalyzed by the presence of
nucleophiles such as iodide, thiocyanate, bromide, and/or chloride [81].
The induction of tumors in living organisms by nitrosamines can occur in
different organs, depending on the chemical structure of N-nitrosamine, concentra-
tion, and source of exposure. These substances represent a health risk, as they are
rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and through the skin and accumulate in
organs such as the liver, bladder, kidney, pancreas, esophagus, brain, among others,
where they induce chronic toxic effects and carcinogenesis. The mutagenicity of
these substances occurs due to the easy methylation capacity of nucleic acid and
organotropism [82].
The high toxigenic power of these substances makes it essential to develop
strategies to prevent their formation or eliminate pre-formed n-nitrosamines in
meat products. These strategies permeate the inhibition of endogenous nitrosation
(at the organic level) or the hybridization of exogenous nitrosation (in food), such as
the use of natural antioxidants to reduce the levels of nitrosamines [81]. These
natural additives can function mainly as inhibitors of the formation of nitrosamines,
acting as blocking agents or inhibitors of nitrosation reactions, or in reducing the
concentration of nitrites and nitrates through the action of antioxidants, such as
phenolic compounds in general, tannins, alpha-tocopherol, and ascorbic acid [83].
Studies that analyzed the effect of ascorbate and isoascorbate on the formation of
nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in sausages with permitted levels of nitrite (156 mg.
kg-1), showed that there was no significant formation of NDMA. Ascorbic acid and
alpha-tocopherol had an effective action in blocking nitrosation in cured meat

(bacon), demonstrated by the inhibition of nitrosamine formation. This effect was
also observed in other products based on cured meat, with the addition of ascorbates
or erythorbates in concentrations of 550 ppm. The application of this blocking agent
was carried out by adding to the curing brine itself together with emulsifying agents
or by adding directly to the salt that is applied to the product surface [84,
85]. Rywotycki and collaborators [86] observed that a considerable reduction in
nitrosamine levels in pasteurized hams occurred as a result of the use of poly-
phosphates and sodium nitrite associated with sodium ascorbate, and a similar effect
was also obtained with alpha-tocopherol.
Some spices may have antioxidant activity in cured meat products in which
sodium or potassium nitrate is added, as pointed out by Suryati and collaborators
[61] and Tangkanakul and collaborators [87]. A component of garlic, s-oxodialyl
disulfide, is known to have the ability to inhibit the formation of
N-nitrosodimethylamine and prevent nitrite reactivity. Therefore, the use of spices
in meat processing is considered capable of reducing nitrite residue.
5.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are a family of compounds generated by

