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EFFECTIVENESS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: APPLICABILITY OF SELF-

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 EFFECTIVENESS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:
APPLICABILITY OF SELF- DRIVING CARS IN NIGERIA

1Hamzat SALAMI, 2Yakubu Ojo AMINU & 3Omeiza Jacob DAVID

1Economics Dept., Faculty of Social Sciences, Prince Abubakar Audu

University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria

2Economics Dept., Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Abuja, FCT-Nigeria

&
3Computer Science Dept., Faculty of Natural Sciences, Prince Abubakar Audu

University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

This paper presents insights into the Effectiveness of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and critically
discusses the applicability of Self-Driving Cars in Nigeria. Through an examination of qualitative
evidences, we explored the effectiveness and the importance of Artificial Intelligence (AI) as
machine learning, deep learning and data mining on self-driving car research. The successful and
commercial use of self-driving/automated cars will eventually make human life easier. The paper
aims to debate/discuss the applicability of self-driving cars in Nigeria. It discussed parameters
and the key technology of a self-driving car; it surveys some countries where this system (self-
driving cars) is adopted. In this paper, the four key technologies in self-driving cars, namely: car
navigation system, path planning, environment perception and car control, are addressed. Finally,
the debates on the applicability of self-driving cars in Nigeria are discussed and the
factors/parameters that would suit its applicability in Nigeria are also discussed. It is evident from
the findings that Nigeria environment and technological supports are non-adoptable to
autonomous cars applicability presently but there are future prospects in that sector in Nigeria
due to the country market advantages in the continent of Africa.
Keywords: Automated Vehicles, Applicability, Agents and Car, Environment perception, Sensors,
Control Path Planning.

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INTRODUCTION
The possibility and applicability of self-driving cars have attracted substantial investment and
attention. Additionally, considering questions of technological opportunities and limits, we should
also, following the sociology of expectations (Borup et al., 2006), seeks to analyze how self-
driving futures are being imagined, to improve anticipatory governance (Guston, 2014) of the
technology. One way to explore such expectations and the aligning of financial and scientific
resources behind them, beyond superficial statements from self-driving vanguards (Hilgartner et
al., 2015), is to consider existing scientific publications and patent applications. Generally, the
self-driving car (Berger, 2014; Berger and Dukaczewski, 2014; Walker et al., 2001); Thrun,
(2010); Baruch, (2016); Barker et al., (2013); Litman, (2015), termed as the wheeled mobile robot,
is a kind of intelligent car, which arrives at a destination based on the information obtained from
automotive sensors, including the perception of the path environment, information of the route and
car control. The main characteristic of self-driving car is transporting people or objects to a
predetermined target without humans driving the car.

Significant improvements in the last decade have greatly advanced self-driving car technology.
These new capabilities will have profound global impacts that could markedly change society, not
to mention the significant improvements they could bring to the overall efficiency, convenience,
and safety of our roadways and transportation systems. Addressing self-driving technology-related
concerns is important, particularly given these broad potential impacts. It is on that note the
research seeks to investigate the applicability of selfless vehicles in Nigeria by extensively look at
some parameters or some factors facilitating the effective application of self-driving cars as well
as identifying some countries where this system is been adopted.

LITERARY SURVEY
The History and Politics of Self-Driving Cars
Understanding the possible futures of self-driving cars, is aided by an understanding of alternative
histories that could be told about technology. For many of the most prominent self-driving
innovators and early accounts of their prowess, the relevant history centers on robotics and
artificial intelligence. The key event for this story is the third DARPA grand challenge competition

