Report Progress

Objective

Study and develop a shrink-wrapping machine capable of producing a good grade

plastic wrapping for the complex-shape bottles.

In the present, Company accepted a deal on the new production for CPFRF company,
which is to produce bottles for Five star chicken sauce along with wrapping plastic labels at
the outer surface of the product. The problem is that the surface of the sauce bottle isn’t
constant like a normal cylinder but instead taking the shape of a chicken's drumstick. The
following issue is the shrinkage of plastic film isn’t well enough, and are full of wrinkles.
Meaning that the further process for correction is required, by using the hot gun operated
manually by workers.

The company decided to make a project on building a new shrink wrapping machine
with the hot air type specially for this work.

Assumption

● The material of the sauce bottle is Polypropylene (PP) due to the reason that
the packaging of sauce would be hot.
● The plastic film label is hybrid type(multilayer film) made up of three layers
(PET/PS/PET)
● Polyester(PET) - A film that has high durability, great for products that will be
outdoors, as it features great temperature, UV, and chemical resistance. This
label can be clear, white, or vinyl.
● Polystyrene(PS) is a crystal clear, strong, and durable thermoplastic. The film
made from this material has excellent transparency and gloss. They also have
good antistatic properties, high tear resistance and are generally printable.
Moreover, they have high moisture vapor, oxygen, and CO2 transmission
rates.
● Mechanical parts are stainless steel.

Method

Investigate and study the owned shrink wrapping machine(Shrink Tunnel) of how the
machine works, mechanical components within the machine, electrical components, control
analog, Conveyor system, and factors affecting the shrinkage of plastic film. Along with
Designing the new shrink wrapping machine, components, mechanical components, electric
components, conveyor, and control system, as well as testing and doing experiments to
improve the machine to be capable of producing the desired work quality.
 Study of existing Shrink Tunnel

A Heat Tunnel is a convective heating oven which impinges streams of hot air to
shrink-wrap label film around the bottle. Silvergoldplastic has been making a product of
plastic packaging for over 20 years. The product can be obtained from the methods of
injection molding or blow molding, together with color-screening of the product.
Occasionally, some products might require the shrink-wrap process of label film, this is done
by manually feeding plastic bottles with the label into the machine for the common plastic
bottle or jar that is in cylindrical shape. The setting of temperature varies with the type of
plastic label. They commonly range between 160 to 180 degree celsius, and do not exceed
190 degree Celsius which would burn and tear out the plastic label. But for the complex
shape bottle, the shrinkage of plastic labels around the product would not be perfect and
wrinkles would appear. That would further need to correct the work by using the hot gun
manually and cost more time.

This project is an attempt at that objective and concentrates on developing the new
shrink wrapping machine while at the same time studying the fluid and heat transfer affecting
the plastic film around the product's surface in the tunnel. The goal is to develop a design for
a shrink wrapping machine that is capable of shrink-wrap plastic film around the Five star
sauce bottles.

1.1 Previous Design

The machine power supply is available for two voltages, 3PH 380V 50/60Hz and 3PH
220V 50/60Hz. For the dimension of this machine, it can be illustrated in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 Existing Heat Tunnel dimension

The design consists of a concentric shell, the air flow is driven by a blower wheel that is
mounted on the same shaft of the motor. The lower shell houses the heating coils that are
placed symmetric on either side of the columns. A tunnel section that runs throughout the
length of the oven indicates the working area through which products to shrink wrap are sent
by the means of conveyor, the direction of which defines the entrance and exit of the tunnel.
The lower shell supplies the hot air needed for the shrinking process as impinging air streams
into the tunnel section through slots in the panels mounted on the inner shell.

