5CS5-11 Wireless Communication-Unit 3

NOTES OF UNIT 3 OF
SUBJECT –WIRELESS August 22
2020
COMMUNICATION
FOR B.TECH 5TH
SEMESTER OF B.TECH-
CSE
Wireless Channel
Structure, Offset
QPSK,PI/4
. DPSK,MSK
GMSK,OFDM
Principle,
Windowing,PAPR
UNIT 3 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 5CS5-11
UNIT 3
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
DIGITAL SIGNALLING FOR FADING CHANNELS
LECTURE NO. 1
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION LINK
INTRODUCTION
 Communication : the imparting or exchanging of message or information by

speaking, writing, or using some other medium.
 Means of sending or receiving information, such as telephone lines or

computers.
 Communication engineering is a process by which, connection (link) is

established between two points, for information exchange maximizing customer
delight.
 Telecommunication implies communication between two points, separated by a

distance.
 “Tele” means “at a distance”. It takes into account that something may be and
will be lost in the process; hence the term ‘telecommunication’ includes all kinds
of distances and all kinds of techniques such as radio, telegraphy, television,
telephony, data communication, and computer networking.
BASIC COMMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The elements of basic communication system are as follows
 Information or input signal

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NOTES PREPARED BY DEEPAK SHARMA, LECTURER MITRC, ALWAR
 Input Transducer
 Transmitter
 Communication channel or medium
 Noise
 Receiver
 Output Transducer
Figure 1: Block diagram of Communication system
 The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to the pre-amplifier,
which boosts the level of the modulating signal.
 The RF oscillator generates the carrier signal.
 Both the modulating and the carrier signal is sent to AM modulator.
 Power amplifier is used to increase the power levels of AM wave. This wave is
finally passed to the antenna to be transmitted.
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 Messages
The message can be voice, music, Data, Video, Temperature, Light, Pressure etc
which fed to Transducer.
 Input Transducer
The input can be in any energy form (voice, video, text, light) but for transmission
purposes, this needs to be converted to electrical energy. Transducer convert message
in to electrical signal. For example voice signal is converted into electrical signal with the
help of microphone and video signal is converted into electrical signal with the help of
camera.
E.g. Loudspeaker, data and image convertor.
 Audio Amplifier:
The output of the transducer is a low frequency signal or audio frequency signal or
modulating signal. It is of very low amplitude so it required pre processing. So we
amplifier it with preamplifier that is audio amplifier.
Oscillator :
Oscillator is a device which generate the high frequency wave that is carrier wave
because high frequency waves have high energy to propagate up to long distance. Low
frequency signal cannot propagate up to long distance.
RF Amplifier :
RF amplifier amplifies the carrier wave
Modulator:
To make the the message signal suitable for transmission we do modulation of message
signal with carrier wave in which characteristics of career like amplitude or frequency or
phase changes according to message signal.
Power Amplifier:
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The modulated signal is of very low power so we amplified it by power amplifier
Antenna:
Antenna is a conductor group of conductor that was made the electrical signal into the
space in the form of electromagnetic wave. Our modulated signal radiated into space in
the form of electromagnetic wave by antenna.
Figure 2: Receiver Block Diagram of Wireless Communication Link

RF STAGE :
This RF stage within the overall block diagram for the receiver provides initial tuning to
remove the image signal. It also provides some amplification. If noise performance for
the receiver is important, then this stage will be designed for optimum noise
performance.
This RF amplifier circuit block will also increase the signal level so that the noise
introduced by later stages is at a lower level in comparison to the wanted signal.
Oscillator :
Oscillator is a device which generate the high frequency wave.
Mixer:
Both the local oscillator and incoming signal enter this block within the superheterodyne
receiver. The wanted signal is converted to the intermediate frequency.
IF amplifier & filter:
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This superheterodyne receiver block provides the majority of gain and selectivity. High
performance filters like crystal filters may be used, although LC or ceramic filters may be
used within domestic radios.
Demodulator:
The modulator extract the information from the modulated signal which is presented in
intermediate frequency signal.
Audio amplifier:
Once demodulated, the recovered audio is applied to an audio amplifier block to be

amplified to the required level for loudspeakers or headphones
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION :
Figure 3: Digital Communication System

In this diagram three basic signal processing operations have been included. They are:
1. Source coding:
In source coding the encoder converts the digital signal generated at the source output
into another signal in digital form.
Different source coding techniques are PCM (Pulse code modulation) DM(Delta
modulation).
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2. Channel coding:
Channel encoding is done to minimize the effect of channel noise.
This will reduce the number of errors in the received data and will make the system
more reliable.
3. Modulation:
Modulation is used for providing an efficient transmission of the signal over the channel.
The detector is used for demodulation channel decoder and source decoder has exactly
the opposite roles to play as compared to the channel encoder and source encoder
respectively.
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UNIT 3
LECTURE NO. 2
STRUCTURE OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION LINK IN FADING