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in 2007. According to one account “the moment… when everything changed” (Burns & Shulgan,
2018) was when a handful of teams of robot cists made machines that were able to complete a
drive around an uninhabited town. This history is told as part of a dominant “narrative of
autonomy” (Tennant & Stilgoe, 2016), but it does not represent the full story. Historians such as
Wetmore (2020) and Vinsel (2019) described how the focus on the autonomous vehicle is just the
most recent phase of a long history of self-driving innovation that, for much of the second half of
the twentieth century, concentrated on infrastructures that would enable self-driving. More
recently interest in self-driving cars, at least in the US, has downplayed or ignored questions of
infrastructure. The assumption is that investment in upgrading infrastructure is unlikely and, if
money were available, it would be too slow (Tennant & Stilgoe, 2016). The new focus has been
on making smart cars rather than smart roads. If this means a prioritization of software over
hardware, and a focus on data for artificial intelligence, this could have profound implications for
the political economy of self-driving systems, the structure of markets and the future of mobility.
The politics of transport could find itself further entangled in the politics of platform capitalism
(Pasquale, 2016). A focus on AI could crowd out alternative models and postpone or externalize
consideration of the issues raised by disruptions to current mobility patterns. This research follows
the work of Gandia et al. (2019) who mapped relevant scientific publications, and Cho et al. (2021),
who mapped patent activity around self-driving cars by proving the ground for the understanding
of antecedents, drivers and consequences of self-driving cars research and innovation.

Various efforts have been made on the automated driving system over the years. It all began in
1977 in Japan where Tsukuba Engineering laboratory developed the first semi-automated car.
Since then, various feats have been achieved in self- driving car research. Different levels of car
automation had evolved. There are levels to car automation, and it would be nice if we take a look
at the self-driving car's safety. Most times, there are 6 levels, and each level has its peculiarity.
The first level is level 0 in which all major car functions are controlled by a human. The second
level (level 1) is one in which a couple of systems, for instance, automatic braking, cruise control,
are controlled by the car. The third level of car automation involves the car performing at the same
time, not less than two functions that are automated. For instance, Steering and at the same time
accelerating. However, the input of man is still required. The fourth level entails the car managing
all safety functions which are under particular conditions. The car possesses advanced driver
assistance systems. The driver is however expected to take charge once alerted. The penultimate
level is such in which the car is completely autonomous in certain driving scenarios. The last level

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is one in which the car is able to drive itself under every circumstance. This is the level under
which the self-driving cars fall. Several carmakers are exploring the field of self- driving cars.

How Self-Driving Cars Work

With the development of Automated Driving Systems (ADS) by various technology companies
like Tesla, Google, Uber and Nissan, self-driving is now made possible. One common thing that
is put in place by the self- driving system is an internal map with self-driving cars' sensors. These
sensors, with the help of software, are able to communicate with the vehicle adequately to carry
out the functions that a human who is driving would perform. Vehicles that are partially
autonomous may require the human factor in situations where things get out of hand. Some do not
and are even made without steering wheels. Another notable thing is that some self-driving cars
are able to communicate with automated traffic lights.

PARAMETERS TO EVALUATE AUTOMATED VEHICLES AND ITS KEY

TECHNOLOGY

An automated/autonomous vehicle (AV) relies on devices and components that exchange, share
and interpret data. Interoperability of these devices and components ensures that these can form
an integrated ecosystem within the vehicle, seamlessly communicating with each other without
sacrificing performance. Autonomous vehicle (AV) testing and validation are vital for making
self-driving cars safe for humans on the road. Traditional prototype-based testing takes time and
large budgets, so engineers need to take advantage of physics-based and virtual reality (VR)
simulations. These digital tools will enable engineers to overcome the challenges of testing and
validating AV designs. As traffic can be erratic, AVs will encounter unique scenarios every day,
like a car running on the wrong side of the road. Testing will check the automated vehicles’
reaction to such unique scenarios. On-road prototypes would rarely experience these conditions,
and setting up such scenarios would be dangerous and costly. Instead, testing and validating
automated vehicles for such scenarios can be done using simulation for fast and cost-effective
results. Vehicles controlled by artificial intelligence (AI) need to be tested for every conceivable
iteration of traffic, conditions and signage. As physically testing these scenarios can be risky to
pedestrians and other vehicles, engineers can explore the autonomous vehicle domain of validity
using parameterization, simulation and virtual reality (VR). This will help run multiple
permutations in a fraction of the time for different stop-sign scenarios automatically.

