4.1.4 Lettering. ALL text appearing on a technical drawing should be neat and legible. (see 1.2.4). Appropriate letter size should be chosen to ensure legibility before and after reproduction of the drawing. Preferred letter heights are 2.5, 3.5, 5 and 7 mm according to ISO 3098/1. The same standard recommends the use of capital block letter. These may be placed vertical, or inclined: 15° inclination to the right with respect to the vertical. NOTE: Care should be taken to avoid ambiguity between the symbols: B, 8, 5 and 3; D, 0, Q and 0; Cand Gs 6 and 9. 4.2 LINE CONVENTIONS To Amcrease the diversity of the graphic language, various line types and thicknesses have been given a meaning in the IS0 128. A few of the most important applications of line types are discussed in the following. ‘Thick continuous line. The thick continuous line is used to indicate all outlines and sharp corners of an object that appear unobscured to the observer. The margin of the drawing space, titleblock outlines, and all lettering appear in this linetype. Medium thick dashed line The medium thick dashed line is used to indicate all outlines and sharp corners of an object that are obscured to the observer by other parts of the object. ‘Thin chain Line The chain line is mostly used to draw centerlines. The centerline is used to indicate the center of circular features with an are length of more than 180°. Two perpendicular centerlines are drawn in the plane that shows the circular shape. These intersect at the center of the circle(segment) (see diagram 1.2.2(a)). A complication occurs when circular features themselves are arranged on a circle, occuring frequently on flanges. A thin chain line indicates the cirele (=pitch circle) on which these features appear. It acts as one centerline. A radial chain line acts as the other centerline (see diagram 5+1.10). No centerhine appears in the plane in which the circular shape cannot be ‘seen, unless the feature is cylindrical, e.g. holes, shafts, etc, then it indicates the axis of the feature. A centerline always ends in @ dash that extends beyond the boundary of the circular feature. Very thin continuous line Construction and drafting (help) lines appear as very thin continuous jines on the drawing sheet. If an ink drawing is made, these lines are ZZ eeeremoved. In pencil. render the drawing drawings, these 141 unclear. Table 4.2 gives a sui sections 1.2.1 and 1 mmary of all line +2.2 should be ob: Line types pe eee LINE TYPE INDICATION APPLICATION ines remain, but they should not types. served. The guide lines of Tick tine ———— Thin line ee hn ete ee '. Pictious outlines Visible outlines 2. Dimension lines 3. Leader lines, projectors 4, Hatching Lines 5. Outlines of adjacent parts 6. Outlines of revolved views and revolved sections + Limits of partial views and broken out sections === Medium dashed line —-—-— Tin chain Line 1, Hidden outlines ¥. Centrelines and pitch cirele 2, Extreme positions of movable parts 3. Parts situated in front of the cutting plane 4. Cutting planes of a section —"—"— Thick chain line 1, Indications of ( parts of ) surfaces that require extra or different treat~ Lo ———___ ment | Page 4.443 SCALING AND SPACING 4:3 SCALING AND SPACING Tenge dects in the mechanical engineering practice have impractical dimensions to be dravn to their actual size. They might be tee large, soe gates Planes, cranes, windnills, etc. or too small, e.g. Seavoncnts in watches, micrometers, etc. In such cases, all dimensions deevnetiPlied by 2 "scale factor’ before they are marked off on che drawing. A scale factor greater than 1 implies an enlarged drawing, smaller than 1 a reduced drawing. ee ae eee teenie) Cag thaatea Vor tha ecjeccasn (ee sees erre tarts canis to belehows1a/cattablaVehaet /sialis ancavcuaser som the available stock. A compromise is sought between efficient use Sime ctavine Sheet and the visibility of details, including the dimensions. sreenctle factor 1s indicated in the eitleblock as the ratio of the eatinnican spbsar ins in] thsl drains) eoltha ecusldiscasiisd fais aactors recommended by ISO 5455 are summarized in the tabie. seale ganeone scale may be used on one drawing sheet- The principal peackesepeats normal in the titlebiock. The deviating scales apeear bracketed in the titleblock, and are printed near the view(s) seen that different scale. seeerngtOoetne @ suitable scale and the views that will constitute the Bias aerate apace these | views|witll Gestpy Stincluding an aliagesee tere dimensioning, is determined. The views are spread balanced ovec eve drawing sheet, i.e. the unused spaces between the views shold be sees and, gotightly sualler than the mutually equal unused spaces between the drawing space boundary and the views. If more then seg select appears in a draving, the unused space between views of chese doangent objects equals the unused space between drawing spece Poundaries and the views. Spacing in vertical and horizestel direction is to be carried out independantly, Indication enlargement scales actual size reduction scales 1 1 1 1: 20 1:25) 1: 50 1: 100 1: 200 1 : 500 1: 1000 1 2000 15000 1 + 10000 Dror buttaing dravings ) for nechaoital enptscering dravings ) for ship naval seeeatas TLVIEW ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING: SINGLE OBJECTS 4.4.1 Choice of views.4.4.2 4.4.3 projection method. ‘Three views are generally sufficient to define the shape of an object completely, provided that hidden features appear. The standard choice of views for each projection method are: - first angle: plan, front and left-end elevation - third angie: plan, front and right-end elevation . The views are to be placed in their typical position as discussed in sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.1. Hence it is superfluous and consequently strongly dissuaded to print the names of the views in the drawing. The object is drawn in the position of its normal use. The most informative view is taken as the front elevation. In a number of cases, especially when dimensions in the drawing provide information about the shape, the number of views can be reduced to two, or sometimes to one. Such opportunities should be utilized. Auxiliary views. An object might have features that are not shown adequately in any of the three typical views due to their position or inclination. In such cases, an additional view is constructed, sometimes replacing one of the typical views. The theory of section 2.2.3 is to be used if the auxiliary view concerns an inclined face. The auxiliary view should preferably appear in its projected position on the drawing. It may be shifted parallel to its projected position. The view must be identified on the drawing by the subtitle: VIEW ‘identification letter’ printed horizontally. An arrow pointing perpendicular to the face shown in the auxiliary view