CHANNEL
If the information rate is maximum Digital modulation technique can be used because
due to the digital nature of the signal, it is possible to use the advanced processing
techniques such as digital signal processing, image processing, and data compression.
In most cases, the goal of a wireless link is the transmission of information from an
analog information source (microphone, video camera) via an analog wireless
propagation channel to an analog information sink (loudspeaker, TV screen)
The digitizing of information is done only in order to increase the reliability of the link.
Speech coding, which represents the most common form of digitizing analog information
or video coding is the method of digitization . For other transmissions - e.g., file transfer
- information is already digital.
The transmitter (TX) can then add redundancy in the form of a forward error correction
code, in order to make it more resistant to errors introduced by the channel (note that
such encoding is done for most, but not all, wireless systems).
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At the receiver (RX), the signal is received by one or more antennas .

The different users are separated (e.g., by receiving signals only at a single frequency). If
the channel is delay dispersive, then an equalizer can be used to reverse that dispersion,
and eliminate intersymbol interference.
Afterwards, the signal is demodulated, and a channel decoder eliminates (most of) the
errors that are present in the resulting bitstream.
A source decoder finally maps this bitstream to an analog information stream that goes
to the information sink (loudspeaker, TV monitor, etc.); in the case when the
information was originally digital, this last stage is omitted.
Figure 3: Block Diagram of Digital Wireless Communication System of Tx & Rx
The information source provides an analog source signal and feeds it into the source
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter). This ADC first band limits the signal from the analog
information
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source (if necessary), and then converts the signal into a stream of digital data at a
certain sampling rate and resolution (number of bits per sample).
For example, speech would typically be sampled at 8 ksamples/s, with 8-bit resolution,
resulting in a datastream at 64 kbit/s. For the transmission of digital data, these steps
can be omitted, and the digital source directly provides the input to interface “G”.
Source Coder : The source coder uses a priori information on the properties of the
source data in order to reduce redundancy in the source signal. This reduces the amount
of source data to be transmitted, and thus the required transmission time and/or
bandwidth. For example, the Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) speech
coder reduces the source data rate from 64 kbit/s mentioned above to 13 kbit/s. Similar
reductions are possible for music and video (MPEG standards).
Also, fax information can be compressed significantly. One thousand subsequent

symbols “00” (representing “white” color), which have to be represented by 2,000 bits,
can be replaced by the statement: “what follows now are 1,000 symbols 00,” which
requires only 12 bits.
For a typical fax, compression by a factor of 10 can be achieved. The source coder
increases the entropy (information per bit) of the data at interface F; as a consequence,
bit errors have greater impact.
For some applications, source data are encrypted in order to prevent unauthorized
listening in.
The Channel Coder: Adds redundancy in order to protect data against transmission
errors. This increases the data rate that has to be transmitted at interface E - e.g., GSM
channel coding increases the data rate from 13 to 22.8 kbit/s.
Channel coders often use information about the statistics of error sources in the channel
(noise power, interference statistics) to design codes that are especially well suited for
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certain types of channels (e.g., Reed - Solomon codes protect especially well against
burst errors).
Data can be sorted according to importance; more important bits then get stronger
protection. Furthermore, it is possible to use interleaving to break up error bursts; note
that interleaving is mainly effective if it is combined with channel coding.
Signaling : Adds control information for the establishing and ending of connections,
for associating information with the correct users, synchronization, etc. Signaling
information is usually strongly protected by error correction codes.
Multiplexer : Combines user data and signaling information, and combines the data
from multiple users.
If this is done by time multiplexing, the multiplexing requires some time compression.
Actually, only the multiplexer at a Base Station (BS) really combines the data from
multiple users for transmission.
At a Mobile Station (MS), the multiplexer only makes sure that the RX at the BS can
distinguish between the data streams from different users
Multi Access :In GSM, multiaccess multiplexing increases the data rate from 22.8 to
182.4 kbit/s (8-----22.8) for the standard case of eight participants. The addition of
signaling information increases the data rate to 271 kbit/s.
Baseband Modulator:
The baseband modulator assigns the gross data bits (user data and signaling at interface
D) to complex transmit symbols in the baseband. Spectral properties, intersymbol
interference, peak- to-average ratio, and other properties of the transmit signal are
determined by this step. The output from the baseband modulator (interface C) provides
the transmit symbols in oversampled form, discrete in time and amplitude.
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Oversampling and quantization determine the aliasing and quantization noise.

