TUGAS REVIEW BUKU:

RESEARCH METHODS FOR BUSSINESS STUDENT

DOSEN PENGAMPU : DR. SUJONO, S.E., M.SI

DISUSUN OLEH

NAMA : AGUSTA LOPEZ ADE

NIM : G2D120052

PROGRAM STUDI MANAJEMEN

PROGRAM PASCASARJANA

UNIVERSITAS HALUOLEO

KENDARI

2021

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We can understand the scientific method in social science based on its kind. There are at least
two types of social research methods based on their approach: quantitative and qualitative. However,
in its development, a third approach emerged, namely a combination of the two (mixed method). Here
we will briefly discuss quantitative and qualitative social research methods. The differences between
quantitative and qualitative social research methods can be identified through their treatment of the
data, the data collection process, and their variants or types. So, this paper will discuss about, Chapter
3 Critically Reviewing The Literature, Chapter 4 Understanding research philosophy and
approaches to theory development, Chapter 5 Formulating the research design.
Furthermore, on this occasion, the composer would like to thank God Almighty for his
abundance of grace, finally this review task can be completed. On behalf of the compilers, I would like
to thank the lecturer, Dr. Sujono., S.E., M.Si who has guided and guided us in the lecture process on
campus. And the compilers apologize if there are errors and deficiencies in material or writing, we
really need criticism and suggestions from all parties to perfect our paper.

AGUSTA LOPEZ ADE

G2D120052

2
ii
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Cover................................................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................................ii
Table of Content.............................................................................................................................iii

Chapter 3: Critically reviewing the literature

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................1
3.2 The Critical Review................................................................................................1
3.3 Literature Source....................................................................................................1
3.4 Planning Your Literature Strategy..........................................................................2
3.5 Conducting Your Literature Search........................................................................3
3.6 Obtaining and Evaluating The Literature...............................................................4
3.7 Recording The Literature........................................................................................4
3.8 Using Systematic Review.......................................................................................4
3.9 Plagiarism...............................................................................................................4
Chapter 4 : Understanding research philosophy and Approaches to theory development
4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................5
4.2 The Philosopical Underpinnings of Business and Management............................5
4.3 Five Major Philosophies.........................................................................................6
4.4 Aprroaches to Theory Development.......................................................................6

Chapter 5: Formulating the research design

5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................8
5.2 Choice and Coherence In Research Design.........................................................8
5.3 Methodological Choice........................................................................................8
5.4 Recognising The Purpose of Your Design...........................................................9
5.5 Choosing a Research or Strategy.........................................................................10
5.6 Choosing a Time Horizon....................................................................................10
5.7 Ethabilishing the Ethics of the Research Design.................................................10
5.8 Ethabiling the Quality of the Research Design....................................................11
5.9 Taking Into Account Your Role as Researcher....................................................11

Bibliography....................................................................................................................................12

3
iii
 CHAPTER III:
CRITICALLY REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
3.1 Introduction
The significance of your research and what you find out will inevitably be judged in relation to
other people’s research and their findings. You therefore need to show you understand your field and
its key theories, concepts and ideas, as well as the major issues and debates about your topic (Denyer
and Tranfield 2009).

3.2 The Critical Review

Your critical literature review should be a constructively critical analysis that develops a clear
argument about what the published literature indicates is known and not known about your research
question (Wallace and Wray 2011). This means your literature review is not just a series of book and
journal article reviews describing and summarizing what each is about. Rather, you will need to assess
what is significant to your research and, on this basis, decide whether or not to include it. Reviewing
the literature critically will provide the foundation on which your research is built. As you will have
gathered from the introduction, a critical review will help you to develop a good understanding and
insight into relevant previous research and the trends that have emerged.
As you begin to find, read and evaluate the literature, you will need to think how to combine
the academic theories and ideas about which you are reading to form the critical review that will
appear in your project report. Your review will need to evaluate the research that has already been
undertaken in the area of your research project, show and explain the relationships between published
research findings and reference the literature in which they were reported. The literature review that
you write for your project report should be a description and critical analysis of what other authors
have written. When drafting your review you therefore need to focus on your research question(s) and
objectives. One way of helping you to focus is to think of your literature review as discussing how far
existing published research goes in answering your research question(s).