Figure 1.2 Exploded View of Shrink Tunnel

1.2 Tunnel Components

The tunnel components that affects the flow and heat transfer in the system include,

1. Lower Shell.
2. Electronics Housing.
3. Panel.
4. Blower Wheel.
5. Cooling Fan
6. Heating Coils.
7. Plenum.

1.2.1 Electronics Housing

The Electronics Housing houses electronics on the top. The Housing is 30 cm in height, 71.3
cm wide and 100 cm long according to the technical data.
1.2.2 Cooling Fan

The Cooling Fan draws air at ambient condition from the room through the openings in the
Electronic housing. The air flows over the electronics, and is dispersed out laterally through the slots
at the side of the housing. The flow through the electronic housing never directly affects the flow in
the lower shell, however, it indirectly affects the flow by removing heat from it. Thus the flow through
the housing can be seen to serve two purposes,

1. Remove heat from electronic devices.

2. Prevent the overheating of the machine.

1.2.3 Panel

Panels are fit to the lower shell on both sides and provide slots for the impinging hot air. The
slot shown in Figure 1.3 is the design for this machine.

Figure 1.3 Existing Slot Design

The slots are 0.5 cm in thickness and each block has the opening of 10 cm long and 0.5 cm wide
2
meaning that the opening of the block is 5 𝑐𝑚 , and each side of the panel has 16 openings, therefore
2
the slots have a cross section area of 80 𝑐𝑚 on each panel.

The mass flow rate (ṁ) through the inner shell can be calculated from

ṁ = 𝜌AV (1.1)

Where,
3
𝜌 - Density (unit: 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 )
2
A- Cross sectional area of slot (unit: 𝑚 )
 V- Velocity of the flow (unit: 𝑚/𝑠)

The mean velocity of the jet stream can be measured at the slot's terminal using the sensor. Thus the
air flow would be at room conditions throughout the machine and the density of air is assumed to be
3
constant at 1.204 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 . Thus the mass flow rate through all slots in one panel can be calculated.

1.2.4 Blower Wheel

The blower wheel draws in air through the openings in the plenum which are at the roof of the
tunnel section and moves the air at an angle to the sides of the lower shell. Using the mass flow rate
that can be calculated in the previous section, the dimensions of the fan and the properties on suction
side of the fan, the flow properties at the outlet of the fan can be calculated using the velocity
triangles.

From the Conservation of Mass we have,

𝜌𝐴𝑉𝐹𝑎𝑛= 2 · (𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠) (1.2)

ṁ𝐹𝑎𝑛= 2 · (𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠)

Then the flow through the Blower Fan is calculated, and can be used to find velocity of the air at the
inlet side of the fan blades 𝑉1 can be calculated,

ṁ𝐹𝑎𝑛
𝑉1= 𝜌𝐹𝑎𝑛· 𝐴𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
(1.3)

The fan is 11 cm in diameter at the inlet side and 6.5 cm long, giving the lateral surface area of
2
224.628 𝑐𝑚 from the formula of cylinder lateral surface area “ 𝜋DL “ .

Air Flow through slots is mixed with some air at the atmospheric condition, and is being recirculated
to the lower shell through the fan.

The air temperature at the inlet side would be below the temperature of the jet streams(air passes the
heating coil and through the slots) depending on the outside air condition during the actual operation
of the machine. Then solving Eq. 1.3 We obtain the velocity at the inlet side of the fan blades.

1.2.4.1 Velocity Diagram

The Velocity vector at the inlet side of fan blade is actually in radial at any point along the
circumference, however, the velocity at the outlet is dispersed angularly depending on the blade shape
and its angle, as well as the angular velocity of the blower wheel. The velocity diagram is necessary
for finding the flow properties at the outlet side of the blower wheels.
 Figure 1.4 Velocity Vectors for Backward curved blade centrifugal blower

Figure 1.4 illustrates the Inlet and Outlet velocity vectors for a typical Backward curved blade
centrifugal blower [VT]. 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the absolute velocity at the inlet and outlet of the blades,
respectively. 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 refers to the blade angular velocity at its entrance and exit, respectively. 𝑉𝑟1
and 𝑉𝑟2 are Relative velocities of the air at inlet and outlet. It refers to the velocity that the blade sees
as it rotates with the angular velocity. 𝑉𝑤2 is the whirl velocity at outlet (tangential component of
absolute velocity of air at outlet). 𝑉𝑓1 and 𝑉𝑓2 are Velocities of flow at the inlet and outlet. 𝑉1 is equals
to 𝑉𝑓1 because at the inlet side of the blade, there is no tangential component of absolute velocity, and
thus the velocity of whirl will be zero. β1 and β2 are Inlet and Outlet angle to the rotor blade, while α
is the angle between the absolute velocity and plane of rotation.

