Instructional Manual for Residential, Commercial and Industrial Wiring

Chapter 1

Electrical Principles

Electrical principles are the fundamental concepts and laws that govern the behavior and
operation of electrical circuits and devices. Understanding these principles is essential for anyone
working with electricity, whether in engineering, electronics, or everyday applications.

A. Voltage
Voltage, also known as electric potential difference, is a measure of the electrical potential
energy per unit charge between two points in an electrical circuit. It represents the force that drives
electric charges (typically electrons) to move within a circuit. In simpler terms, it is the "pressure" or
"push" that causes electrons to flow.
Voltage is measured in volts (V), which is named after the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta,
who is credited with inventing the electric battery. One volt is defined as the electric potential difference
between two points when one joule of energy is transferred per coulomb of charge.

Analogous Concepts
Voltage can be analogously compared to various concepts in everyday life:
• Water Pressure
Voltage is similar to the pressure in a water pipe. Higher voltage corresponds to higher
pressure, which leads to a faster flow of electrons (current) through a conductor.
• Gravity
In an electrical circuit, electrons move from higher voltage (higher potential) to lower voltage
(lower potential), just as objects fall from higher elevations to lower elevations due to gravity.

Voltage Sources
In electrical circuits, there are typically two types of voltage sources
✓ Direct Current (DC) Voltage Source
o Provides a constant voltage with a fixed polarity. Batteries are common examples of DC
voltage sources.
✓ Alternating Current (AC) Voltage Source
o Provides a voltage that alternates in polarity and magnitude over time. AC power from
electrical outlets is an example of this.

By: Engr. Junry T. Monterola

Instructional Manual for Residential, Commercial and Industrial Wiring

B. Current
Electric current, denoted by the symbol "I," is one of the fundamental concepts in electrical
engineering and electronics. It is a crucial parameter that describes the flow of electric charge through
a conductor. Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor. It measures the
quantity of electric charge passing through a point in a circuit per unit of time. Electric charge is carried
by electrons in most conductors.
The standard unit for measuring electric current is the ampere, abbreviated as "A." One ampere
is defined as the flow of one coulomb of charge per second. Mathematically, it can be expressed as 1
A = 1 C/s (coulombs per second).
In electrical circuits, current is conventionally assumed to flow from the positive terminal of a
voltage source to the negative terminal. However, in reality, electrons, which are negatively charged,
flow in the opposite direction, from negative to positive. This convention was established before the
discovery of the electron.

Types of Current

✓ Direct Current (DC)

o In DC, the current flows in one direction, maintaining a constant polarity over time.
Batteries and most electronic devices use DC power.

✓ Alternating Current (AC)

o AC changes direction periodically, reversing polarity at regular intervals. It is the type of
current delivered to homes and businesses through power grids.
The flow of current in a conductor is similar to the flow of water through a pipe. Higher current
represents a greater quantity of charge passing through the conductor per unit of time.

Effects of Current
Electric current is responsible for several important effects, including
✓ Heating Effect
o When current flows through a resistor or conductor, it generates heat due to the
electrical resistance. This effect is used in devices like electric heaters and toasters.

✓ Magnetic Effect
o Current flowing through a conductor creates a magnetic field around it, a principle used
in electromagnets and electric motors.
✓ Chemical Effect

By: Engr. Junry T. Monterola

Instructional Manual for Residential, Commercial and Industrial Wiring

o In electrochemical cells, such as batteries, the flow of current involves chemical

reactions that produce electrical energy.

C. Resistance

Resistance is a fundamental electrical property that plays a crucial role in electrical circuits and
electronics. It is a measure of the opposition to the flow of electric current through a conductor.
Resistance, denoted by the symbol "R," is the property of a material or component that opposes the
flow of electric current. It is caused by collisions between electrons and atoms within the conductor,
which results in the conversion of electrical energy into heat.
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω), named after the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, who
formulated Ohm's Law. One ohm is defined as the resistance through which one ampere of current will
flow when one volt of voltage is applied.

Factors Affecting Resistance

✓ Material
o Different materials have different resistivities. Materials like copper and aluminum have
low resistivity and are excellent conductors, while materials like rubber and glass have
high resistivity and are insulators.

✓ Length
o Longer conductors have higher resistance because electrons have to travel through a
greater distance, experiencing more collisions with atoms

✓ Cross-Sectional Area
o A conductor with a larger cross-sectional area has lower resistance because there is more
space for electrons to flow, reducing the likelihood of collisions.

✓ Temperature
o Resistance generally increases with temperature. As temperature rises, atoms vibrate
more, increasing the likelihood of collisions with electrons. However, this relationship is
not linear for all materials

D. Power
Power is a fundamental concept in physics and engineering that quantifies the rate at which
energy is transferred or converted over time. In the context of electrical circuits and electronics, it
specifically refers to electrical power, which is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed,
produced, or transferred within a circuit or device.

By: Engr. Junry T. Monterola

Instructional Manual for Residential, Commercial and Industrial Wiring

Power, denoted by the symbol "P," is defined as the rate at which work is done or the rate at
which energy is transferred or transformed. In electrical systems, it represents the rate at which
electrical energy is either supplied or dissipated in the form of heat, light, mechanical work, or other
forms of energy.
The standard unit for measuring power in the International System of Units (SI) is the watt (W).
One watt is equivalent to one joule of energy transferred per second. Mathematically, it can be
expressed as 1 W = 1 J/s (joule per second).

Types of Power
✓ Active Power (Real Power)
• This is the actual power consumed or delivered by a circuit or device and is responsible for
performing useful work or producing heat or light. It is measured in watts (W).
✓ Reactive Power
• Reactive power is associated with the exchange of energy between the source and reactive
components (inductors and capacitors) in AC circuits. It is measured in volt-amperes
reactive (VAR).
✓ Apparent Power
• Apparent power is the vector sum of active power and reactive power. It is measured in
volt-amperes (VA)

E. Ohms Law
Ohm's Law is a fundamental principle in electrical engineering and physics that describes the
relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. It is named after the
German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, who formulated this law in the 1820s.
Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage (V)
and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance (R).
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
Where:
V represents voltage, measured in volts (V).
I represents current, measured in amperes (A).
R represents resistance, measured in ohms (Ω).

By: Engr. Junry T. Monterola

Instructional Manual for Residential, Commercial and Industrial Wiring

Example # 1
An alarm clock draws 0.5 A of current when connected to a 120 volt circuit. Calculate its resistance.
Given:
I = 0.5A
V = 120V

Required: R=?

Solution:

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
120
𝑅=
0.5
𝑹 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔

Example # 2

If a toaster produces 12 ohms of resistance in a 120-volt circuit, what is the amount of current in the
circuit?
Given:
R = 12 ohms
V = 120V

Required: I=?

Solution:
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
120
𝐼=
12
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨

By: Engr. Junry T. Monterola