3.3 Literature Source

The amount of literature available to help you to develop a good understanding of, and insight
into, previous research is expanding rapidly as new resources are developed and made available
online. The literature sources you are likely to make most use of are often referred to as: a)secondary
literature sources, these being formally published items such as journals and books; b) grey (or
primary) literature sources, these being items produced by all levels of government, academics,
business and industry in print and electronic formats, but which are not controlled by commercial
publishers; including materials such as reports and conference proceedings.
a) Journals are also known as ‘periodicals’, ‘serials’ and ‘magazines’, and are published on a
regular basis. While many are still produced in printed form, virtually all can now be accessed
using full-text online databases, through your university. Journals are a vital literature source

1
 for any research. The articles are easily accessible, although online access is usually restricted
to members of the university.
b) Books and monographs are written for specific audiences. Some are aimed at the academic
market, with a theoretical slant. Others, aimed at practising professionals, may be more
applied in their content. The material in books is usually presented in a more ordered and
accessible manner than in journals, pulling together a wider range of topics.
c) Newspapers are a good source of topical events, developments within business and
government, as well as recent statistical information such as share prices. They also sometimes
review recent research reports.
d) Reports include market research reports such as those produced by Mintel and Key Note,
government reports and academic reports. Even if you are able to locate these, you may find it
difficult to gain access to them because they are often not available free of charge.
e) Confrence Proceeding, sometimes referred to as symposia, are often published as unique
titles within journals or as books. Most conferences will have a theme that is very specific, but
some have a wide-ranging overview.

3.4 Planning Your Literature Strategy

It is important that you plan this search carefully to ensure that you locate relevant and up-to-
date literature. This will enable you to establish what research has previously been published in your
area and to relate your own research to it. All our students have found their literature search a time-
consuming process, which takes far longer than expected. Fortunately, time spent planning will be
repaid in time saved when searching for relevant literature.
a) Defining the parameters of your search, For most research questions and objectives you will
have a good idea of which subject matter is going to be relevant. You will, however, be less
clear about the parameters within which you need to search.
b) Generating your search terms, It is important at this stage to read both articles by key
authors and recent review articles in the area of your research. This will help you to define
your subject matter and to suggest appropriate search terms and phrases.
c) Discussion, We believe you should be taking every opportunity to discuss your research. In
discussing your work with others, whether face-to-face, by Facebook or by email, you will be
sharing your ideas, getting feedback and obtaining new ideas and approaches. This process
will help you to refine and clarify your topic.
d) Handbooks and thesauruses To produce the most relevant search terms you may need to
build on your brainstorming session with support materials such as dictionaries,
encyclopaedias, handbooks and thesauruses, both general and subject specific. These are also
good starting points for new topics with which you may be unfamiliar and for related subject
areas. Initial reading, particularly of recent review articles, may also be of help here.

2
e) Brainstorming has already been outlined as a technique for helping you to develop your
research question. However, it is also helpful for generating search terms. Either individually
or as part of a group, you write down all the words and short phrases that come to mind on
your research topic
f) Relevance trees provide a useful method of bringing some form of structure to your literature
search and of guiding your search process (Sharp et al. 2002). They look similar to an
organisation chart and are a hierarchical ‘graph-like’ arrangement of headings and
subheadings

3.5 Conducting Your Literature Search

Your literature search will probably be conducted using a variety of approaches: a) searching
using online databases; b) obtaining relevant literature referenced in books and journal articles you
have already read; scanning and browsing secondary literature in your library; c) general online
searching.
3.5.1 Searching Using Online Database
It is very tempting with easy access to the Internet to start your literature search with a general
search engine such as Bing or Google. While this can retrieve some useful information it must be
treated with care. Your project report is expected to be an academic piece of work and hence must use
academic sources. Therefore it is essential that you use online literature sources which provide access
to academic literature.
a) Searching, Most online databases and portals now allow full-text searches using natural
language where you decide on the word or phrase combinations for search terms. This means,
for example, you can search the complete text of an article using your search terms. However,
some rely on or also offer the option to search using a controlled index language of pre-
selected terms and phrases or ‘descriptors’.
b) Browsing and scanning, Any search will find only some of the relevant literature. You will
therefore also need to browse and scan the literature. New publications such as journals are
unlikely to be indexed immediately in online databases, so you will need to browse these
publications to gain an idea of their content.
c) General online searching, When searching online, we recommend you keep full details of
the searches you have undertaken, making a note of: a) the search tool used; b) the precise
search undertaken; c)the date when the search was undertaken; d) the total number of items
retrieved.
d) Institutional repositories and social networking sites, Many universities now expect their
academics to deposit digital full-text copies of their publications, particularly journal articles,
in an institutional repository. This is an open access collection of the university’s research
outputs from which full-text items can be downloaded.