Therefore, high resolution is desirable, and the data rate at the output of the baseband
modulator should be much higher than at the input. For a GSM system, an oversampling
factor of 16 and 8-bit amplitude resolution result in a data rate of about 70 Mbit/s
Figure 4: Block Diagram of Digital Wireless Communication System of Tx

The TX Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) generates a pair of analog, discrete
amplitude voltages corresponding to the real and imaginary part of the transmit
symbols, respectively.
The analog low-pass filter in the TX eliminates the (inevitable) spectral components
outside the desired transmission bandwidth. These components are created by the out-
of-band emission of an (ideal) baseband modulator, which stem from the properties of
the chosen modulation format.
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Furthermore, imperfections of the baseband modulator and imperfections of the DAC

lead to additional spurious emissions that have to be suppressed by the TX filter.
The TX Local Oscillator (LO) provides an unmodulated sinusoidal signal,

corresponding to one of the admissible center frequencies of the considered system.
The requirements for frequency stability, phase noise, and switching speed between
different frequencies depend on the modulation and multiaccess method.
The upconverter converts the analog, filtered baseband signal to a passband signal by
mixing it with the LO signal. Upconversion can occur in a single step, or in several steps.
Finally, amplification in the Radio Frequency (RF) domain is required.
The RF TX filter eliminates out-of-band emissions in the RF domain. Even if the low-
pass
filter succeeded in eliminating all out-of-band emissions, upconversion can lead to the
creation of additional out-of-band components. Especially, nonlinearities of mixers and
amplifiers lead to intermodulation products and “spectral regrowth” - i.e., creation of
additional out-of-band emissions
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Figure 4: Block Diagram of Digital Wireless Communication System of Rx
UNIT 3
LECTURE NO. 3
STRUCTURE OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION LINK IN FADING

CHANNEL
The (analog) propagation channel attenuates the signal, and leads to delay and
frequency dispersion. Furthermore, the environment adds noise (Additive White
Gaussian Noise - AWGN) and co-channel interference.
The RX filter performs a rough selection of the received band. The bandwidth of the
filter corresponds to the total bandwidth assigned to a specific service, and can thus
cover multiple communications channels belonging to the same service.
The low-noise amplifier amplifies the signal, so that the noise added by later
components of the RX chain has less effect on the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). Further
amplification occurs in the subsequent steps of down conversion.
The RX LO provides sinusoidal signals corresponding to possible signals at the TX LO.

The
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frequency of the LO can be fine-tuned by a carrier recovery algorithm (see below), to

make sure that the LOs at the TX and the RX produce oscillations with the same
frequency and phase.
The RX downconverter converts the received signal (in one or several steps) into
baseband. In baseband, the signal is thus available as a complex analog signal.
The RX low-pass filter provides a selection of desired frequency bands for one
specific user (in contrast to the RX bandpass filter that selects the frequency range in
which the service operates).
It eliminates adjacent channel interference as well as noise. The filter should influence
the desired signal as little as possible.
The Automatic Gain Control (AGC) amplifies the signal such that its level is well
adjusted to the quantization at the subsequent ADC.
The RX ADC converts the analog signal into values that are discrete in time and
amplitude.
The required resolution of the ADC is determined essentially by the dynamics of the
subsequent signal processing. The sampling rate is of limited importance as long as the
conditions of the sampling theorem are fulfilled. Oversampling increases the
requirements for the ADC, but simplifies subsequent signal processing.
Carrier recovery determines the frequency and phase of the carrier of the received
signal, and uses it to adjust the RX LO.
The baseband demodulator obtains soft-decision data from digitized baseband data,
and hands them over to the decoder. The baseband demodulator can be an optimum,
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coherent demodulator, or a simpler differential or incoherent demodulator. This stage

can also include further signal processing like equalization.
If there are multiple antennas, then the RX either selects the signal from one of them for
further processing or the signals from all of the antennas have to be processed (filtering,
amplification, downconversion). In the latter case, those baseband signals are then
either combined before being fed into a conventional baseband demodulator or they
are fed directly into a “joint” demodulator that can make use of information from the
different antenna elements.
Symbol-timing recovery uses demodulated data to determine an estimate of the