the junction of two or more aromatic rings. They are originated from the partial
combustion of fossil fuels and organic materials derived from natural sources. PAH
can be of low molecular weight, which are more volatile and soluble in water, with
about two or three aromatic rings, or of high molecular weight, with four or more
aromatic rings, having greater stability, toxicity, and lipophilicity [88].
PAH, as declared by the European Union Regulation Commission, contribute to
carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Without a continuous exposure through other
routes, the main form of contact with these compounds is through the consumption
of food, especially smoked or grilled meat or meat products, which contain higher
PAH than other foods. The maximum permitted PAH limit for smoked meat and
by-products is up to 12μg.kg-1 and up to 30 μg.kg-1 for grilled meat or barbecue
meat [89].
Considering the risks associated for human health, it is important to understand
the process, sources and factors of PAH formation. These compounds are generated
by cooking food under high temperatures, as during grilling, frying, roasting,
barbecuing, and smoking foods. Many researchers speculate that these compounds
are formed by free radical reactions, intramolecular addition, or polymerization,
forming low molecular weight compounds which, when recombined, can generate
more stable high molecular weight compounds [90, 91].
PAH in meats arise in three possible ways: through the pyrolysis of organic
matter, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats; by volatile substances produced
in the dripping of fat, which comes into contact with the flames and are vaporized,
adhering to the surface of the food; and/or by incomplete combustion of coal in the
grilling or barbecuing process. Factors such as the distance from the heat source used
in the preparation process, the fat content in the meat, the cooking time, and intensity
can influence the formation of hydrocarbons during cooking [92, 93].
High levels of PAH were observed in meat cooked by all of these methods.
However, the levels are especially high in meat prepared by the grilling process
[94]. PAH levels were determined in beef sausages commonly consumed in Nigeria
[95], with high levels of this compound being observed.
PAH was also found in traditionally smoked meat products and charcoal-grilled
meat, such as smoked sausage, bacon, pork, ham, pork, and grilled poultry. Specif-
ically, the levels of benzoanthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), benzofluoranthene
(BbF), and benzopyrene (BaP) were determined in 262 samples. Most samples
(96%) were contaminated by, at least, one species of PAH, and 12% of the smoked
products and 15% of the grilled meat exceeded the maximum levels recommended
by the legislation. Samples with higher fat content and longer smoking and cooking
times showed highest concentrations of PAH [96]. On the other hand, it was noticed
that in fish and shellfish they do not present the same risks of negative health effects
in relation to red meats, since the presence of HPA in these meats did not exceed the
permitted levels [97].
Taking into account the high levels of PAH in the vast majority of meat products
and the risks to human health associated with their consumption, precautions must
be taken to inhibit their formation. Marinating meat is a pre-cooking method widely
used to improve the taste and texture of foods in different cuisines and, today, it is
known that it can also reduce the generation of harmful substances [98]. Marinades
made up of spices such as onion, garlic, herbs, teas, and lemon have been shown to
inhibit PAH generation due to their antioxidant behavior [90, 99–103].
Natural antioxidants have been shown to be an excellent alternative to effectively
reduce and inhibit the generation of PAHs due to their ability to eliminate free
radicals. Marinades rich in antioxidants, particularly phenolic compounds, can
exhibit this effect during the cooking process [104]. The addition of antioxidants
such as epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), α-tocopherol, and sesamol in meat sub-
jected to heating provided a reduction in total PAH, suggesting inhibitory effects due
to the elimination of free radical activity [105].
The use of natural products such as mixtures of spices, drinks, and plant extracts
has been proposed as effective reducing strategies of PAHs [98, 102, 103], as well as
the use of different types of vinegar, wine, and fruit derivatives, a source of several
active compounds such as phenolic compounds, which can be an alternative even for
the use of marinade, which sometimes require time and different ingredients for
preparation [106].
Viegas and collaborators [98] as well as Wanga and collaborators [104] reported
that beer also contains a mixture of phenolic compounds, such as hydroxycinnamic
acids (ferulic acid), hydroxybenzoic acids (gallic acid), and flavonoids (catechin)
with high antioxidant activity in grilled chicken meats, acting as inhibitors in the
reaction pathways of free radicals.
5.5 Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines (HCA)
Aromatic heterocyclic amines (HCA) are mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds

formed in meat in process of cooking. Its formation in meat is influenced by the time,
method, cooking temperature, and type of meat and can be formed at higher
temperatures (above 200 °C) or by prolonged exposure to lower temperatures.
Studies reveal that samples of grilled, fried, and roasted meat have large amounts
of HCA, and it is observed that in lean meat, such as chicken and fish, these
compounds are generated in higher concentrations and pigs and sausages have
smaller amounts after cooking, due to the high content of fat and water [107, 108].
Heterocyclic amines are a group of 20 different chemical compounds. HCA
consist of heterocyclic rings and nitrogen-containing compounds. Its formation
occurs through complex reactions involving free amino acids, creatine, and carbo-
hydrates by Maillard reaction, the result of the cooking process. This reaction also
occurs through the formation of free radicals, which are capable of forming
imidazoquinoxaline and imidazoquinolines. Creatine forms the aminoimidazo part
of the molecule by cyclization, while the remaining parts of the imidazo quinolines
(IQ) compounds arise from Strecker degradation products, such as pyrazine and
pyridine [109].
Although the methods for estimating the population’s exposure to heterocyclic
amines (HA) are still imprecise, epidemiological criteria suggest that the high
consumption of meat products containing HA may induce the development of
cancer. Several efforts have already been made to minimize the risk associated
with human exposure to this compound and the use of antioxidants is considered
an important measure to reduce it due to its capacity as inhibitors of HA formation or
as blocking/suppressing agents of HA biotransformation and its metabolism. The
formation of AAHs in food depends on many factors, such as cooking method, time,
and temperature, presence of relative amounts of precursors, potentiators, and
inhibitors, lipids, antioxidants, and water content [110, 111].
Several strategies have been used to limit the formation of HCA, such as
decreasing the time and temperature of cooking and pre-cooking meat. However,
the addition of natural antioxidants to meat, in particular, has been shown to be an
effective measure to suppress the formation of HCA, due to the hypothetical
pathway of free radicals that leads to the formation of AH [112].
It has been reported that extracts from plant or food sources in their entirety as
sources of antioxidants provide tools to reduce HA intake. The pre-preparation and
preparation of meat with phenolic compounds derived from green tea, black tea, and
cold extracted olive oil results in a marked reduction in the formation of HA, being
useful to decrease the levels of cancer compounds produced. The same effect can be
obtained when cooking meat with tomatoes, carrots, or other vegetables rich in
carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins capable of inhibiting the formation of
HA. Cooking meat with tomato was able to decrease the concentrations of hetero-
cyclic amines by up to 36% [110].
The inhibitory effect of artichoke extract (0.5 and 1.0%) on the formation of
aromatic heterocyclic amines was also investigated in beef and chicken breast
cooked by frying or roasting in the oven by Tengilimoglu-Metina and collaborators

[112]. All meat were cooked at three different temperatures (150, 200, and 250°C)
and the levels of 12 HCA were assessed. The results showed that HAA was not
detected in the meats treated with the extract. Artichoke extracts showed inhibitory
effects on total levels of HAAs at both 0.5% and 1.0%, up to 46% and 98% in beef
and up to 97% and 95% in chicken breast, respectively, demonstrating that they can
attenuate the formation of HA.
The application of antioxidant compounds on the surfaces of the meat, incorpo-
rating them into the ground meat, marinating it or applying microwaves before
cooking, has a positive effect in reducing the levels of HCA, however, meat
marinades are presented as the most effective method [113].
6 Effects on Health and Bioavailability of Natural

Antioxidants
The demand for processed foods, especially ultra-processed foods, is significant and
it has a direct relationship with the epidemiological and nutritional transition that has
been occurring worldwide in recent decades, characterized by a significant emer-
gence in the occurrence of chronic non-communicable diseases (CND), such as
infarction, stroke, systemic arterial hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and
neoplasms. In contrast, consumers began to develop greater interest and a better
understanding of the mechanisms that trigger these diseases and their association
with eating habits. In this sense, there has been a growing preference and demand for
products that contain natural and healthy ingredients, allowing the emergence of a
new market niche [5].
The majority of antioxidants added to meat products to delay or minimize
oxidative deterioration have been represented by synthetic compounds (butylated
hydroxyanisole – BHA, butylated hydroxytoluene – BHT, tertiary butyl hydroqui-
none – TBHQ, propyl gallate – PG, and nitrite). However, currently there is already a
certain distrust and fear from consumers regarding the safety of meat products,
mainly due to the toxicity and carcinogenicity of these synthetic compounds and
the risk of developing diseases associated with their consumption [114–116]. In this
context, the interest of research in the pursuit of natural additives that can replace
them and have less associated risk is growing and necessary.
Vegetable extracts obtained from different sources such as spices, vegetables,
herbs, fruits, and oil products are valuable sources of bioactive compounds, having
natural antioxidants and most of them have considerable amounts of micro and
macronutrients, with reduced anti-nutritional properties. The great antioxidant activ-
ity is generally due to the high content of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E), ascorbic acid
(vitamin C), beta-carotene (vitamin A), numerous flavonoids, polyphenols, and other
phenolic compounds [117].
Spices and herbs, in addition to being widely used due to their outstanding
flavors, are also used for their technological and biological functionalities [118].
The main antioxidant phenolic constituents of plant species may come from the
groups: terpenoid phenolics (carnosic acid and carnosol), flavonoids (catechin/quer-