indicates the direction of view. The identification letter also appears at the arrow. The auxiliary view is drawn as partial view, i.e. only the important details of the drawn features are to appear. Hidden or visible details are only included if they provide essential information that does not appear in any other view. Examples are shown in diagrams 2.2.3 and 5.2. Partially revolved views. A partially revolved view might be used advantageously if the representation of a detail of a particular feature would require a complete (auxiliary) view. Then the detail is drawn revolved in chain lines. This is common for round flanges, in which only the bolt holes and the pitch circle need to be shown. A striking example is shown in the diagran.4.4.4 Symmetrical objects. beds (a) It is permitted to show only one half of an object in a particular view, if the omitted part is identical to the dravn half. ‘The axis of symmetry is indicated by a thin chain line of which both last dashes of the centerline are intersected perpendicularly by the symbol =". This chain line boundary of the object indicates that half of the symmetrical object is omitted for simplicity, but should appear in the real product. (b) Only a quarter of an object with two axis of symmetry need to be shown. Both axis of symmetry are identified with the symbol '=". + o a b 5 Enlarged details Various objects in the engineering practice have details with small dimensions compared to their overall size e.g. sealing ring grooves in pistons, splines in shafts, etc. Such details connot be drawn in sufficient detail, without having to revert to exessively large drawing sheets. Tn such cases, only the small detail is drawn at a much larger scale at a convenient place in the drawing. Usually one or more of the boundaries of the detail do not coincide with an outline of the object and appear as thin wavy lines. ‘The subtitle: DETAIL ‘identification letter’ page 4.7followed by the scale in parentheses is printed horizontally. The enlarged detail is identified in one of the typical views by a circle or rectangle, drawn in a thin continuous line and the ‘identification letter’. detail A(5:1) Special simplifying practices. Slender objects. Slender objects are defined as objects of which one dimension is much larger than any other. Such objects are seldom drawn completely i.e. parts that do not have typical details are omitted. The extremities of the slender object must appear in the drawing. Thin wavy lines are drawn to indicate the fictitious cut in the object. No Lines appear between the cuts. Flat areas on curved surfaces. If an extra view needs to be drawn only to identify a flat section in a curved face of an object, it is permitted to indicate the flat by means of two thin line diagonals as shown in the diagram. This symbolic representation is utilized also for flat ends, regardless their position, of an otherwise round feature. ' - S — Ey " 1 Fillets in obtuse angles. It is highly impractical for cast and forged objects, from a production point of view, to have @ sharp intersection of two planes at an angle of less than 180°, Such corners are rounded. Acute and right angles with such roundings (fillets) will produce visible details in all views. page 4.8Obtuse filleted corners will not produce such details when viewed from | the side. | This gives an ambiguous image of the object in that view. To overcome this, a thin continuous line, just not touching the outline of the feature, is drawn at the fictitious intersection of the | two planes. (a) Repeated features If a particular feature of an object is repeated e.g. holes of uniform diameter on a uniform linear or circular pitch, it is sufficient to draw one feature, and show only the centerlines of the others. (e) Blind holes. A blind hole is understood to be a hole with a bottom, i.e. it is not drilled through. Production considerations permit usually for the hole to have the shape of the drill, which is cylindrical with a conical tip. The cone vertex angle is 120°. To avoid ambiguity with the rare case that a flat bottomed hole is needed, this drill shape is to be shown in the drawing of the blind hole. (£) Knurled surface. Parts of an object that need to be handled manually by an operator are often provided with a regular pattern of indentations: a knurled | surface. Such knurling ensures sufficent grip. The pattern may consist of parallel or diamond shaped indentations. The knurled surface with page 4.9 —————— eeits pattern needs to be in dicated on the draving in the manner shown in the diagram. 4.501 In the mechanical engineer: holes of more or hidden detail in dashed lines. 4.5.2 SECTIONING definitions. Purpose of sections» cts have cavities and show these, except 35 y the necessary ing practice, many obje ex shape. No view can ‘This may not conve hidgenacion about these features. In such cases, On object is thought infothrough the hidden feature. The obscuring PTT is thought to be Seer eed ai tia) eoeaindo is) shorn igs = C2etl ates sectional view ot Section, The remaining views may appear normally, or are shown as @ section too. A sectiona: lace a typical view. The plane performing the fictitious cut is called the section plane. It is Prependicular to at least one of tne projection planes, in which it Peth appear asa line, the section line Less comp: Section identification. ne result of an imaginary A sectioned view of an object is t A weetcation of the drava object. Hence s section should not be Monfused with a normal view of the objett- The position of the cutting plane must pe define [dentification consists of two components? cathe section plane must be indicated unambiguously by t The gectitne, This section line is a thin chai9 Line Gash is thickened at the extrem Gt any point where it suddenly chang oven identification letter ‘ident.’ wt tyiew towards each thickened extremities Gine. The identification letters must be identical at arrows of a section. — The subtitle: .d also. The section ne A ities of the sectionline and es direction. An arrow ‘points in the direction of the section both SECTION 'ident." - ‘ident.’ is printed horizontally-4504 4.5.5 Section representation: hatching. A sectional view is subject to the same drawing conventions as an ordinary view. Two principal differences exist however. Hidden Getalls are generally omitted, and all areas where the cutting plane touched matter of the object are hatched (see 1.2.2(c)). Sone objects are not sectioned lengthwise, even if a section plane of an assembly passes through them: the section plane is thought to pass along their surface. Hence, the following objects are not hatched, but drawn as a view: '~ slender solid objects: shafts, pins, keys, spokes, etc. ~ standardized fasteners: bolts, screws, nuts, etc. = supporting ribs or webs. = solid spherical objects. Planar section plane. The planar section plane passes through the center of the cavity of interest. The obtained section usually replaces one of the views of the object. Such sections are colloquially referred to as: sectional front elevation, sectional plan, sectional end elevation. An inclined section plane yields a sectional auxiliary view. Contiguous section planes. Contiguous section planes are used to obtain a section through inclined cavities or features not in one plane. When construction the sectional view, the section planes are thought to be revolved into one plane. The resulting image is then drawn. The fictituous revolution of the planes should be as small as possible, and not exceed 45x. The dash at the bend of the intersection line must be thickened to enhance the visibility of the chain line. page 4-114.5.6 SECTION A—A off-set section plane. The off-set section plane may be used when neither @ planar sections see Contiguous planes yield the desired result. An off-set section plane consists of two parallel section planes, connected by section Plane parallel to the direction of view, This part of the section Plane is invisible in the resulting section provided thar it 1° placed Pian’ suitable position. Any nunber of off-sets is permitted. The dash at the bends of the intersection line must be thickened. at the eection, the points at an invisible segment of the section tine 1s “Identified by a thin chain line. The hatching on either side of this chain line should differ half a pitch. Hence, also the section Shows that it 1s produced by an off-set section plane. page 4.124.5.7 Half section. The half section is a special case of a section obtained by an off-set section plane. Here, part of the section plane lies outside the object. This produces a normal view of that part of the object. Hidden details are commonly included in this normal view. fs’ with the off-set section plane, the location of the invisible segment of the section line 1s identified by a chain line. This chain line must appear between the sectioned and unsectioned part of the object. ‘The the NOTE: 4.5.8 In Section line 1s to appear completely on the drawing, including segment outside the object. se) SSS r SECTION A—A the reference ‘half section’ for this type of section originates from the fact that it {s applied almost exclusively to symmetrical objects. A half section however is not restricted to synmetrical objects, and the off-set may be positioned at any convenient spot. Removed section. some cases a sectional view cannot be placed in its projected position, because this place is already occupied by a view or another section. It is then permitted to use one of the alternative positioning practices (a) the sections are shifted parallel to themselves, and appear in adjacent positions. (b) the sectional views are placed at the elongation of their section lines. page 4.13GECTION SECTION SECTION SECTION c-C jssumed to end at an holes in the objects dn the view of interest Section identification 1s SECTION ANA SECTION SECTION 8 e-c to show a cross-section revolved igre otved|eeceion Stoel ieen eetcca any Setail. It is drawn completely #n thin Lines. Section _NYB QZ A local, or broken-out section 35 gptained by a section plane that 1% undefined spot+ seems section is utilized to show Smatl cavities in object, that sata not be sectioned further °/6; Listed in 4.5.3» ete £2 i pounded by a thin continuous, Wavy Line Thar should not coincide with Oy Line already omitted. amenall cavity in a solid blocks The local section is drawn present in that view: page 4.144.6 MULTIVIEW ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING: ASSEMBLED OBJECT Not only single objects appear on technical drawings. Presentation of the manner in which parts have to be combined to yield implements, or components thereof, is as important. Hence the need for drawings of assembled objects: assembly drawings. The set of previously discussed standards and practices also apply to assenbly drawings. 180 6433 expands these to cope with typical features of assembly drawings. Titleblock. ‘An assembled object consists of several parts. These parts need to be identified, and a reference should be present as to where the single object drawing can be found, how many parts are needed for one assembly ete. The titleblock is expanded by a parts list on top of it to contain the following informaton: = Part number: this identification number is present in the assenbly and the parts drawing. The principal, when in doubt: the largest, part receives the lowest number. Standardized parts have highest numbers. - Quantity : the required nunber of the particular part to page 4.154.6.2 complete one assembled object. - Part name : this references to the purpose or nature of a part. The parts drawing has the same name. - Material : the material specification of each part that enables the purchase of the bulk material straight from the drawings. = Notes + special treatment of the part, reference to relevant standards that provide additional information about the part, reference to the drawing of the part, etc, appears here. The numbering of parts in the titleblock is from the bottom upwards. This allows for expansion after modifications. The partslist should not contain empty lines. An example of the complete titleblock as used in the School of Engineering of the University of Zambia is shown in diagram 4.1.3. ‘The assembly drawing. An assembly drawing is the drawing of an assembled object. The assembled object is drawn in the position that shows the features of the assembly best i.e. the reflection of how the component objects are combined to obtain the assembled object is the decisive factor. Hidden details are not shown in an assembly drawing, hence a sectional view is usually drawn. Hatching practices of 1.2.2(c) and 4.5.3 are to be observed. Generally, one view or section is sufficient to show the essentials of the assembly. Then the section identification (see 4.5.2) is omitted. All component objects are given a part number according to the guidelines of 4.6.1. Identical parts carry the same number. The 5 - 7 mm high part number is inscribed in thick lines in a circle. The part numbers are to be arrranged in straight rows and columns around the assembly. Any number of rows and columns is permitted, provided that only one row or column appears along each side. A leader is drawn between the part number and the associated part. The leaders should not intersect each other, and should intersect as little as possible other lines. Occasionally, it is required to show extreme positions of a moveable part of the assembly. Then one extreme position is drawn normally, at the other position only the outline appears in double dashed thin chain lines. The locus of important points may appear in chain lines. Adjacent parts to the assembly may appear