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Automated Vehicles Testing Parameters
Automated vehicles need a wide array of sensors to get a clear picture of the world around them,
including cameras, lidars, radars, thermal cameras, Global Positioning System and more. Glare
can affect various sensors and hence, these are usually tested and validated under various
conditions using simulation where one or multiple sensors fail. Simulations “Safety standards for
Automated Vehicles are absolutely critical for public acceptance of the new technology,” says
Greg McGuire, associate director of M-city autonomous vehicle testing lab at university of
Michigan. “Without them, it is hard to decide whether self-driving cars are safe, and to gain public
trust. Earning that trust requires developing standards through an open process that the public can
scrutinize, and may even require government regulation.” Main aspects of testing technology are
to ensure sensors are providing correct feedback, so Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be sure to have
the correct information to process. Testing machine learning systems have become a little more
complicated. These are based on a neural network, which is nothing more than layered algorithms
with variables that are adjusted after training the system. Training involves feeding data to the
systems until we are able to arrive at a result that is within our degree of accuracy for well-known
results.

Environment testing
Researchers are building tools and techniques to generate driving conditions and issues that
maximally impact AV safety and performance. These will help find a large number of safety-
critical scenarios where errors can lead to accidents without having to enumerate all possibilities
on the road. A library of Edge cases has been developed for testing autonomous driving systems
repeatedly in augmented reality (AR)-based simulations. Data compiled from drivers operating
vehicles jam-packed with sensors helps design such custom-built simulation environments that
reflect how drivers actually react and behave on the road. This improves autonomous driving
systems’ performance with each repetition. On-road testing allows vehicles and their various parts
to be tested in real-world conditions, subjecting them to elements like weather, geography, light
or darkness, road conditions, tunnels, on-ramps, speed changes, traffic lights, infrastructure and
more. These real-world analyses can be valuable in assessing safety and performance in a
controlled manner, providing a realistic view of lifespan of the products. By combining lab and
ground testing, evaluations can provide a more complete picture to fully understand how the
durability test affects performance of the products.

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Assessing communication technologies
Safety of AVs is critical to their success in the marketplace and in society. Wireless communication
technologies offer limitless opportunities within the transportation sector. But this requires
extensive validation testing to ensure safety and performance of connected and automated vehicles.
It includes checks to ensure functionality of vehicles, their components, and their interaction with
other cars and wireless technologies such as cellphones, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc. There are several
other considerations to address when it comes to developing and implementing testing.
Geographical elements such as solar flares, buildings, tunnels, canyons or simply reception can
impact connection and reception of the GPS signal in an automated or connected vehicle. So, it is
important to test additional sensors and algorithms, and their ability to use data acquisition
hardware and real-time kinematic systems to track true vehicle position in these situations. For
vehicles in motion, communication will be a constant concern, as they will increasingly need to
interact with infrastructure and other smart devices. Dedicated short-range communications is a
wireless technology that allows automobiles to conduct this communication. Its components
testing includes laboratory and real-world testing to ensure their interoperability, connectivity,
security, performance and electrical safety. On-road testing allows evaluation of components
within a vehicle and tests their interaction while operating in the intended environment along with
communication established with other road-side units. Evaluation of automated systems in
automobiles needs testing of various sensing technologies like lidar, radar and cameras. Lidar
systems produce data that is highly beneficial to the automated vehicle’s algorithms. Accelerated
stress testing provides a repeatable method for improving its design robustness and eliminating
issues. It simulates real-life conditions as well as additional and elevated conditions to gather data
that helps ensure product functionality and reliability. Radar can detect objects depending on their
size, shape and material composition. So, objects may go undetected or be incorrectly identified if
they are too thin or transparent to the radar frequency or are non-conductive. It may also detect
objects wrongly if there are elevation changes, such as entrance and exit ramps, or when the road
has a sharp curve because objects have unique geometry. Most automated vehicles utilize cameras
for object detection; however, cameras function best under good lighting conditions and are less
reliable during vehicle transitions from one lighting condition to another. For example, when the
vehicle emerges from the tunnel during daytime, thus moving from dark to light, the camera may
not work as well. So, the camera needs to undergo extensive performance testing in the lab to
ensure its performance, both as a standalone device and as an integrated component within the

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vehicle’s vision system. Also, it should be tested for weather conditions, such as how it will operate
with raindrops or snow over the lens.