cetin), phenolic acids (rosmarinic, gallic, caffeic acids), and volatile compounds or
essential oils (carvacrol, eugenol, thymol, and menthol) [98]. These compounds are
widely used in the food industry due to their ability to slow food spoilage, improve
organoleptic quality, and inhibit the growth of pathogens in products, in addition to
various in vivo effects such as antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and
antimicrobial activities [119–121].
However, the bioavailability of compounds used as antioxidants in food is poorly
studied. Velasco and collaborators [122] pointed out that the bioavailability of
essential oils in meat cannot be demonstrated, and further studies are needed to
identify the main metabolic pathway for these compounds. However, there is a
potential beneficial effect that should not be overlooked.
7 Effects of Natural Antioxidants on Microbial Development

and Conservation of Meat Products
Extending the shelf life of meat products is decisive for industry and consumers, and
can be achieved by protecting against lipid oxidation and microbial growth [5]. The
intrinsic characteristics of meat products, such as their chemical composition, high
water activity (aw), and pH close to neutrality are factors that favor the development
of an extremely varied microbiota, both pathogenic and deteriorating, which may
come from the entire chain production [73].
Microbial contamination can occur intrinsically (skin, hair, and feces) or due to
extrinsic factors during the slaughter process, due to the conditions of the slaugh-
terhouse, equipment, and transport [123]. Therefore, it is essential to inhibit and
control the development of microorganisms in food, aiming at their greater safety
and preventing deterioration.
The prolonged use of chemical preservatives and synthetic antimicrobials to
preserve processed meat products has potentially negative effects on human health
[124] and may contribute to the development of microbial resistance to antibiotics.
On the other hand, the knowledge about certain plant species with antimicrobial
properties has been revised and expanded, especially due to a worldwide trend
regarding the use of natural antimicrobials in food preservation [125].
There are a vast number of natural substances that accumulate antioxidant and
antimicrobial functions, such as flavonoids, phytosterols, polysaccharides, alkaloids,
tannins, coumarins, vitamins, and minerals, among others. Phenolic compounds
present in rosemary, sage, thyme, hops, coriander, cloves, and basil have been
reported in the literature as they have effects against food pathogens [126].
Natural antimicrobials and its products have been applied to meat through various
technological strategies. Methods such as direct incorporation of spice powder,
marinating, coating with active packaging, or direct addition of essential oils and
spice extracts to meat and/or meat products were followed [127].
Extracts of cumin, cardamom, and cloves powder 0.1% were applied to ground
meat (fat and lean) and it resulted in the inhibition of microbial growth and reduction
of lipid oxidation, maintaining and improving the sensory aspects and increasing the
shelf life during storage at room temperature and refrigeration for 25 days
[58]. Active films of calcium alginate with Asparagus racemosus extract were
applied to goat meat, with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties being detected
for the product, and with a great potential in improving stability to lipid oxidation,
increasing shelf life, and improving the quality of product storage, without affecting
their sensory characteristics [59].
Therefore, it is evident that the use of extracts and natural compounds in meat
products can contribute to the overall reduction in the use of synthetic food additives,
as these generally accumulate varied functions, such as antioxidant and antimicro-
bial activities.
8 Assessment Methods for Oxidation in Meat Products
Considering the damage caused by oxidation in meat products, it is essential to know