3
3.6 Obtaining and Evaluating The Literature
To do this you need to:
1) Check your library online catalogue to find out whether your library holds the appropriate
publications.
2) For those publications that are held by your library or available online, note their location and:
3) For those items not held by your library either as paper copies or via online subscriptions, it
may still be possible to obtain them online, either through institutional repositories or, for
books which are no longer copyright, through Google Books.
4) Alternatively you may be able:
I: to borrow the item from another library using the inter-library loan service. This is not a free
service so make sure you really need it first. Our students have found that, in general, it is only
worthwhile to use inter-library loans for articles from refereed journals and books; or
II: visit a library where they are held as ‘reference only’ copies. The British Library in
London for example, has one of the most extensive collection of books, journals, market
research reports, trade literature, company annual reports, research reports, doctoral theses and
conference proceedings in the world.

3.7 Recording The Literature

The process of note making will help you to think through the ideas in the literature in relation
to your research. When making your notes, make sure you always use quotation marks and note the
page number if you are copying the text exactly. This will ensure you know it is a direct quotation
when you begin to write your project report and so help you avoid committing plagiarism. In addition
to making notes, Sharp et al. (2002) identify three sets of information you need to record. These are:
Bibliographic details; Brief summary of content; Supplementary information.

3.8 Using Systematic Review

Systematic Review is a process for reviewing the literature using a comprehensive preplanned
strategy to locate existing literature, evaluate the contribution, analyse and synthesise the findings and
report the evidence to allow conclusions to be reached about what is known and, also, what is not
known (Denyer and Tranfield 2009).

3.9 Plagiarism
Neville (2010) argues that plagiarism is an issue that runs parallel to a debate with recurring
questions about the purpose of higher education in the twenty-first century. He notes that, on the one
hand, there is the argument that an insistence on ‘correct’ referencing is supporting a system and a
process of learning that is a legacy of a different time and society.

4
 CHAPTER IV:
UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY AND APPROACHES TO THEORY
DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Introduction
Most people plan their research in relation to a question that needs to be answered or a
problem that needs to be solved. They then think about what data they need and the techniques they
use to collect them. You are not therefore unusual if early on in your research you consider whether
you should, for example, use a questionnaire or undertake interviews. However, how you collect your
data belongs in the centre of the research ‘onion’, the diagram we use to depict the issues underlying
the choice of data collection techniques and analysis procedures. In coming to this central point you
need to explain why you made the choice you did so that others can see that your research should be
taken seriously (Crotty 1998).

4.2 The Philosopical Underpinnings of Business and Management

In this section, we discuss about the philosopical underpinnings of business and management:
What is research philosophy, Is there a best philosophy for business and management research,
Objectivism and subjectivism: and Research paradigms.
a) What is research philosophy? : The term research philosophy refers to a system of beliefs
and assumptions about the development of knowledge. Although this sounds rather profound,
it is precisely what you are doing when embarking on research: developing knowledge in a
particular field. The knowledge development you are embarking upon may not be as dramatic
as a new theory of human motivation, but even answering a specific problem in a particular
organisation you are, nonetheless, developing new knowledge.
b) Is there a best philosophy for business and management research : You may be
wondering at this stage whether you could take a shortcut, and simply adopt ‘the best’
philosophy for business and management research. One problem with such a shortcut would
be the possibility of discovering a clash between ‘the best’ philosophy and your own beliefs
and assumptions. Another problem would be thatbusiness and management researchers do not
agree about one best philosophy (Tsoukas and Knudsen 2003).
c) Objectivism and subjectivism: Objectivism incorporates the assumptions of the natural
sciences, arguing that the social reality that we research is external to us and others (referred
to as social actors). This means that, ontologically, objectivism embraces realism, which, in its
most extreme form, considers social entities to be like physical entities of the natural world, in
so far as they exist independently of how we think of them, label them, or even of our
awareness of them.

5
d) Research paradigms: Researchers working within the regulation perspective are concerned
primarily with the need for the regulation of societies and human behaviour. They assume an
underlying unity and cohesiveness of societal systems and structures. Much of business and
management research can be classed as regulation research that seeks to suggest how
organisational affairs may be improved within the framework of how things are done at
present rather than radically challenging the current position.