optionally in double dashed thin chain line. In numerous cases, the assenbled object can be combined with other (assenbled) objects to a larger installation. The drawings of the constituting assembled objects are called 'sub-assenblies'. The drawing of a gearbox (assembled from gears, shafts, support structure, etc.) can be considered as a sub-assembly of the propulsion system of a vehicle. An assembled object that is purposedly constructed to fit in a number of different larger structures should not be considered as a sub-assembly. A ball bearing (an assembly of two rings, a number of balle and a seperator) is a typical example of such an assembly. These general purpose assembled objects are treated often as a single object. This 1s because they are conmonly purchased from external sources. The differentiation between the two categories is also of importance when a identification system of drawings is established. Coding of subassemblies should reflect the relation with the drawing(s) of the larger assembly. Drawing standards and practices equally apply to both types of assemblies. page 4.16dv [em exseq] bv aves] nounacon SON ae4.6.3 The parts drawing. Bach part drawing is a single object drawing, completely subject to the theory of 4.4 and 4.5. Standerdized objects never appear in a part drawing. The size indication and referance to the relevant standard in the titleblock defines it completely. I£ a part and its mirror image appear in one assembly, it is sufficient to draw only one of these objects. The other is given the next part number. The parts list contains a unambiguous reference to this special relationship between the two parts. Combination drawing versus mono drawing. Combination drawing: This implies that assembly, parts drawings and parts list appear together on the preferably single sheet. This requires the solution of a comparatively complicated layout and scaling problem. The assembly drawing is to appear in the upper left hand corner of the sheet. The principal part appears in the center of the sheet, and the remaining part drawings are spaced conveniently on the sheet. Filing of the drawing is simple. ‘The use of the large sheet combination drawing is not easy in a workshop. The information about other components may increase the understanding of the artisan of the future produce but the unused information might also distract him from its own part. Mono drawing. ‘This implies that assembly, parts drawing and sometimes even the parts list appear on seperate small sheets i.e. all single object drawings. It requires a good identification of each drawing to keep all information about the assembly accessible. Layout and scaling problems only affect the single object drawings. Use of the small sheets in the workshop is easy, and each artisan only carries the information he needs. A general understanding of the nature of the assembly is generally not achieved. Construction drawings. A construction drawing provides all information about the assenbled object and the constituing parts in the assembly drawing only i.e. no parts drawings are needed. This type of drawing is particularly suitable for assembled objects with relatively simply shaped and standardized objects as constituting parts e.g. trusses and steel structures consisting of standardized beams and channels, rivets, bolts, welds, ete. Construction details are often shown enlarged on the sheet (see 4.4.5). Many features are represented schematically on the drawing to avold a confusing amount of detail. These features and their symbolized representation are discussed in 4.7. page 4.1847d REPRESENTATION OF STANDARDIZED FEATURES AND PARTS the shape and size of a large number of mechanical engineering components are defined in detail by international or national Standards. This enables specialized companies to manufacture such components cheaply in bulk, whilst ensuring mutual compatability with hatching components. These standardized parts are commonly purchased externally. Hence, there is no need to show each and every detail of these objects in the drawing. Standard simplified and symbolic representations have been adopted (inter)nationally. Standardized components do not normally appear in parts drawings. A usually standardized reference in the titleblock adequately defines the ‘component Screwthread. Interlocking helical profiles on two cylindrical surfaces is named screwthread. ‘The engaged screwthread induces relative axial motion when the two cylinders revolve. The major purpose of screwthread is to either transform rotational motion into linear motion (lead screws), or to convert a torque to a relatively large axial force (fasteners). Various profiles are internationally standardized. These will be discussed in 5.4.1. Some definitions before proceeding the discussion: = major diameter largest diameter of the thread profile = minor diameter: smallest diameter of the thread = pitch t axial distance moved by a point following the serewthread during one revolution = full depth thread : part of the thread that is identical to the standards ~ thread runout ends of the thread, where the profile does not match the standard profile to facilitate productidn Screwthread situated on the convex side of the cylindrical surface : screwthread situated on the concave side of the cylindrical surface = external thread = internal thread A EXTERNAL © INTERNAL The representation of features provided with screw thread is standardized in ISO 6410 and shown in the diagram. Note that the thread is drawn to scale, hence the distance between the major and page 4.19minor dianeters should appear to scale. Line conventions and symbolic representation of screwthread are summerized: = Major diameter of external thread, minor diameter of internal thread and extremeties of full depth thread are drawn in thick continuous lines. All lines of a hidden threaded feature are drawn in medium thick dashed lines. Minor diameter of external thread and major diameter of internal thread appear in thin continuous lines. In the plan, only 0.75 of the circle appears to accentuate the special nature of screwthread. EXTERNAL INTERNAL ‘Thread runout is indicated on the drawing. Two common runout shapes, standardized in ISO 3508 and 180 4755, for the transition thread~ object are shown in the diagram: the tapered and the necked runout. The free end runout is usually a 30° chamfer, or a sphere with radius 1.4 x major diameter. ISO 4753 shows all standardized ends of threaded features. In a sectioned assembly drawing it is assumed that the external thread covers the internal thread. Hence, the external thread line conventions are to be used in places where both external and internal thread are present.i | | | 4.762 @ () Standardized fasteners. Standardized fasteners e.g. bolts, screws, nuts, washers, clips, pins, etc. appear