duration of symbols, and uses it to fine-tune sampling intervals.
The decoder uses soft estimates from the demodulator to find the original (digital)
source data.
In the most simple case of an uncoded system, the decoder is just a hard-decision
(threshold) device. For convolutional codes, Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimators
(MLSEs, such as the Viterbi decoder) are used. Recently, iterative RXs that perform joint
demodulation and decoding have been proposed. Remaining errors are either taken
care of by repetition of a data packet (Automatic Repeat reQuest - ARQ) or are ignored.
Signaling recovery identifies the parts of the data that represent signaling information
and controls the subsequent demultiplexer.
The demultiplexer separates the user data and signaling information and reverses
possible time compression of the TX multiplexer. Note that the demultiplexer can also
be placed earlier in the transmission scheme; its optimum placement depends on the
specific multiplexing and multiaccess scheme.
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The source decoder reconstructs the source signal from the rules of source coding. If
the source data are digital, the output signal is transferred to the data sink. Otherwise,
the data are transferred to the DAC, which converts the transmitted information into an
analog signal, and hands it over to the information sink.
It is often preferable to have simplified models for the link. Figure shows a model that is
suitable for the analysis of modulation methods. The parts of the TX between the
information source and the output of the TX multiplexer are subsumed into a “black
box” digital data source.
The analog radio channel, together with the upconverters, downconverters, RF elements
(filters, amplifiers), and all noise and interference signals, is subsumed into an equivalent
time-discrete low-pass channel, characterized by a time-variant impulse response and
the statistics of additive disturbances.
The criterion for judging the quality of the modulation format is the bit error probability
at the interfaces D - D.
Figure 6 : Simplified Model of Wireless Communication Structure
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UNIT 3
LECTURE NO. 4
MODULATION SCHEME
Digital modulation is the mapping of data bits to signal waveforms that can be
transmitted over an (analog) channel.
The data that we want to transmit over the wireless propagation channel are digital -
either because we really want to transmit data files or because the source coder has
rendered the source information into digital form.
On the other hand, the wireless propagation channel is an analog medium, over which
analog waveforms have to be sent. For this reason, the digital modulator at the
transmitter (TX) has to convert the digital source data to analog waveforms. At the
receiver (RX), the demodulator tries to recover the bits from the received waveform.
An analog waveform can represent either one bit or a group of bits, depending on the
type of modulation. The most simple modulation is binary modulation, where a
+ 1-bit value is mapped to one specific waveform, while a 1-bit value is mapped to a
different waveform.
More generally, a group of K bits can be subsumed into a symbol, which in turn is
mapped to one out of a set of M =2K waveforms; in that case we speak of M-ary
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modulation, higher order modulation, multilevel modulation, or modulation with

alphabet size M .
In any case, different modulation formats differ in the waveforms that are transmitted,
and in the way the mapping from bit groups to waveforms is achieved.
Typically, the waveform corresponding to one symbol is time limited to a time TS, and
waveforms corresponding to different symbols are transmitted one after the other.
Obviously, the data (bit) rate is K times the transmitted symbol rate (signaling rate).
When choosing a modulation format in a wireless system, the ultimate goal is to

transmit with a certain energy as much information as possible over a channel with a
certain bandwidth, while assuring a certain transmission quality (Bit Error Rate - BER).
From this basic requirement, some additional criteria follow logically:
1. The spectral efficiency of the modulation format should be as high as possible. This
can best be achieved by a higher order modulation format. This allows the
transmission of many data bits with each symbol.
2. Adjacent channel interference must be small. This entails that the power spectrum
of the signal should show a strong roll-off outside the desired band. Furthermore,
the signal must be filtered before transmission.
3. The sensitivity with respect to noise should be very small. This can be best achieved
with a low-order modulation format, where (assuming equal average power) the
difference between the waveforms of the alphabet is largest.
4. Robustness with respect to delay and Doppler dispersion should be as large as

possible. Thus, the transmit signal should be filtered as little as possible, as filtering
creates delay dispersion that makes the system more sensitive to channel-induced
delay dispersion.
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5. Waveforms should be easy to generate with hardware that is easy to produce and
highly energy efficient. This requirement stems from the practical requirements of
wireless TXs.
6. In order to be able to use efficient class-C (or class-E and -F) amplifiers, modulation
formats with constant envelopes are preferable.
7. If, on the other hand, the modulation format is sensitive to distortions of the
envelope, then the TX has to use linear (class-A or -B) amplifiers. In the former case,
power efficiency can be up to 80%, while in the latter case, it is below 40%. This has
important consequences for battery lifetime.
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UNIT 3
LECTURE NO. 5
OFFSET –QPSK
In BPSK if 1 is transmitted than phase remain same . If 0 is transmitted than phase of
transmitted wave get phase shift by 180.
Phase Shift Keying PSKPSK is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the
carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK
technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along
with RFID and Bluetooth communications.
PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are −
Binary Phase Shift Keying
This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine
wave carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.
BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier DSBSC modulation scheme, for
message being the digital information.
QPSK
For example, imagine an analog baseband signal in a BPSK (binary phase shift keying)
system. BPSK uses two possible phase shifts instead of four, and thus it can transmit
only one bit per symbol. The baseband signal has a certain frequency, and during each
symbol period, one bit can be transmitted.
A QPSK system can use a baseband signal of the same frequency, yet it
transmits two bits during each symbol period. Thus, its bandwidth efficiency is (ideally)
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higher by a factor of two.This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine
wave carrier takes four phase reversals such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or sixteen
values also, depending upon the requirement.
The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a Double
Side Band Suppressed Carrier DSBSC modulation scheme, which sends two bits of
digital information at a time, called as digits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it converts them
into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other
users.
QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit
serial to parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the
same.
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Figure 7: Block Diagram of QPSK
At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit,
etc.) and odd bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and
are multiplied with the same carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even
BPSK (called as PSKQ). The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being
modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result
for different instances of binary inputs.
Figure 8: Waveform of QPSK
QPSK is, overall, an effective modulation scheme. But it can be improved.
Phase Jumps
Standard QPSK guarantees that high-slope symbol-to-symbol transitions will occur;