the usual methods to measure the extent of oxidative reactions and attest to the safety
of these foods.
In Table 6, some techniques for determining lipid oxidation products in meat are
briefly presented with references for further consultation. In addition to the
suggested methods, it is still important to consider the specific determination of
the aforementioned compounds, resulting from several oxidative processes, such as
cholesterol oxidation products (COP), N-nitrosamines and N-nitrosamides, polycy-
clic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and heterocyclic amines aromatic (HCA).
9 Conclusions
Given the above, the use of natural antioxidants in food products preserves their
desirable characteristics and does not pose a risk to consumers when used in
adequate doses, since they are obtained from foods widely consumed by the popu-
lation already and accumulate potentially beneficial effects on human health. In
addition, natural antioxidants generally have other technological features and can be
used as preservatives due to their ability to inhibit microbial development. This
demonstrates their great potential in the global reduction in the use of synthetic food
additives, many of which already have shown toxicity.
Finally, it is essential to carry out more research on the use of antioxidants and
other natural additives in food products, mainly in meat products, due to the
production of several toxic compounds that are formed during their processing and
preparation and due to the growing demand for substitution of synthetic food
additives by natural ones.
Table 6 Analytical methods used to monitor lipidperoxidation in meat products

Method Markers Sample analyzed References
Products derived from primary oxidation
Iodometric titration Peroxides Chicken meat [128]
Spectrophotometric Peroxides Rabbit meat [129]
Fluorimetric Peroxides Fish [130]
Spectrophotometric Conjugated dienes Ham
Products derived from secondary oxidation
Spectrophotometric MDA/TBARS Almonds lices [131]
HPLC MDA/TBARS Frankfurters [132]
Volatile secondary oxidation products
SPME-GC-MS Aldehydes Traditional dry-cured pork belly [133]
SPME-GC/MS Aldehydes Foal meat [134]
HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography, SPME-CG-MS Solid-phase microextraction-gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry, MDA malonaldehyde, TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive
substances
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Natural Antioxidants Used in Meat Products

Chapter · January 2021

Jéssica Ribeiro Larissa Kauly Rosa Silva

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8 Assessment Methods for Oxidation in Meat Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Meat

3 Oxidative Processes in Meat and Meat Products

Table 1 Nutritional composition of meats of different species, per 100 g [11]

3.1 Lipid Peroxidation

Fig. 1 Changes caused by oxidation in meat and meat products

Fig. 2 General scheme of lipid oxidation

3.2 Protein Oxidation

3.3 Oxidation of Pigments

Fig. 3 Meat color according to the oxidation state of myoglobin

4 Antioxidants Used in Meat Products

4.1 Classes of Antioxidants and Mechanisms of Action

4.2 Synthetic Antioxidants and Toxicity

Ultra-processed foods are industrial formulations manufactured entirely or mostly

Table 3 Classiﬁcation of antioxidant compounds [16, 17]

Fig. 4 Mechanism of action of primary antioxidants

The artiﬁcial antioxidants used in the manufacturing of ultra-processed meat

4.3 Natural Antioxidants and Possibilities of Use in Meat

The consumption of ultra-processed foods has contributed to an epidemiological and

Table 4 Antioxidants allowed by Codex Alimentarius for use in meat products

5 Natural Antioxidants and Reduction of Toxic Substances

5.1 Malonaldehyde (MDA)

Malonaldehyde (MDA) is a short-chain aldehyde formed by the decomposition

Table 5 Natural antioxidants effective in meat products [5]

degradation generated by the products of the oxidative chain together with

5.2 Cholesterol Oxidation Products (COP)

5.3 N-Nitrosamines and N-Nitrosamides

alpha-tocopherol had an effective action in blocking nitrosation in cured meat

5.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are a family of compounds generated by

5.5 Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines (HCA)

Aromatic heterocyclic amines (HCA) are mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds

cooked by frying or roasting in the oven by Tengilimoglu-Metina and collaborators

6 Effects on Health and Bioavailability of Natural

groups: terpenoid phenolics (carnosic acid and carnosol), ﬂavonoids (catechin/quer-

7 Effects of Natural Antioxidants on Microbial Development

8 Assessment Methods for Oxidation in Meat Products

Considering the damage caused by oxidation in meat products, it is essential to know

Table 6 Analytical methods used to monitor lipidperoxidation in meat products

97. Bogdanovića T, Pleadinb J, Petričevića S, Listeša SD, Markovićd K, Ozogule F, Šimatf V

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