to scale in asseubly drawings. Shape and dimensions are taken from the relevant standards. They are not hatched if appearing lengthwise in the section plane. Hexagon bolts and nuts. Hexagon bolts and nuts are among the most common fasteners in use in the mechanical engineering practice. The shape of the bolthead and nut is to appear to scale in the drawing with three faces showing. A simplified construction method is shown in the diagram. a=1;5D r=15D m=0,8D ‘The regular hexagonal shape of the head is chamfered on one side for the bolthead and both sides of the nut. The chamfer is a cone with vertex angle of 120°. The round lines appearing are essentially parts of the intersection line of this cone with the hexagon. Symbolic representation A symbolic representation of fasteners is permitted if the fastener appears too small to be drawn to scale. This is commonly the case for construction drawings, design drawings and assenbly drawings of large objects. The symbols are defined in ISO 5261 and shown in the table. page 4.21INDICATION, VIEW ‘SECTION Bolt (general) = Bolt to differentiate from a rivet Bolt with indicated location for the nut c = nut) (socket at the back) (socket at the front)} Rivet (general) Se |S | |S |p Rivet (countersink on the back) = Rivet (countersink on the front) Rivet (countersink on both sides) == 4.7.3. Fusion welded connections. Various components, especially sheet metal steel structures, may be rigidly joined by melting them together: welded joint. Non ferrous metals may be joined likewise: brazed connection. A discussion as to which type or shape of weld is to be used is beyond the scope of this text. Let it be sufficient to state that various types of welds can be produced. page 4.22(a) | () () 474 5 (a) The shape of the weld need not appear in the drawing. A leader, pointing towards the exact position of the connection, and provided with the appropriate symbol is placed on the drawing. The transverse Section is often schematically shown. The diagram shows the symbols that define the basic shape of the weld in accordance with 180 2553 and 28008. Additional symbols defining the exposed weld surface shape are shown. The diagram shows examples of indication of the most common welds. The position of the welding symbol depends on the type of projection used and the relative position to the leader. Standardized profile sections. Beams with standardized cross-sections often appear in steel constructions. Only the length varies with the construction. Such beams are commonly referred to as standardized profile sections and bars. They need not be drawn in detail. Adequate definition is provided by a synbol and the centroidal line, or (scale permitting) the principal outlines. Springs. Springs are mostly produced in bulk by specialized companies and purchased by the other engineering works. Hence, there is no need for a detailed representation of springs in a drawing. However, the exact shape of springs is not standerdized, and sufficient details must be present to avoid anbiguity. ISO 2162 provides details of springs: two are discussed. Springs are to appear in the parts drawings. Helical compression springs. ‘The shape of a helical compression spring and its simplified symbolic representation is shown in the diagram. The first and last two coils are drawn, Thin chain lines represent the remainder of the spring. This representation, consisting of the approximate location of the wire center only, is not to be used in the parts drawings. ‘The orientation of the helix is defined by: "WOUND LEFT (or RIGHT) HAND" The shape of the extremities of the spring is defined by: "ENDS FLATTENED AND GROUND! Both Lines are inserted as subscript to the parts drawing. The wire shape of the schematic spring is defined by a leader and a symbol: 8 for circular, and for square cross section. Helical tension springs. The representation of helical tension springs is similar to helical compression springs. The principal differences are the mounting eyes47.6 4767 of the tension spring and the fact that the coils of an unloaded tension spring touch each other. The orientation of the helix is defined by: "WOUND LEFT (or RIGHT) HAND' ‘The relative orientation of the mountings is defined by: ‘eyes L' or EYES //* Both lines are inserted as subscript to parts drawing. Gears. The representation of the toothed portion of gears provide a problem that is similar to the threaded features, i.e. fine detail on comparatively big objects. Additional compliations arise since the shape of the teeth is subject to very high accuracy to ensure good functioning. Only the toothed surface is shown symbolically, the remainder of the gear is drawn in compliance with 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6. The shape of most gear tooth is part of an involute (see 3.4.4). The diagran shows the symbolic representation of a toothed surface of Iso 2203. The circle bounding the tips of the teeth appears in a thick continuous line. The effective diameter, pitch diameter, is indicated by a thin chain line, slightly extending beyond the outline of the gear. In the rare case where the root surface of the teeth needs to appear in the drawing, this is to be done by a thin continuous line. A gear tooth is not hatched when sectioned lengthwise. A schematic indication of gears that is used solely in drawings explaining the principle of a particular gearing configuration, conformably to ISO 3952/2 is also shown in the diagram. Rolling bearings. Rolling bearings belong to the group of mechanical engineering components that are not truly standardized. Since these are produced in bulk by a few specialized companies a practical standardization is effectuated. Hence there is no need to draw all details of rolling bearings. A rolling bearing is particularly suitable for supporting two components that rotate with respect to each other e.g. shaft mountings. A rolling bearing usually consists of two rings that are seperated by rolling elements e.g. balls (ball bearings) or cylinders (roller and needle bearings), etc. The bearing is usually shown in section, showing the hatched ring cross sections and the unhatched rolling element. A symbolized representation is permitted if the above method yields an unclear drawing. The symbol is a rectangle in thick line, drawn to scale to the overall dimension of the cross section, with diagonals drawn in thin continuous lines. The symbol replaces the sections. page 4.24‘SIMPLIFIED DRAWING4.7.8 4.8 4.8.1 Keys, keyways, splines. Keys and splines are conmon components for locating a wheel on a shaft. The principal function is to prevent rotation of the wheel relative to the shaft. The principle of operation is essentially to provide a non-circular feature to shaft or hub to prevent rotation by pressure forces instead of friction forces. In the latter case, motion may occur without failure of a component. Secondly, friction forces require large clamping forces (pressures between hub and shaft) and are less predictable. A small oil drop may destroy the friction force completely. Keys. Keys are rectangular or round hardened pins. They do require a groove as extra provision on either shaft or wheel hub: the keyway. The Keyway provides the space for accomodation of the key. Key and keyway f1t accurately. Keys and keyways are not truly internationally standardized. However, it is advised to consult a standard e.g. BS 4235, to facilitate use of (cheaper) keys produced in bulk. 4 key, when sectioned lengthwise in an assembly, is not hatched. A reference to the above standard eliminates the need for the parts drawing. 