because the phase jumps can be ±90°, we can’t use the approach described for the 180°
phase jumps produced by BPSK modulation.
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This problem can be mitigated by using one of two QPSK variants. Offset QPSK, which
involves adding a delay to one of two digital data streams used in the modulation
process, reduces the maximum phase jump to 90°. Another option is π/4-QPSK, which
reduces the maximum phase jump to 135°. Offset QPSK is thus superior with respect to
reducing phase discontinuities, but π/4-QPSK is advantageous because it is compatible
with differential encoding .
The most straightforward type of PSK is called binary phase shift keying (BPSK), where
“binary” refers to the use of two phase offsets (one for logic high, one for logic low).
We can intuitively recognize that the system will be more robust if there is greater
separation between these two phases—of course it would be difficult for a receiver to
distinguish between a symbol with a phase offset of 90° and a symbol with a phase
offset of 91°.
We only have 360° of phase to work with, so the maximum difference between the
logic-high and logic-low phases is 180°. But we know that shifting a sinusoid by 180° is
the same as inverting it; thus, we can think of BPSK as simply inverting the carrier in
response to one logic state and leaving it alone in response to the other logic state.
However, this scheme could easily result in high-slope transitions in the carrier
waveform: if the transition between logic states occurs when the carrier is at its
maximum value, the carrier voltage has to rapidly move to the minimum voltage.
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High-slope events such as these are undesirable because they generate higher-
frequency energy that could interfere with other RF signals. Also, amplifiers have limited
ability to produce high-slope changes in output voltage.
QPSK
BPSK transfers one bit per symbol, which is what we’re accustomed to so far. Everything
we’ve discussed with regard to digital modulation has assumed that the carrier signal is
modified according to whether a digital voltage is logic low or logic high, and the
receiver constructs digital data by interpreting each symbol as either a 0 or a 1.
Before we discuss quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), we need to introduce the
following important concept: There is no reason why one symbol can transfer only one
bit. It’s true that the world of digital electronics is built around circuitry in which the
voltage is at one extreme or the other, such that the voltage always represents one
digital bit. But RF is not digital; rather, we’re using analog waveforms to
transfer digital data, and it is perfectly acceptable to design a system in which the analog
waveforms are encoded and interpreted in a way that allows one symbol to represent
two (or more) bits.
QPSK is a modulation scheme that allows one symbol to transfer two bits of data. There
are four possible two-bit numbers (00, 01, 10, 11), and consequently we need four
phase offsets. Again, we want maximum separation between the phase options, which
in this case is 90°.
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The main purpose of OQPSK is to limit the maximum phase change possible in QPSK.
In QPSK, each pulse represents two bits. Since there are 4 states(symbols), we can
assume a phase change of 90 degrees per state(on average). However, when two bits
change simultaneously, then the phase experiences a change of 180 degrees.
A 180 degree phase change, however, causes the envelope to invert. This abrupt change
in the envelope, introduces spurious high frequency components in the QPSK spectrum.
When the rectangular pulse is passed through a pulse shaping filter (Nyquist filter),
these high frequency components are attenuated. However, this also causes
heavy fluctuations in the envelope of the signal. It is to prevent these high frequency
components(and the consequent envelope fluctuations), that OQPSK is used.
In OQPSK, the I and Q bits are offset by half a symbol period(i.e one bit period). This
ensures that both bits don’t change state at the same time, thus limiting the maximum
phase change to 90 degrees and preventing any spurious high frequency components.
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Figure 8: Waveform of OQPSK
Figure 9: TRANSMITTER OF OQPSK
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As mentioned Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is referred as QPSK. Here maximum phase
shift is limited to about 90 degree.
In QPSK, first input bit stream is split into two bit streams referred as odd and even.
These streams are applied simultaneously to the mixers.
Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is referred as OQPSK. Here maximum phase shift is
about +/- 90 degree.
In OQPSK, after splitting the bit stream into odd and even, one bit stream is made offset
by 1 bit period with respect to the other. After this, the direct and shifted bit streams
are fed to the mixers.
Power spectral density(PSD) of OQPSK modulated spectrum is same as QPSK. Pls. note
offset in bit stream will not have any effect on the PSD.
Figure 10: QPSK & OQPSK TIME DOMAIN WAVEFORM
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UNIT 3
LECTURE NO. 6
PI/4 –QPSK
We know that Information Capacity C is related to
Bandwidth B
Time
SNR
Shannon Capacity Theorem
C=B*Log2(1+SNR)
pi/4 QPSK modulation scheme is obtained by adding additional π/4 phase shift in the
phase of the carriers of the symbols.
Input QPSK Phase