The velocity of the flow of the outlet side can be calculated by using the continuity equation between
inlet and outlet side of the blower wheel, or between the outlet side of the blower wheel and the slots.
The outer diameter of the fan is measured to be 13.5 cm. The density of air is assumed to be the same
across the fan as of the small pressure drop, and small change in temperature. Thus knowing data the
velocity at the outlet of the fan 𝑉𝑓2 can be calculated, rearranged from the continuity equation of

𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝐴2𝑉2

π𝐷1𝐿 · 𝑉𝑓1 = π𝐷2𝐿 · 𝑉𝑓2

𝑉𝑓1 · 𝐷1
𝑉𝑓2 = 𝐷2

Recall that 𝑉𝑓1= 𝑉1 obtained from Eq 1.3

A lot of the radial component of velocity is converted to angular component.

The blower wheels run at the maximum speed of 1440 RPM. Therefore the mean velocity can be
calculated by,

𝑈1= ⍵1r
2π𝑁
𝑈1= 60
·r
2π𝑁 𝐷1
𝑈1= 60
· 2

𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.11 𝑚

𝑈1= 1440 𝑚𝑖𝑛
· 2π 𝑟𝑒𝑣
· 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
· 2

𝑈1= 8.294 𝑚/𝑠

And similarly,
𝑈2= 10.178 𝑚/𝑠

Now the magnitude of the whirl velocity “ 𝑉𝑤2 ” needs to be calculated to define the outlet flow. Thus
from Figure 1.4 the velocity diagram can be utilized. The value of “ β1” is calculated from the radial
velocity and the mean velocity as,

𝑉
β1 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛( 𝑈1 )
1

Once knowing “ β1” , then the relative velocity for the inlet flow 𝑉𝑟1 can be calculated from the
absolute and mean velocity as,

𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑈1𝑐𝑜𝑠 β1

And will be in the unit of 𝑚/𝑠

The outlet triangle is different compared to the inlet triangle, as the rotation of the fan occurs and the
angle to do so it adds the whirl velocity to the flow. However, the same calculation can be made for
the outlet flow as well, knowing the blade angle and the outlet velocity triangle.

Blades in the blower wheel are symmetrical and is kept at the angle that the tangent drawn to the
blade at the inlet side is perpendicular to the direction of rotor rotation, while the tangent drawn is
almost parallel to the direction of rotor rotation at the outlet of the blower wheel.

°
For the initial calculations, assume the blade angle to be 5 to proceed with the explanation. This
refers to the point in the blade that is close to the outlet and can be assumed to be rotation at 𝑈2 ,
which is the mean velocity at the outlet.
 𝑉𝑓2
𝑡𝑎𝑛β2 = 𝑈2− 𝑉𝑤2

The above equation can be used to calculate 𝑉𝑤2 the whirl velocity, because it is the only unknown.
The radial and whirl component define the outlet flow of the blower wheel. The magnitude of the
absolute velocity and its direction can be determined as

𝑉𝑓2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 α2 = 𝑉𝑤2
2 2 2
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑓2 + 𝑉𝑤2

And therefore the absolute velocity at outlet of blower wheel can be calculated, at the angle of α2.
This represent the concept of flow properties at the outlet for cross section of the blade where blade
°
angle is assumed to be 5 for β2 .

1.2.5 Lower Shell

The shell is 35 cm in height, 71.3 cm wide and 100 cm in length, a 25cm x 45cm tunnel section runs
through the center of the shell throughout its length. The tunnel section splits the shell into two
columns on either side. The panels are fixed to the lower shell and they form the flow area that houses
the heating coils and the blower wheel. The shell opened to the tunnel section through the slots in the
panel.