2 Splines. A spline is an accurate tooth profile on the shaft surface and a closely matching profile on the hub inner surface. Tooth shapes are simflar to gear teeth and locally standardized. If axial motion is to be permitted, a spline is recommended, regardless its higher manufacturing cost. A spline in a view is drawn normally. When sectioned lengthwise, the teeth are not hatched. The repetitive feature of the spline in cross section or end elevation permits that only two or three teeth are drawn, the remainder is indicated according to 4.7.6. SINGLE VIEW ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING Application. Single view orthographic drawing is commonly used in technical illustrations. Neither of the methods discussed in 2.1 is preferred above others from the onset. The choice of projection is dependant on the amount of time to be invested and the expected result of the drawing. Each of the methods will be briefly discussed. Cavalier (2.1.5) and to a lesser extent Cabinet projection (2.1.6) are simple to prepare. The image of the object is distorted, especially if large lengths appear on the inclined axis. To minimise this effect, the smallest dimension 1s to be marked off along the inclined axis, and objects with roughly similar dimensions in all three axis directions should not be drawn in this projection. Isometric (2.1.3) and dimetric projection (2.1.2) are the most common method chosen for technical illustrations. Isometric projection page 4.264.8.2 4.8.3 distorts the image slightly especially with objects that have roughly equal dimensions in all three axis directions: e.g. Lines appear to be in each others elongation, corners coinciding, etc. Dimetric Projection is slightly more laborious, but it yields a less distorted image. Trimetric projection (2.1.4) yields the superior results, since axis are chosen for optinal representation of the object. The method is the most laborious of the ones outlined in the book. sew iste Obsects, as appearing in architectural and civil engineering drawing, require usually perspective projection drawings. These methods are not discussed here, but may be found in ref.2. Seale. 4 single view orthographic projection is preferably drawn to scale if it appears in conjunction with a multiview orthographic drawing. Technical illustrations usually appear in isolation. The object appears at any convenient size but the proportionality between the scalefactors of each axis is maintained. Cutaway drawing. ‘The cutaway drawing is the pendant in pictorial drawing of the section in multiview orthographic projection. It yields a good reflection of fhe inner features of the drawn object. Of cylindrical objects or features, a quarter or a half is removed along the centerline. fection identification (4.5.2) is omitted, hatching practices (1.2.2, 4.5.3 and 4.6.2) are followed. Exploded view. The pictorial representation of assemblies tend to get very Spueiicated and obscure in view or cutaway. This may be avoided by displacing some or all of the constituting parts along their Centerlines. The parts appear in their proper position well clear of the other components. The appearance of the drawing gives the nane of Enis type of view. Centerlines should extend between the major parte of the assembly. This constitutes a visual link between the displaced Parts. Returning the parts along their centerlines assists in visualising the assembly. An exploded view is an excellent expedient to transfer information about the assembly sequence of the dravn object. Hence, it appears often in maintenance manuals.5 Et (a) () a CHAPTER 5: DIMENSIONING STANDARDS AND PRACTICES Although all multiview orthographic drawings are drawn to scale, it is always necessary to give the dimensions of the dravn object also in the drawing. The reasons for these are: = to facilitate production: it is not permitted for the artisan to measure any dimension from the drawing. It also avotds the calculation of the true dimensions of the object from a scaled drawing. ~ to inerease the accuracy: a drawing is seldom more accurate than approximately 0.5 mm, which 1s not accurate enough. This will be discussed in greater detail in chapter 6. Also the scales of the graduated rulers may differ significantly. = to indicate important dimensions for functioning or manufacture. From the above, the objectives of good dimensioning as given in the international standard 1S0/R129 may be derived. = all dimensions to determine the actual size and shape of the object should appear on the drawing. = the dimensions should be presented such that the artisan can interpret them with a minimum of effort and chance of mistakes. = dimensions that do not add any new information about the object should not appear on the drawing to avoid the possibility of errors. International standards and generally accepted practices have been developed to obtain universal uniformity in the dimensioning of technical drawings. The text of this chapter is based on the standards of the International Standards Organisation (180) and practices as developed in Western Germany (DIN). DIMENSIONING Dimension lines and projectors. Projectors are thin continuous lines indicating the feature of the object to which a particular dimension refers. There should be no gap between the projector and the object. The dimensionline is to indicate the dimension. It is a thin continuous line placed between two projectors, leaving a small portion of the projector extending beyond the dimension line. An arrowhead is placed at both ends of the dimensionline. The arrowheads are drawn thick. An arrowhead is an isoceless triangle with a length/width ratio of 3. The ISO standard IS0/R 129 permits both solid and open ended arrowheads. page 5.1DIMENSION LINE ARROW HEAD PROJECTOR tht 5.1.2 Placing of dimensionlines, The principal ob. the accuracy of the drawing in a should be (a) ‘oned in the view which shows that fon of measurement. The () Tt ts permitted to draw parallel projectors oblique to the dimensionline only if this improves the clarity of the drawing. Page 5.2a ‘A dimensionline is wrongly placed if: ~ it coincides totally or partly with, or is placed in the elongation of a line indicating a visible or hidden detail or a centerline. - it intersects another dimensionline. = it intersects a projector of another dimensionline at right or nearly right angles. It is not recommended to place a dimensionline in a hatched area. Neither is it recommended to dimension a hidden detail in a particular view. Another view or section in which the feature is visible should be used or drawn. —| WRONG !! F===tt NOTE: Examine in the diagram 5.1.2.