Bits (φk) OQPSK Phase (φk)
00 O degree -π/4
01 π/2 3π/4
10 π -3π/4
11 3π/2 or -π/2 π/4
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π/4 shifted version of QPSK is referred as pi/4 QPSK. With this modulation compromise
between QPSK and OQPSK is done and maximum phase transition of about 135 degree
is achieved.
In the presence of the multipath spread and fading conditions, pi/4 QPSK perform better
than OQPSK. This signal is demodulated in coherent and non-coherent fashion and
hence the design of the receiver will be simple. Figure depicts all the possible states of
the &pi/4QPSK constellation.
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Differential QPSK:
(DQPSK) is a variant that is compatible with noncoherent receivers (i.e., receivers that
don’t synchronize the demodulation oscillator with the modulation oscillator).
Differential QPSK encodes data by producing a certain phase shift relative to the
preceding symbol.
By using the phase of the preceding symbol in this way, the demodulation circuitry
analyzes the phase of a symbol using a reference that is common to the receiver and the
transmitter.
Differential QPSK uses the phase difference between adjacent symbols to avoid
problems associated with a lack of phase synchronization between the transmitter and
receiver.
WHY USE PI/4-DPSK ?
In theory, QPSK is an excellent RF communication scheme. It is conceptually

straightforward, it transfers two bits per symbol instead of one, and it can be
conveniently implemented using I/Q modulation techniques.
As usual, though, real life is not quite as neat and tidy as the theoretical version. The
particular problem we’re concerned with here is an additional and unpredictable phase
shift introduced by a lack of phase or frequency synchronization between the
transmitter hardware and the receiver hardware.
The QPSK transmitter has a local oscillator that generates the sinusoid used as the
carrier wave. The receiver has a local oscillator that generates a sinusoid used in
demodulating the incoming signal. Ideally, these two oscillators have exactly the same
phase and frequency.
In reality, of course, there will be discrepancies. The frequencies can be matched quite
well thanks to high-precision oscillation devices, but synchronizing the phase is not so
easy. A phase or frequency offset between the received signal and the receiver’s local
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oscillator will introduce error into the phase of the received signals, and this error could
cause the receiver to assign an incorrect two-bit code to a particular symbol.
It is possible to design a receiver that can extract the phase and frequency of the
incoming carrier. This process is known as carrier recovery, and it can be used to achieve
coherent (i.e., phase-and-frequency-synchronized) demodulation. The trouble is,
coherent receivers are more complicated and more expensive.
Many systems would benefit from a modulation scheme that avoids the error associated
with phase or frequency offset yet does not require the additional cost and complexity
of carrier recovery.
This is where differential quadrature phase shift keying (DQPSK) comes into play.
In QPSK, information is conveyed by the absolute phase of each symbol. DQPSK, in

contrast, conveys information by establishing a certain phase of one symbol relative
to the previous symbol.
The relative phase is simply the phase of the current symbol minus the phase of the
previous symbol. If we use the standard four QPSK phase values—45°, 135°, 225°, and
315°—the DQPSK phase options become 0°, 90°, –90°, and 180° (or, equivalently, –
180°).
By using relative phase instead of absolute phase, DQPSK is not affected by a fixed phase
offset introduced by lack of phase synchronization between transmitter and receiver;
the fixed offset affects both symbols equally and is eliminated in the subtraction
process. DQPSK is also robust against transmitter–receiver frequency discrepancies.
Even though a frequency offset introduces a time-varying phase error, as long as this
error changes slowly relative to the symbol rate, the differential phase from one symbol
to the next will remain accurate enough for reliable data transfer.
Compared to carrier recovery, this differential phase detection process does not
constitute a major increase in the complexity of the receiver; this is especially true if the
conversion from analog baseband to digital data is performed in software.
32
One disadvantage to keep in mind, though, is the effect of noise: theoretically, a

coherent QPSK system would have a lower bit error rate because the received symbol is
compared to an ideal reference signal, whereas in DQPSK a noisy symbol is compared to
another noisy symbol.
33
UNIT 3
LECTURE NO. 7
MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING MODULATION
Minimum shift keying, MSK, is a form frequency modulation based on a system called
continuous-phase frequency-shift keying.
Minimum shift keying, MSK offers advantages in terms of spectral efficiency when
compared to other similar modes, and it also enables power amplifiers to operate in
saturaton enabling them to provide high levels of efficiency.
Reason for Minimum Shift Keying, MSK
It is found that binary data consisting of sharp transitions between "one" and "zero"
states and vice versa potentially creates signals that have sidebands extending out a long
way from the carrier, and this creates problems for many radio communications
systems, as any sidebands outside the allowed bandwidth cause interference to adjacent
channels and any radio communications links that may be using them.
MSK, minimum shift keying has the feature that there are no phase discontinuities and
this significantly reduces the bandwidth needed over other forms of phase and
frequency shift keying.
Minimum Shift Keying, MSK basics
The problem can be overcome in part by filtering the signal, but is found that the
transitions in the data become progressively less sharp as the level of filtering is
34
increased and the bandwidth reduced. To overcome this problem GMSK is often used
and this is based on Minimum Shift Keying, MSK modulation.
The advantage of which is what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are
no phase discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero
crossing points.
When looking at a plot of a signal using MSK modulation, it can be seen that the
modulating data signal changes the frequency of the signal and there are no phase
discontinuities.
This arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that the frequency difference between
the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to half the data rate. This can be
expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.
The MSK modulation is a constant envelope signal with continuous phase that results
from modulating the instantaneous frequency with rectangular pulses.
MSK is considered to be a special case of Offset QPSK (OQPSK) with half sinusoidal pulse
weighting rather than rectangular.
MSK is a special case of Continuous-Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK) which is a