4.3 Five Major Philosophies

In this section, we discuss five major philosophies in business and management: positivism,
critical realism, interpretivism, postmodernism and pragmatism.
1) Positivism, Positivism relates to the philosophical stance of the natural scientist and entails
working with an observable social reality to produce law-like generalisations. It promises
unambiguous and accurate knowledge andoriginates in the works of Francis Bacon, Auguste
Comte and the early twentieth-century group of philosophers and scientists known as the
Vienna Circle.
2) Critical realism, It is important not to confuse the philosophy of critical realism with the
more extreme form of realism underpinning the positivist philosophy. The latter, sometimes
known as direct realism (or naïve empirical scientific realism), says that what you see is what
you get: what we experience through our senses portrays the world accurately. By contrast, the
philosophy of critical realism focuses on explaining what we see and experience, in terms of
the underlying structures of reality that shape the observable events.
3) Interpretivism, like critical realism, developed as a critique of positivism but from a
subjectivist perspective. Interpretivism emphasises that humans are different from physical
phenomena because they create meanings. Interpretivists study these meanings. Interpretivism
emerged in early- and mid-twentieth-century Europe, in the work of German, French and
occasionally English thinkers, and is formed of several strands, most notably hermeneutics,
phenomenology and symbolic interactionism (Crotty 1998).
4) Postmodernism, emphasises the role of language and of power relations, seeking to question
accepted ways of thinking and give voice to alternative marginalised views.
5) Pragmatism asserts that concepts are only relevant where they support action (Kelemen and
Rumens 2008). Pragmatism originated in the late-nineteenth–earlytwentieth- century USA in
the work of philosophers Charles Pierce, William James and John Dewey. It strives to
reconcile both objectivism and subjectivism, facts and values, accurate and rigorous
knowledge and different contextualised experiences.

4.4 Aprroaches to Theory Development

6
 The extent to which you are clear about the theory at the beginning of your research raises an
important question concerning the design of your research project. This is often portrayed as two
contrasting approaches to the reasoning you adopt: deductive or inductive. Deductive reasoning occurs
when the conclusion is derived logically from a set of premises, the conclusion being true when all the
premises are true (Ketokivi and Mantere 2010). For example, our research may concern likely online
retail sales of a soon-to-be-launched new games console. We form three premises: that online retailers
have been allocated limited stock of the new games consoles by the manufacturer; that customers’
demand for the consoles exceeds supply; that online retailers allow customers to pre-order the
consoles.
If these premises are true we can deduce that the conclusion that online retailers will have
‘sold’ their entire allocation of the new games consoles by the release day will also be true. In contrast,
in inductive reasoning there is a gap in the logic argument between the conclusion and the premises
observed, the conclusion being ‘judged’ to be supported by the observations made (Ketokivi and
Mantere 2010). Returning to our example of the likely online retail sales of a soon-to-be-launched new
games console, we would start with observations about the forthcoming launch. Our observed
premises would be:
• That news media are reporting that online retailers are complaining about only being
• Allocated limited stock of the new games consoles by manufacturers;
• That news media are reporting that demand for the consoles will exceed supply;
• That online retailers are allowing customers to pre-order the consoles.

1) Induction, An alternative approach to developing theory on retail store employee absenteeism

would be to start by interviewing a sample of the employees and their supervisors about the
experience of working at the store. The purpose here would be to get a feel of what was going
on, so as to understand better the nature of the problem. Your task then would be to make
sense of the interview data you collected through your analysis. The result of this analysis
would be the formulation of a theory, often expressed as a conceptual framework.
2) Abduction, Instead of moving from theory to data (as in deduction) or data to theory (as in
induction), an abductive approach moves back and forth, in effect combining deduction and
induction (Suddaby 2006). This, as we have noted earlier, matches what many business and
management researchers actually do. Abduction begins with the observation of a ‘surprising
fact’; it then works out a plausible theory of how this could have occurred.
3) Using approaches in combination, At this point you may be wondering whether your
reasoning will be predominantly deductive, inductive or abductive. The honest answer is, ‘it
depends’. In particular, it depends on the emphasis of the research and the nature of the
research topic. A topic on which there is a wealth of literature from which you can define a
theoretical framework and a hypothesis lends itself more readily to deduction. With research

7
 into a topic that is new, is exciting much debate and on which there is little existing literature,
it may be more appropriate to work inductively by generating data and analysing and
reflecting upon what theoretical themes the data are suggesting.