(c) that all but one dimensionline are placed faulty. Use 5.1.2(a) for reference. Inscription of dimensions. ‘The unit in which the dimensions are given in engineering drawing is the millimetre (mm). This unit does not appear with the dimension number. The unit of measurement is indicated with the sentence: "ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM" which is inserted just above the titleblock (see diagram 7.1.7). ‘The number indicating the dimension is placed above the middle of the page 5.3dimensionline. This dimension nunber should not be intersected by any line on the drawing. 50 If @ dimensionline has to be placed in a hatched area, the hatching must be interrupted near the dimension number to show it clearly. WIN (c) If a dimensionline is not horizontal, the dimension number should be inscribed such that it {s legible from the lower or the right hand boundary of the drawing space. 5.1.4 Too little room. If lack of space renders the applications of the rules of 5.1.2 and 5.1.3 unattractive the following alternatives are permissible: ~ if there is not enough space to draw the arrowheads of the dimensionline inbetween the projectors, both arrowheads should be placed outside, pointing inwards. if there is not enough space to fit the dimension number inbetween the projectors, this number can be placed above the elongation of the dimensionline to the right of both projectors. ~ if there is no space to draw two meeting arrowheads, these page 5.4{ | \ | nay be symbolized with a clearly visible dot. Staggering dimensions. To avoid the superimposing of dimension numbers with symmetrical features, or having to follow long dimensionlines to determine the feature to which the dimension refers, it is permitted to place the dimension number nearer to one of the ends of the dimensionline. With symmetrical objects the dimensionline needs to be shown only half (observe the difference with 5.1.6). Staggering of dimensions should only be used if the clarity of the drawing increases. eee bby je_B30 oe | + = — — | Symmetrical objects. ‘The 180-128 standard permits that symmetrical objects are drawn only half. In these cases the dimensionlines that cross the axis of symmetry are shortened to slightly beyond that axis. Only the arrowhead on the object side of the dimensionline is drawn. The dimension number is inscribed past the axis of symmetry.Sele (a) &) 8 2 Angles The angle between two planes of an object is indicated by a circular dimensionline, having its center at the intersection of the planes. ‘The dimension number is placed according to 5.1.3(e) or the dimension number is placed horizontally next to the middle of the dimensionline. The unit of measurement (usually degrees) must be indicated after the dimension number. Square features. If the shape of the square feature appears in one of the views of the drawing, the square feature should be dimensioned there following 5.1.2 to 5.1.4, Only if the shape of the square feature does not appear in any of the views, the symbol 0 should appear before the dimension number. jx 20_,| 16 T ss} 9 a ieee te —<<— afl 40 : fe—_bO__,| In the engineering practice a cylindrical object is often equipped with a square end to provide grip for a lever, handle or spanner. Two faces of the square end usually appear in the drawing. To eliminate the necessity of drawing an extra view the following symbolized dimensioning method may be used: the dimension number is placed on a leader, preceded by the symbol A/F (= square across flats). The dimension number should refer to this across flats dimension. 7 )- AIF Z page 5.75.1.10 Round features. (a) Circular segments greater than or equal to 180°. In a view in which the shape of the circular segment can be seen, the diameter of the circle is according to 5.1.2 to 5.1.4, If a complete circle is to be dimensioned in a view which does not Show its shape, its dimension number must be preceded by the symbol 9. 4 pitch circle 1s only dimensioned in the view showing its shape. The dimension number must be preceded by the symbol P.C.D. (= Pitch Girele Diameter) to identity the special character of this feature. 25 | | a 22, | Ped 50 ————__*® ___,, | _ eee = ee | 20 «——2 __| (b) Circular arcs smaller than 180°. } Circular arcs smaller than 180° are only dimensioned in the view that shows the shape. A leader is drawn from the center of the circle. Its only arrowhead 1s placed at the meeting point with the arc. The symbol R (= Radius). { @imension number is placed above the leader or its elongation according to 5.1.3 and 5.1.4. The dimension number is preceded by the page 5.8(e) (a) (e) If the center of the are is inconveniently far away, a 'broken' leader may be used. The end of the leader that touches the arc must be drawn towards the actual center of the arc. The center must be indicated by a clear dot, and its position should be adequately dimensioned. we y 1 Led 4 v\A\ Spheres. . Spheres or spherical segments are dimensioned likewise to circles. The symbol preceding the dimension number is either, 'SPHERE 9" or "SPHERE R’. ee ae oy SPHERE 435 Chords, arcs and angles. IE the length of a circular feature is of importance, its dimension can be defined by dimensioning its chord, arc or angle of the feature. CHORD ARC ANGLE Non recommended methods. In engineering drawing practice, many other methods for dimensioning circular features exist. Their use however is not universally adopted and should preferably be avoided.5.1.11 Blind holes. ‘The depth of a blind hole is defined as the length of the constituting cylinder. The conical drill runout is ignored. Hence the depth of the blind hole is indicated according to 5.1.2, 5.1.3 and 5.1.4 as the length of the cylinder with the hole diameter as shown. 