special case of a general class of modulation schemes known as Continuous-Phase
Modulation (CPM). It is worth noting that CPM (and hence CPFSK) is a non-linear
modulation and hence by extension MSK is a non-linear modulation as well.
Nevertheless, it can also be cast as a linear modulation scheme, namely Offset

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OQPSK), which is a special case of Phase Shift Keying
(PSK).
35
Minimum shift keying (MSK) is a special type of continuous phase-frequency shift keying
(CPFSK) with h=0.5. A modulation index of 0.5 corresponds to the minimum frequency
spacing that allows two FSK signals to be coherently orthogonal, and the name minimum
shift keying implies the minimum frequency separation (i.e. bandwidth) that allows
orthogonal detection.
MSK has one of two possible frequencies over any symbol interval:
36
With and integers, the signal is guaranteed to have continuous phase. Figure 1 shows an
example of a signal that is discontinuous, a signal with discontinuous phase and a signal
with continuous phase.
As phase-continuous signals in general have better spectral properties than signals that
are not phase-continuous, we prefer to transmit signals that have this property. If f0 or
f1 either or are chosen such that there is a no-integer number of periods the traditional
FSK modulator will output a signal with discontinuities in the phase. In order to maintain
phase continuity, we can let the transmitter have memory. We choose the signals for a
general CPSFSK transmitter to be
37
UNIT 3
LECTURE NO. 8
OFDM PRINCIPLE- CYCLIC PREFIX
OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a form of signal waveform or
modulation that provides some significant advantages for data links.
Accordingly, OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is used for many of the
latest wide bandwidth and high data rate wireless systems including Wi-Fi, cellular
telecommunications and many more.
The fact that OFDM uses a large number of carriers, each carrying low bit rate data,
means that it is very resilient to selective fading, interference, and multipath effects, as
well providing a high degree of spectral efficiency.
Early systems using OFDM found the processing required for the signal format was
relatively high, but with advances in technology, OFDM presents few problems in terms
of the processing required.
OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of

closely spaced modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is
applied to a carrier, then sidebands spread out either side. It is necessary for a receiver
to be able to receive the whole signal to be able to successfully demodulate the data.
As a result when signals are transmitted close to one another they must be spaced so
that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a guard band
between them. This is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands from each
carrier overlap, they can still be received without the interference that might be
38
expected because they are orthogonal to each another. This is achieved by having the
carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period
This acts as a bank of demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC. The resulting
signal is integrated over the symbol period to regenerate the data from that carrier. The
same demodulator also demodulates the other carriers.
As the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period means that they will
have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period and their contribution will sum to
zero - in other words there is no interference contribution.
One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and receiving systems is that they must be
linear. Any non-linearity will cause interference between the carriers as a result of inter-
modulation distortion. This will introduce unwanted signals that would cause
interference and impair the orthogonality of the transmission.
In terms of the equipment to be used the high peak to average ratio of multi-carrier
systems such as OFDM requires the RF final amplifier on the output of the transmitter to
be able to handle the peaks whilst the average power is much lower and this leads to
inefficiency. In some systems the peaks are limited. Although this introduces distortion
that results in a higher level of data errors, the system can rely on the error correction to
remove them.
39
The traditional format for sending data over a radio channel is to send it serially, one bit
after another. This relies on a single channel and any interference on that single
frequency can disrupt the whole transmission.
OFDM adopts a different approach. The data is transmitted in parallel across the various
carriers within the overall OFDM signal. Being split into a number of parallel
"substreams" the overall data rate is that of the original stream, but that of each of the
substreams is much lower, and the symbols are spaced further apart in time.
This reduces interference among symbols and makes it easier to receive each symbol
accurately while maintaining the same throughput.
The lower data rate in each stream means that the interference from reflections is much
less critical. This is achieved by adding a guard band time or guard interval into the
system. This ensures that the data is only sampled when the signal is stable and no new
delayed signals arrive that would alter the timing and phase of the signal. This can be
achieved far more effectively within a low data rate substream.
CYCLIC PREFIX : The cyclic prefix used in Frequency Division Multiplexing schemes
including OFDM to primarily act as a guard band between successive symbols to
overcome intersymbol interference, ISI.
Use of cyclic prefix is a key element of enabling the OFDM signal to operate reliably.
The cyclic prefix acts as a buffer region or guard interval to protect the OFDM signals
from intersymbol interference. This can be an issue in some circumstances even with the
much lower data rates that are transmitted in the multicarrier OFDM signal.
The basic concept behind the OFDM cyclic prefix is quite straightforward. The cyclic
prefix performs two main functions.
 The cyclic prefix provides a guard interval to eliminate intersymbol interference from
the previous symbol.
40
 It repeats the end of the symbol so the linear convolution of a frequency-selective