Figure 1.5 Front view of the tunnel section

In this consideration of the lower shell, the approximate pressure drop can be studied. This is the
pressure which the blower wheel needs to overcome. With the known size of the slots, the velocity of
the flow through the column and the slot's major and minor losses for the lower shell, the calculation
can be made. To identify the pressure drop in the system, a streamline is drawn from the fan outlet
side to the slots. The pressure drop can be written along the stream line as Bernoulli equation,

2 2
𝑙 𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉
∆𝑃 = 𝑓 𝐷ℎ
· 2
+ 𝐾𝐿 · 2
2
∆𝑃 𝑉 𝑙
𝜌𝑔
= 2𝑔
· (𝑓 𝐷ℎ
+ 𝐾𝐿 )
∆𝑃
𝜌𝑔
= ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 + Σ ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟

Where,

∆𝑃 - Pressure Drop
ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 - Minor head loss (unit: m)
ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 - Major head loss (unit: m)

Consider the cross section plane around the middle section of the tunnel length, where flow is to be
assumed in one dimensional for the purpose of calculating the loss. If the streamline is to be drawn
along the cross section, the head loss due to minor loss can be calculated from the equation of

2
𝑉
ℎ𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = 𝐾𝐿 · 2𝑔
Where,

𝐾𝐿 - Minor Loss Coefficient

V - Velocity of the flow (unit: 𝑚/𝑠)
2
g - Gravitational acceleration (unit: 𝑚/𝑠 )

The flow exits the lower shell through the slot on both sides, having the minor loss associated with
them. The minor loss coefficient for these type of outlet is 2.8 according to the research [Minor], and
the velocity through it is “ 𝑉 ” from Eq 1.1, which is the mean velocity at the slots. Substitute the
values in Equation above gives the minor head loss due to slots.

°
Another associated minor loss is the 90 bend in the lower shell. The radial velocity 𝑉𝑓2 at outlet side
of the fan blade in the previous section can be used to calculate the minor loss for this part. However,
this is just the concept, but in reality, the velocity coming out of the blower wheel has a both radial
and whirl component making the flow to be in two dimensions. The Analytical calculation of minor
loss in two dimensional flow is complicated, and since most loss in this system is due to the slots, we
will assume to ignore this effect.

°
Minor loss coefficient for the sharp 90 bend is 1 [Minor]. Thus a velocity 𝑉𝑓2 obtained from previous
section is to be substituted as “ 𝑉 ” in the minor head loss equation.

For the same streamline of the flow, major loss can also be considered due to the friction in the duct.
Friction to the flow is by the walls of the column, velocity is calculated from the mass flow rate
through the column from Eq 1.1, and the cross sectional area of the duct as the column itself, Then 𝑉
can be calculated, and the head loss associated with friction can be obtained using Darcy-Weisbach
equation [Cengel Heat Transfer Text] given as,

2
𝑙 𝑉
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓𝐷 · 𝐷ℎ
· 2𝑔

Where,

𝑓𝐷 - Friction coefficient.
l - Length of the Duct.
4(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)
𝐷ℎ - Equivalent Hydraulic Diameter, 𝐷ℎ = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉 - Velocity of the flow (unit: 𝑚/𝑠)
2
g - Gravitational acceleration (unit: 𝑚/𝑠 )

The Hydraulic diameter of the duct is calculated according to equation above and illustrate in Figure
below,

Figure 1.6 Duct as the lower shell bottom view

4(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)
𝐷ℎ = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

4(𝑎𝑏)
𝐷ℎ = 2(𝑎+𝑏)

4(1000 ·131.5)
𝐷ℎ = 2(1000 + 131.5)
= 232.434 mm = 0.232 m

While the length of the duct is 0.250 m, which is the height of the column for the tunnel section.