Interoperability tests for a seamless performance

An Automated Vehicle relies on devices and components that exchange, share and interpret data.
Interoperability of these devices and components ensures that these can form an integrated
ecosystem within the vehicle, seamlessly communicating with each other without sacrificing
performance. Additionally, software testing of interoperability uses manual and simulated test
processes to verify that the product meets all functional, performance, security and quality
requirements. Without clear standards and regulatory requirements, testing of automobiles and
their components can be confusing. However, implementing testing in the lab as well as in the
field can serve as a good starting point. As technology evolves, standards will begin to follow,
making it essential to remain aware of proposed and approved developments, regulations and
changes.

Key technology of a self-driving car

The automatic control architecture, artificial intelligence, computer vision and many other
technologies are integrated into the self-driving car, which is a product of the highly developed
computer science, pattern recognition and intelligent control technology. From a different
viewpoint, the technology of self-driving car represents the level of scientific research and
industrial strength of a country.

THE NATURE OF ADAPTABILITY OF SELF-DRIVING CARS IN SOME

COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD

Self-Driving Cars in Asian Countries and India

Several Asian countries including China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and India are making
significant contributions to the field. Although these countries are in various stages of adoption
with respect to connected and autonomous vehicles, more effort is needed before these
technologies can be reliably deployed on a large scale. Customizing and improving the existing
automated driving technologies to traffic patterns and specific scenarios relevant to Asia remains
a major focus of research in this region.
In addition to major Asian cities like Singapore, Shanghai, and Tokyo building deployment sites
for testing and evaluating self-driving cars, significant activity in Asia-based corporations

654
continues to expand. For example, Samsung in South Korea recently acquired US infotainment
and audio company Harman, making it a Tier 1 company (Tier 1 companies supply parts to original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) like BMW). Analysts expect Samsung will now play a role in
automotive telematics, infotainment, and driver-safety technology. In addition, Hyundai Motors
worked with HD maps to field self-driving cars in time for the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic
Games was a success (Alvermann, 2018). The same success story was to be recorded in 2020
Tokyo Olympic Games by Japanese automakers but the event was postponed due to COVID-19
pandemic.

Autonomous Vehicles in Europe

On the European front, several significant autonomous vehicle research efforts have been
underway since the 1980s which laid the foundations of autonomous vehicle technology. In
particular, the Eureka PROMETHEUS Project (Programme for a European Traffic of Highest
Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety (1987–1995), funded by the European Commission,
provided support for the development of many groundbreaking technologies that would eventually
lead to the driver-assistance systems we know today. Aimed at improving road traffic safety, the
project attracted many European car manufacturers that became participants and developed the
early prototypes of these components and approaches. The most ambitious of the program’s funded
projects was the development of the first fully autonomous passenger road vehicle. Many of the
resulting technological approaches (such as the 4D approach, recursive estimation, and clothoid
modeling of road curvature) set the standard for the suite of driver-assistance systems used in
modern vehicles. The 4D approach also inspired the NIST 4D/RCS reference architecture for
unmanned vehicle systems. It is worth noting that in this special issue, author Ernst D. Dickmanns,
the architect of this 4D approach, describes the historic development and significance of this
concept throughout the past few decades. Among other prizes, he was awarded the IEEE ITS
Lifetime Achievement Award in 2016 for his contributions to autonomous vehicles.

Self-Driving Vehicles in United State of American (USA)

In the US, the technology for self- driving cars—not to mention the business, policy, legal, ethical,
and regulatory challenges—have received enormous attention in the popular media. Not a day goes
by without additional coverage, new information, and predictions of lasting changes in the US
transportation and transit systems. The business models of automotive manufacturers operating in

655
the US are in flux. Autonomous vehicles have the potential to remake not only the automotive
industry, but transportation services and infrastructure requirements for cities as well.
In the US, Level 2 systems (that is, partial automation in which humans are still responsible) are
available from a number of automotive manufacturers.