multipath channel can be modeled as circular convolution, which in turn may
transform to the frequency domain via a discrete Fourier transform. This approach
accommodates simple frequency domain processing, such as channel estimation and
equalization.
The cyclic prefix is created so that each OFDM symbol is preceded by a copy of the end
part of that same symbol.
Different OFDM cyclic prefix lengths are available in various systems. For example within
LTE a normal length and an extended length are available and after Release 8 a third
extended length is also included, although not normally used.
CYCLIC PREFIX ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
There are several advantages and disadvantages attached to the use for the cyclic prefix
within OFDM.
Advantages
 Provides robustness: The addition of the cyclic prefix adds robustness to the OFDM
signal. The data that is retransmitted can be used if required.
 Reduces inter-symbol interference: The guard interval introduced by the cyclic
prefix enables the effects of inter-symbol interference to be reduced.
Disadvantages
 Reduces data capacity: As the cyclic prefix re-transmits data that is already being
transmitted, it takes up system capacity and reduces the overall data rate.
The use of a cyclic prefix is standard within OFDM and it enables the performance to be
maintained even under conditions when levels of reflections and multipath propagation
are high.
41
42

5CS5-11 Wireless Communication-Unit 3

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NOTES OF UNIT 3 OF

SUBJECT –WIRELESS August 22

 Communication : the imparting or exchanging of message or information by

 Means of sending or receiving information, such as telephone lines or

 Communication engineering is a process by which, connection (link) is

 Telecommunication implies communication between two points, separated by a

BASIC COMMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The elements of basic communication system are as follows

 Information or input signal

Figure 1: Block diagram of Communication system

RF amplifier amplifies the carrier wave

The modulated signal is of very low power so we amplified it by power amplifier

Figure 2: Receiver Block Diagram of Wireless Communication Link

Oscillator is a device which generate the high frequency wave.

IF amplifier & filter:

Once demodulated, the recovered audio is applied to an audio amplifier block to be

Figure 3: Digital Communication System

Channel encoding is done to minimize the effect of channel noise.

STRUCTURE OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION LINK IN FADING

At the receiver (RX), the signal is received by one or more antennas .

Figure 3: Block Diagram of Digital Wireless Communication System of Tx & Rx

Also, fax information can be compressed significantly. One thousand subsequent

Oversampling and quantization determine the aliasing and quantization noise.

Figure 4: Block Diagram of Digital Wireless Communication System of Tx

Furthermore, imperfections of the baseband modulator and imperfections of the DAC

The TX Local Oscillator (LO) provides an unmodulated sinusoidal signal,

Figure 4: Block Diagram of Digital Wireless Communication System of Rx

STRUCTURE OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION LINK IN FADING

The RX LO provides sinusoidal signals corresponding to possible signals at the TX LO.

frequency of the LO can be fine-tuned by a carrier recovery algorithm (see below), to

coherent demodulator, or a simpler differential or incoherent demodulator. This stage

Symbol-timing recovery uses demodulated data to determine an estimate of the

Figure 6 : Simplified Model of Wireless Communication Structure

modulation, higher order modulation, multilevel modulation, or modulation with

When choosing a modulation format in a wireless system, the ultimate goal is to

4. Robustness with respect to delay and Doppler dispersion should be as large as

Binary Phase Shift Keying

Figure 7: Block Diagram of QPSK

Figure 8: Waveform of QPSK

QPSK is, overall, an effective modulation scheme. But it can be improved.

Standard QPSK guarantees that high-slope symbol-to-symbol transitions will occur;

Figure 8: Waveform of OQPSK

Figure 9: TRANSMITTER OF OQPSK

Figure 10: QPSK & OQPSK TIME DOMAIN WAVEFORM

Shannon Capacity Theorem

Input QPSK Phase

11 3π/2 or -π/2 π/4

WHY USE PI/4-DPSK ?

In theory, QPSK is an excellent RF communication scheme. It is conceptually

In QPSK, information is conveyed by the absolute phase of each symbol. DQPSK, in

One disadvantage to keep in mind, though, is the effect of noise: theoretically, a

Reason for Minimum Shift Keying, MSK

Minimum Shift Keying, MSK basics

MSK is a special case of Continuous-Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK) which is a

Nevertheless, it can also be cast as a linear modulation scheme, namely Offset

OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of

including OFDM to primarily act as a guard band between successive symbols to

overcome intersymbol interference, ISI.

 It repeats the end of the symbol so the linear convolution of a frequency-selective

CYCLIC PREFIX ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

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