5.1.12 Chamfers. In mechanical engineering drawing practice, a sharp right angle is often bevelled by a sloping plane. Such a feature is called a chamfer. A chamfer removes sharp edges and reduces the chances of injury to users of the object. Alternatively a chamfer may be provided to facilitate assembly of close fitting components. (a) Chamfers of parts that are not machined (e.g forgings, etc.) are dimensioned by giving the over the right angle. (b) Machined chamfers and chamfers on round parts by giving one linear dimension over the right inclination of the sloping plane. (c) Chamfers with a slope angle of 45° are mostly the compound method shown in the diagram. fo. 5.1.13 Wedge shaped features. castings, Linear dimensions are dimensioned angle and the dimensioned in s0xus” Wedge shaped features are features with a non-circular cross-section, where one (or more) faces are not at right angles to ‘The slope of the inclined plane is generally small. the other sides. To indicate the exact taper of the feature, it is sufficient to give: = the length of the tapered feature, =a height at a well defined spot in the tapered feature, = the slope angle or another height at a defined spot in page 5.105.1.14 = a height at a well defined spot in the tapered feature, ~ the slope angle or another height at a defined spot in the tapered feature. Generally, it is recommended to give the height at the beginning of the taper and the length. Only if the height of the wedge at some intermediate point is subject to narrow dimensional constraints, the height should be given at that point. The slope angle is preferred above a second height, since it is easier to measure. However, the slope angles are generally small and the required accuracy is difficult to indicate and controlled. Hence it is recomended to give the tangent of the slope angle: height, wedge end length, wedge as the taper ratio I : x. Since the taper ratio is not an actual dimension, it is placed above the tapered feature, preceded by the symbol (X , with a leader Pointing to the surface. The wedge aymbol should slope in the same direction as the dimensioned taper. y 7 15. 20 50. — GooD BETTER 50 ry uJ RECOMMENDED Conical features. Conical features of an object have a circular cross-section with uniform decreasing diameter in axial direction. Following @ sinilar reasoning as in 5.1.13, the conicity of the feature can be defined as page 5.11‘cone begin length og The conicity is given as a ratio 1: x, The conicity 1 not an actual dimension; it is placed above the Sloping surface, preceded by the symbol , with a leader pointing fo the surface. The conicity symbol should slope in the same direction as the dimensioned cone. ecu ef g HeosP D=MAIOR DIAMETER a “S|: TRAPEZOIDAL ANIS_OF ScREW OR NUT (c) Blind holes ‘The dimensioning of blind holes require an additional dimension with respect to normal threaded features: the depth of the blind hole page 5.24"LH'as shown in the diagram 5.4.1.¢(1). Lf coarse metric thread is used in the hole, the abbreviated method of 5.4.1.¢(2) is permitted. pT XL Xba (2) 5.4.2 Fasteners. Standardized fasteners only appear in assenbly drawings. These are to be completely defined in the titleblock since these do not appear as single part drawing. This implies that not only the type of fastener but also its relevant dimensions are to appear in the title block. The standards defining the particular feature usually give the standard format for parts identification in the title block. For threaded fasteners this identification contains thread profile identification, major diameter, shank length, material grade and standard reference. Consult the relevant standards for the required format of other fasteners e.g. pins, rivets, keys, clips, etc. The table shows some examples of the indication of standard parts.10 [WASHER FOR Md CASTLE NUT Md HEXAGON SLOTTED NUT Md HEXAGON NUT Ma SCREWED STUD Md x 1 HEXAGON SOCKET SET SCREW Md x 1 SREW Md x 1|CONSTR.ST. |Is0 2009 SLOTTED COUNTERSUNK FLAT HEAD SLOTTED PAN HEAD SCREW Md x 1 HEXAGON SOCKET HEAD CAP SCREW 1 | HEXAGON BOLT Md x 1 NAME constr. st. [Iso 1234 CONSTR.ST. |TS0 2339 MACHINE ST|ISO 2341 costa. st. [150 2338 MACHINE MACHINE |uacurne MACHINE CONSTR. ST. MACHINE ST BRONZE [BS 4320 lconsTR.ST. |BS 3692 constR.ST. |Bs 3692 | \CONSTR.ST. |BS 3692 lMACHINE sT|BS 4493 constR.sT. |Is0 4026 constR.st. |1S0/R 158 BRASS MACHINE ST MATERIAL ‘The symbols D,d,1 and t refer to the standards. Example: For @ hexagon bolt the indication in the partslist is: HEXAGON BOLT MIO x 50 ‘The choice of materials is only to give an example, other materials may be used. page 5.26Shs @ (b) (c) 3 Fusion welded connections. General. Paragraph 4.7.3 showed how the shape and type of the weld are to be indicated with a leader. Dimensioning of the weld also uses this leader. 180 2553 recommends that dimensions 'a' relating to the cross sectional dimension of the weld are placed at the arrow end of the leader, longitudinal dimensions on the other side of the symbol. ah ant aye a apa ma co} WELD ON WELD ON WELD OW BOTH SIDE ARROW OTHER SIDE SIDES 13 INDIEATING Buct welds. A butt weld is assumed to extend over the full depth of the welded plates (full penetration). No dimensions for the cross sectional dimension need to be supplied with the symbol. In the exceptional case of incomplete penetration welds, the penetration depth ‘a’ is to be Indicated. A butt weld should always extend over the full plate width: no longitudinal dimension needs to be provided. standard angle —7 Wwe ot Fillet welds. The cross sectional dimension of a fillet weld 'a' is the leglength of the largest isosceles triangle that can be inscribed in the fillet. The welding symbol is followed by the length 'l' of the fillet weld if this deviates from the plate width length. If a number 'n' fillet welds of constant length 'l' is to be repeated at fixed intervals 'e', the welding symbol is followed by the expression 'n x 1 (e)' as shown in the diagram. Intermittant welds at both sides of the plate are usually staggered i.e. the weld on one side coincides with the gap at the other. This is defined adequately with the symbolized representation shown. SIO 3|Z20- ) “tT WELD 20 SIuAr Ons REPRESENTATION” page 5.27intermittant staggered (a) Spot welds. The cross sectional dimension of a spot weld is the diameter of the / ort "a. the Umqgitolieal diode oF & upot walged Sent ie the i number of spots 'n' and the interval length 'e' (center to center of ! the spots) in the expression 'n x (e)' at the other side of the weld symbol. ene) (e) Additional symbols. The symbol 0 placed at the kink of the leader implies that the weld is to be made all around the contact area of the parts. The symbol P placed at the kink implies that the weld is to be made on site at final assembly. The leader may be forked at its end, and a number placed between the branches of the fork. That number should match the nunber of the process as listed in ISO 2502. 4 5.4.4 Profiles. ‘The dimensions of standardized profiles are given after the shape symbol (see paragraph 4.7.4) in the expression: height x width x wall thickness - beam length If height and width are equal, one of these may be omitted from the expression. Dimensions of these profiles can not be freely chosen. Stock sizes, which might depend on country of supply or even the supplier should be page 5.28