Self-Driving Car in Africa

Ackaah, Leslie and Osei (2021) reported in their study that huge percentage of people in Africa
using Ghana as a case study are fully aware of automated driverless car and that the majority of
these people have positive opinion about AVs due to its immense benefits to humanity.
According to Nwokoye et al., (2022), the challenges of AVs operative in African like other
continent of the world are: lack of necessary infrastructure, absent of law and order, high cost of
obtaining AVs, unavailability of image detecting sensors and recognition projects, poor awareness
of artificial intelligent applicability in every facet of life, security and privacy, weak legal
framework, unemployment, criminalization and other ethnical issues. Due to these limitations,
AVs operative has been limited to experimental and prototype scale in African countries
particularly in South Africa. Despite the drawback in application of selfless drivers’ cars in
African countries, many analysts believed that in near future, AVs will be full operative in African
countries.

Self-driving cars in Nigeria

The possibility of self-driving car in Nigeria is a question because of the uniqueness of a country
call (Nigeria). Before we can give a valid response/answer to this question, let’s consider some
factors:
• Safety
Safety is an important factor to be put into perspective before we are in fact able to talk about
adoption/application of self-driving cars in Nigeria. A lot of casualties are caused by road traffic
accidents, and while it seems as though automated car systems could reduce that, what happens
when things go wrong with the car system, and there is no human intervention?

• Road infrastructures
Talking about the applicability of self-driving cars in Nigeria, Nigeria road infrastructures need to
be put into serious consideration. Nigeria roads like other African countries are in a very bad shape
with many political promises to better them that never seen the light of the day. Apart from the

656
roads in big cities like Abuja, Lagos and Port Harcourt in Nigeria many others which form large
percentage of roads network in the country are in poor conditions. It is quite bad that some even
blame themselves for not putting into memory the number of potholes on a route along those roads
when driving. I find it hard to see how self-driving cars can survive under such circumstances. Still
on infrastructure, think about Nigeria traffic lights and their conditions, how can driverless cars
adequately fit in when they depend on sensors that could be based on environmental conditions?
If the self-driving car is one that depends on electricity, Nigeria ecliptic power supply cannot
guaranty effective operation of AVs in the country (Nigeria).

• Maintenance and costs

What about the cost of maintenance? Just like the cost of running electric cars, the cost of
maintaining a self-driving car and its application is another factor that should be put into
consideration. The cost of obtaining and maintaining self-driving cars are so huge but the benefits
are enormous. In the face of slow economic performance and increase in prices of all goods and
services in Nigeria, AVs applicability in full scale in Nigeria may suffer a more setback.

• Availability of automobile manufacturing raw materials

The availability of raw materials for automobile manufacturing is a crucial factor in the automotive
industry. Nigeria is fortunate to possess abundant raw materials in the iron and steel industry,
which are essential for manufacturing vehicles, whether they are automated or require human
assistance. Ajaokuta Iron and Steel, located in Kogi State, Nigeria, possesses the world's finest
iron and steel raw materials. Unfortunately, due to a lack of visionary leadership in the past, the
company's multimillion-dollar project has remained idle and fallen into disrepair over the years.
These factors, along with others mentioned earlier, have limited the feasibility of implementing
automated vehicles in Nigeria. However, there is a potential future for the automobile industry in
Nigeria if the necessary actions are taken.

Advantages of Self- Driving Cars

* Automated vehicles application will bring about road Safety.
*Valuable time of an individual will be safe and use for other things tangle.
*Crashes associated with road driving will be reduction with the application of drive-less cars.
*Applicability of automated vehicles will increase values of travelling time

657
*Drive-less car adoption will reduce energy consumption and pollution for environment
sustainability.
* Automated vehicles use age will increase mobility and accessibility.
*Labor cost reduction

CONCLUSION:
The wide applicability of artificial intelligence has led to the invention of automated vehicles,
which offer numerous benefits to users. Adopting these vehicles ensures road safety, saves
valuable driver time, reduces crashes and emissions, and improves mobility and accessibility.
While Europe, America, and Asia have embraced automated vehicles, African countries, including
Nigeria, lag behind due to poor infrastructure, high costs, weak legal structures, limited awareness,
criminalization, and ethical concerns. Despite the challenges, Nigeria can leverage its abundant
resources to establish local automated vehicle manufacturing companies and promote domestic
and international usage. The untapped raw materials in Ajaokuta Steel and Iron Company and the
large market size in Nigeria attract both local and foreign investors. This projection can generate
revenue, employment, and environmental sustainability.

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