The Darcy weisbach friction coefficient can be calculated from the colebrook equation[Cengel Heat
Transfer] given as,

1 ϵ / 𝐷ℎ 2.51
=− 2. 0𝑙𝑜𝑔( 3.7
+ )
𝑓𝐷 𝑅𝑒 𝑓𝐷

Where,

ϵ - Surface Roughness (unit:m)

𝜌·𝑉·𝐷ℎ 𝑉·𝐷ℎ
𝑅𝑒 - Reynolds number - µ
= ν
(dimensionless parameter)
The flow velocity calculated from the previous section is to be used here, and the kinematic viscosity
−5 2
is 1. 516 × 10 𝑚 /𝑠 , for the air assumed at room condition 20 degree celsius, at 1 atm pressure.
This will give Reynolds number which is expected to be in the case of turbulent flow for the general
application. (Flow is Laminar when Re ≤ 2300 ; Flow is Transition when Re is between 2300 and
4000; Flow is Turbulent when Re ≥ 4000). [Cengel Heat transfer Text] for the flow through a duct.

Thus knowing the Reynolds number and assume taking the surface roughness for stainless steel to be
−3
0. 001 × 10 𝑚 [ee], then the friction factor can be calculated from the colebrook formula.

Substituting the friction factor into the Darcy-Weisbach equation, the head loss due to friction can be
obtained. Now the concept for finding the head loss has been explained. The minor loss at the slot is
the function of velocity through the slots, however, the velocity obtained at initial state should be
obtained from the experiment for the reading on anemometer, but the main task here is to focus on the
design for the new machine, so only the concept study is enough. This does not include the
complexities of the flow inside the inner shell.

So to conclude this section, the minor and major head loss is obtained from the explanation above,
and can further be used to find pressure drop in the inner shell from the Bernoulli equation for the air
flow. Then the value can be converted to the unit of Pascal. Then this is the pressure the fan blower
must overcome to operate.

1.2.6 Heating Element

The heaters are used to give temperature rise to the jet stream. They are housed on the lower shell on
both sides.

Figure 1.7 Heating coil

The element is shown in Figure 1.7, fitted in the lower shell of the oven. A length of 50 cm for each
tube, around 3 cm in diameter of the heating tube, 6 on each side of the panel, the total length is 250
cm. It uses 10kW for this machine and operates at 380 Volts.
The heater requires 9570W to power, and the total heater tube is 12 and therefore each single heating
tube requires a power of around 800W. The 9570W comes from the subtraction of 60W from the
conveyor motor and 370W(0.37kW) from the Blower motor.

Thus knowing the dimensions and the power used for the heating element, the heat flux of the heater
can be calculated.

2
Heat flux (𝑊/𝑐𝑚 ) is defined by heating element power divided by the heated surface area of the
element. (Cylinder lateral surface)

Watt Density (𝑞˙) =

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑄˙
= π𝐷𝐿
800𝑊
= π (3 𝑐𝑚)(50 𝑐𝑚)
𝑊
= 1.7 2
𝑐𝑚

The heat flux helps visualize the internal resistance wire temperature and the further prediction for the
heating element. The operating temperature of the element is an important consideration for heat
transfer.

1.3 Testing of product

The machine operates frequently depending on the order from customers, and is now in good
performance according to the engineer. Each component of the oven was checked for its proper
function before each of the incoming orders needed to be carried out. Below are the steps toward
testing.

1.3.1 Dimension correctness of the product

The product was checked if it was in accordance with the desired design. The position of the label
wrapped, wrinkles causing the shrinkage, and tears after they exit the tunnel. If there’s any defect, the
parameters such as temperature, conveyor velocity, and blower fan speed should be adjusted
accordingly.

1.3.2 Alignment

Improper alignment of the label on the bottle is a factor that could cause the huge error in the
production line, and lead to waste product. The heat shrink oven is highly sensitive to flow properties.
The fans on the plenum are responsible for the flow within the oven, and were set perpendicular to the
base. The heating element is located in the panel on both sides of the column. The coils are
symmetrical on both sides of the lower shell and air would pass through the same cross section
opening giving the symmetrical temperature on both sides. The label installed manually was checked
twice before being fed into the oven.
1.3.3 Fan operation

The design of the oven shows that the fan rotates in counterclockwise direction constantly at a speed
of 1440 rpm. The fan materials are in good condition, no rust or broken parts, as well as small
clearance to avoid the spillage of air from inner to outer circumference.