CHAPTER V:

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter we uncover the next three layers: methodological choice, research strategy or
strategies and choosing the time horizon for your research. As we saw in Chapter 4, the way you
answer your research question will be influenced by your research philosophy and approach to theory
development. Your research philosophy and approach to theory development, whether this is
deliberate or by default, will subsequently influence your selections shown in the next three layers of
the research onion These three layers can be thought of as focusing on the process of research design,
which is the way you turn your research question into a research project. The key to these selections
will be to achieve coherence all the way through your research design.

5.2 Choice and Coherence In Research Design

Your research design is the general plan of how you will go about answering your research
question(s) (the importance of clearly defining the research question cannot be overemphasised). It
will contain clear objectives derived from your research question(s), specify the sources from which
you intend to collect data, how you propose to collect and analyse these, and discussethical issues and
the constraints you will inevitably encounter (e.g. access to data, time, location and money). Crucially,
it should demonstrate that you have thought through the elements of your particular research design.

5.3 Methodological Choice: The Use Of a Quantitative , Qualitative or Mixed Method

Research Design
The distinction drawn earlier between quantitative research and qualitative research is also
narrow. The purpose of Chapter 4 was to ask you to consider your research question through a
philosophical lens. Given the way in which your philosophical assumptions inform your
methodological choice, the initial distinction drawn earlier between numeric and non-numeric data
appears insufficient for the purpose of designing research. From this broader perspective, we can
reinterpret quantitative and qualitative methodologies through their associations to philosophical
assumptions and also to research approaches and strategies. This will help you to decide how you
might use these in a coherent way to address your research question. We now briefly outline some of
these key associations.

8
1) Quantitative Research Design, Quantitative research is generally associated with positivism,
especially when used with predetermined and highly structured data collection techniques.
However, a distinction needs to be drawn between data about the attributes of people,
organisations or other things and data based on opinions, sometimes referred to as ‘qualitative’
numbers. Quantitative research is usually associated with a deductive approach, where the
focus is on using data to test theory. However, it may also incorporate an inductive approach,
where data are used to develop theory.Quantitative research examines relationships between
variables, which are measured numerically and analysed using a range of statistical and
graphical techniques.

2) Qualitative research design, Qualitative research is often associated with an interpretive

philosophy (Denzin and Lincoln 2011). Many varieties of qualitative research commence with
an inductive approach to theory development, where a naturalistic and emergent research
design is used to build theory or to develop a richer theoretical perspective than already exists
in the literature. However, some qualitative research strategies start with a deductive
approach, to test an existing theory using qualitative procedures (Yin 2014). Qualitative
research studies participants’ meanings and the relationships between them, using a variety of
data collection techniques and analytical procedures, to develop a conceptual framework and
theoretical contribution.

3) Mixed methods research design, Mixed methods research is the branch of multiple methods
research that combines the use of quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques and
analytical procedures. A mixed methods research design may use a deductive, inductive or
abductive approach to theory development. For example, quantitative or qualitative research
may be used to test a theoretical proposition or propositions, followed by further quantitative
or qualitative research to develop a richer theoretical understanding.Concurrent mixed
methods research involves the separate use of quantitative and qualitative methods within a
single phase of data collection and analysis (a single-phase research design)As we have just
discussed, different combinations of mixed methods research characteristics lead to various
research designs.

5.4 Recognising The Purpose Of Your Research Design

In this section we discuss each purpose in more detail to help you to choose which of these is
appropriate to the nature of your research project.
1) An exploratory study is a valuable means to ask open questions to discover what is happening
and gain insights about a topic of interest. Research questions that are exploratory are likely to
begin with ‘What’ or ‘How’. Questions that you ask during data collection to explore an issue,
problem or phenomenon will also be likely to start with ‘What’ or ‘How’.

9
2) The purpose of descriptive research is to gain an accurate profile of events, persons or
situations. Research questions that are descriptive are likely to begin with, or include, either
‘Who’, ‘What’, ‘Where’, ‘When’ or ‘How’. Questions that you ask during data collection to
gain a description of events, persons or situations will also be likely to start with, or include,
‘Who’, ‘What’, ‘Where’, ‘When’ or ‘How’.
3) The purpose of evaluative research is to find out how well something works. Research
questions that seek to evaluate answers are likely to begin with ‘How’, or include ‘What’, in the
form of ‘To what extent’.
4) A research study may combine more than one purpose in its design. This may be achieved by
the use of mixed methods in the research), to facilitate some combination of exploratory,
descriptive, explanatory or evaluative research. Alternatively a single method research design
may be used in a way that provides scope to facilitate more than one purpose.