1.3.4 Heating coil

The Heating coils were physically inspected to be in good condition and function properly. The
heating coils operate at 380V, and they operate at around 800W for each heating tube. The resistance
across it can be calculated using Ohm's Law as,

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

Therefore,
2
𝑉
𝑅= 𝑃
2
380
= 800
= 180.5 Ω

1.4 Machine Requirement

In order to specify parameters of Shrink wrapping machine, the requirement for the proper Shrinking
of wrap is to be established.

“ The machine should be designed to produce the air stream at a certain temperature that could be
directed at a certain velocity around the plastic film label for its proper shrinking with the least
wrinkles as possible.”

The major parameters the machine is to be designed for are set by this requirement. These parameters
vary with the product to be shrink wrapped, which is the sauce bottle that takes the shape of a chicken
drumstick, and hence the machine should have flexibility to develop air jets for a wide temperature
and velocity range. Design parameters are listed below.

1. Conveyor System.
2. Heating system.
3. Electrical system and Control.
4. Surface temperature of plastic film wrapped around the sauce bottle.

Additional parameters that enhance the shrinking process and directly affect the quality of label wrap
is also studied with major parameters.

● Temperature of the Jet Stream

● Temperature along the tunnel section.
● Mean velocity of Jet stream
1.5 Plastic Film for the operation

Plastic Label used for this work is a multi-layer type film. The manufacturer calls it
“Hybrid” due to the reason that it composed of three layers; PET,PS,PET in sequential order.
The Hybrid styrene film is the original material of Gunze. Hybrid film can achieve Good
shrink finish, High shrinkage for various containers, and reduce the label weight and the
overall product’s weight.

Hybrid film holds less creases than PET film alone. Hybrid film has similar properties to PS
moderate shrink curve.

Figure 1.8 Hybrid film layers

Figure 1.9 Shrink curve PET vs Hybrid

°
According to Figure 1.9 , PET starts to shrink suddenly at 80 C, therefore PET has a sharper
shrink curve.
 Figure 1.10 Label waving and pitch change

PET shrinkage is unstable, the curve fluctuates and causes waving at the upper line of label
and make label pitch shorter. Whereas Hybrid shrinkage is stable, referring to Figure 1.10,
thus Hybrid can hold label waving and short label pitch compared with PET.

°
Figure 1.11 Max Percent shrinkage of different Film at 100 𝐶 hot water for 10 sec

Hybrid has a high-shrinkage ratio in MD (machine direction) for over 75% according to data.
Thus Hybrid film can be used for difficult shapes and high-neck containers.
Film Properties

Figure 1.12 Hybrid Film properties

Figure 1.13 Shrink Curve of Hybrid Film

From Figure 1.12, properties are presented according to company data. TD refers to
transverse direction, and MD refers to machine direction.

Tensile strength refers to the maximum stress that the film can withstand before breaking
when it is stretched or pulled.
Elongation at break indicates how much the material can be stretched as the percentage of its
original dimension.

Haze refers to how cloudy appearance is, or less clarity when the material that is being
inspected.

These data were obtained from the Film company.

Company also mentioned that when it comes to practical situations, the temperature set on
Shrink tunnel should be adjusted for over 100 °𝐶 , and this happens normally in every
industrial Shrink Tunnel due to the loss of energy in terms of heat in the operation. So the
value of temperature of the surface of the film on the product should be inspected again in
practical situations by using the temperature sensor, and see if the shrinkage of film is
acceptable or meets the company's requirements.

https://www.hkdivedi.com/2019/10/velocity-triangle-for-centrifugal-fan.html [VT]
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-duct-minor-loss-diagram-d_332.html [Minor]
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/surface-roughness-ventilation-ducts-d_209.html [ee]