5.5 Choosing a Research Strategy or Strategies

In this section we turn our attention to your choice of research strategy). In general terms, a
strategy is a plan of action to achieve a goal. A research strategy may therefore be defined as a plan of
how a researcher will go about answering her or his research question. It is the methodological link
between your philosophy and subsequent choice of methods to collect and analyse data (Denzin and
Lincoln 2011). Different research traditions have led to a number of possible research strategies, as we
outlined earlier. The strategies we discuss are: Experiment; Survey; Archival and Documentary
Research; Case Study; Ethnography; Action Research; Grounded Theory; Narrative Inquiry.

5.6 Choosing a Time Horizon

An important question to be asked in designing your research is, ‘Do I want my research to be
a “snapshot” taken at a particular time or do I want it to be more akin to a diary or a series of
snapshots and be a representation of events over a given period?’ This will, of course, depend on your
research question. The ‘snapshot’ time horizon we call cross- sectional, while the ‘diary’ perspective
we call longitudinal.

1) Cross-sectional studies, It is probable that your research will be cross-sectional, involving the
study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular time.
2) Longitudinal studies, The main strength of longitudinal research is its capacity to study
change and development. This type of study may also provide you with a measure of control
over some of the variables being studied.

5.7 Ethabilishing the Ethics of the Research Design

Your choice of topic will be governed by ethical considerations. You may be particularly
interested to study the consumer decision to buy flower bouquets. Although this may provide some

10
interesting data collection challenges (who buys, for whom and why), there are not the same ethical
difficulties as will be involved in studying, say, the funeral purchasing decision. Your research design
in this case may have to concentrate on data collection from the undertaker and, possibly, the
purchaser at a time as close to the death as delicacy permits. The ideal population, of course, may be
the purchaser at a time as near as possible to the death. It is a matter of judgement as to whether the
strategy and data collection method(s) suggested by ethical considerations will yield data that are
valid. The general ethical issue here is that the research design should not subject those you are
researching to the risk of embarrassment, pain, harm or any other material disadvantage

5.8 Esthabiling the Quality of the Research Design

Underpinning our discussion of research design is the issue of the quality of the research and
its findings. This is neatly expressed by Raimond (1993: 55) when he subjects findings to the ‘how do
I know?’ test, ‘Will the evidence and my conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny?’ For example,
how do you know that the advertising campaign for a new product has resulted in enhanced sales?
How do you know that manual employeesin an electronics factory have more negative feelings
towards their employer than their clerical counterparts? The answer, of course, is that, in the literal
sense of the question, you cannot know. All you can do is reduce the possibility of getting the answer
wrong. This is why good research design is important. This is aptly summarised by Rogers (1961;
cited by Raimond 1993: 55): ‘scientific methodology needs to be seen for what it truly is, a way of
preventing me from deceiving myself in regard to my creatively formed subjective hunches which
have developed out of the relationship between me and my material’.

5.9 Taking Into Account Your Role as Researcher

Underpinning our discussion of research design is the issue of the quality of the research and
its findings. This is neatly expressed by Raimond (1993: 55) when he subjects findings to the ‘how do
I know?’ test, ‘Will the evidence and my conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny.

1) Scientific canons of inquiry: reliability and validity, Reliability and validity are central to
judgements about the quality of research in the natural sciences and quantitative research in
the social sciences. Their role in relation to qualitative research is contested, as we discuss
later. Reliability refers to replication and consistency
2) Alternative criteria to assess the quality of research inquiry, All researchers take issues of
research quality seriously if they wish others to accept their research as credible. However,
while types of measurement validity are appropriate to assess quantitative research based on
positivist assumptions, they areoften considered as philosophically and technically
inappropriate in relation to qualitative research based on interpretive assumptions, where
reality is regarded as being socially constructed and multifaceted. If good-quality research is
judged against the criteria of reliability and validity, but these concepts are applied in a rigid

11
 way that is inappropriate to qualitative research, it becomes difficult for qualitative researchers
to demonstrate that their research is of high quality and credible.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Saunders. 2016. Research Methods for Business Student. 7th Ed.1

12