MATHEMATICS

BOOKLET – 1
CLASS – 11
INDEX
1. RELATIONS, FUNCTIONS & ITF 02 – 38

2. QUADRATIC EQUATION 39 – 55

3. COMPLEX NUMBER 56 – 77

4. PERMUATION AND COMBINATION 78 – 91

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 RELATIONS, FUNCTIONS & ITF
RELATIONS
ORDERED PAIR :
A pair of objects listed in a specific order is called an ordered pair. It is written by listing the two objects in
specific order separating them by a comma and then enclosing the pair in parentheses.
In the ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first element and b is called the second element.
Two ordered pairs are set to be equal if their corresponding elements are equal.
i.e. (a, b) = (c, d) if a = c and b = d.

CARTESIAN PRODUCT :
The set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b), where a  A and b  B i.e. {(a, b) ; a  A and b  B} is called
the Cartesian product of A to B and is denoted by A × B. Usually A × B  B × A.

Similarly A × B × C = {(a, b, c) : a  A, b  B, c  C} is called ordered triplet.

RELATION :
Let A and B be two sets. Then a relation R from A to B is a subset of A × B. Thus, R is a relation from A
to B  R  A × B. The subsets is derived by describing a relationship between the first element and the
second element of ordered pairs in A × B e.g. if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
R = {(a, b) : a = b2, a  A, b  B} then R = {(1, 1), (4, 2), (9, 3)}. Here a R b  1 R 1, 4 R 2, 9 R 3.

NOTE :
(i) Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets consisting of m and n elements respectively. Then
A × B consists of mn ordered pairs. So total number of subsets of A × B i.e. number of possible
relations from A to B is 2mn.
(ii) A relation R from A to A is called a relation on A.

DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A RELATION :

Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B. Then the set of all first components of coordinates of the
ordered pairs belonging to R is called to domain of R, while the set of all second components of
coordinates of the ordered pairs in R is called the range of R.

Thus, Dom (R) = {a : (a, b)  R} and Range (R) = {b : (a, b)  R}

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 It is evident from the definition that the domain of a relation from A to B is a subset of A and its range is a
subset of B.

Example # 1 :If A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}, then find A × B.

Solution : A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}

Example # 2 : Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8} be two sets and let R be a relation from A to B defined by
the phrase "(x, y)  R  x > y". Find relation R and its domain and range.
Solution : Under relation R, we have 3R2, 5R2, 5R4, 7R2, 7R4 and 7R6
i.e. R = {(3, 2), (5, 2), (5, 4), (7, 2), (7, 4), (7, 6)}
  Dom (R) = {3, 5, 7} and range (R) = {2, 4, 6}

Example # 3 : Let A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Let R be the relation on A defined by

{(x, y) : x  A, y  A & x2 = y or x = y2}. Find domain and range of R.
Solution : The relation R is
R = {(2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 2), (9, 3)}
Domain of R = {2, 3, 4, 9}
Range of R = {2, 3, 4, 9}
Self Practice Problem :

(1) If (2x + y, 7) = (5, y – 3) then find x and y.

(2) If A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 6), (7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 6)} then find sets A and B.

(3) If A = {x, y, z} and B = {1, 2} then find number of relations from A to B.

(4) Write R = {(4x + 3, 1 – x) : x  2, x  N}

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Answers (1) x = – , y = 10 (2) A = {1, 7}, B = {2, 3, 6}
2

(3) 64 (4) {(7, 0), (11, –1)}

TYPES OF RELATIONS :

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 In this section we intend to define various types of relations on a given set A.
(i) Void relation : Let A be a set. Then   A × A and so it is a relation on A. This relation is called
the void or empty relation on A.

(ii) Universal relation : Let A be a set. Then A × A  A × A and so it is a relation on A. This relation
is called the universal relation on A.

(iii) Identity relation : Let A be a set. Then the relation IA = {(a, a) : a  A} on A is called the

identity relation on A. In other words, a relation IA on A is called the identity relation if

every element of A is related to itself only.

(iv) Reflexive relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related
to itself. Thus, R on a set A is not reflexive if there exists an element a  A such that
(a, a)  R.

Note : Every identity relation is reflexive but every reflexive relation in not identity.
(v) Symmetric relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be a symmetric relation
iff (a, b)  R  (b ,a)  R for all a, b  A. i.e. a R b  b R a for all a, b  A.

(vi) Transitive relation : Let A be any set. A relation R on A is said to be a transitive relation
iff (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R for all a, b, c  A
i.e. a R b and b R c  a R c for all a, b, c  A

(vii) Equivalence relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation on A iff

(i) it is reflexive i.e. (a, a)  R for all a  A
(ii) it is symmetric i.e. (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R for all a, b  A
(iii) it is transitive i.e. (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R for all a, b  A

Example # 4 : Which of the following are identity relations on set A = {1, 2, 3}.
R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}, R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3)}, R3 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.

Solution: The relation R3 is identity relation on set A.

R1 is not identity relation on set A as (3, 3)  R1.

R2 is not identity relation on set A as (1, 3)  R2

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Example # 5 : Which of the following are reflexive relations on set A = {1, 2, 3}.
R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3), (2, 1)}, R2 = {(1, 1), (3, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2)}..

Solution : R1 is a reflexive relation on set A.

R2 is not a reflexive relation on A because 2  A but (2, 2)  R2.

Example # 6 : Prove that on the set N of natural numbers, the relation R defined by x R y  x is less than y is
transitive.
Solution : Because for any x, y, z  N x < y and y < z  x < z  x R y and y R z  x R z. so R is
transitive.

Example # 7 : Let T be the set of all triangles in a plane with R a relation in T given by R = {(T 1 , T2) : T1 is

congruent to T2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Solution : Since a relation R in T is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and

transitive.
(i) Since every triangle is congruent to itself
  R is reflexive
(ii) (T1 , T2)  R  T1 is congruent to T2  T2 is congruent to T1  (T2, T1)

R
Hence R is symmetric
(iii) Let (T1, T2)  R and (T2, T3)  R  T1 is congruent to T2 and T2 is congruent to T3

 T1 is congruent to T3   (T1, T3)  R

 R is transitive
Hence R is an equivalence relation.

Example # 8 : Show that the relation R in R defined as R = {(a, b) : a  b} is transitive.

Solution : Let (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R
 (a  b) and b  c  ac  (a, c)  R Hence R is transitive.

Example # 9 : Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is symmetric.
Solution : Let (a, b)  R [ (1, 2)  R]
 (b, a)  R [ (2, 1)  R]
Hence R is symmetric.

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Self Practice Problem :
(5) Let L be the set of all lines in a plane and let R be a relation defined on L by the rule (x ,y)  R 
   x is perpendicular to y. Then prove that R is a symmetric relation on L.

(6) Let R be a relation on the set of all lines in a plane defined by (1, 2)  R  line 1 is parallel to

line 2. Prove that R is an equivalence relation.

FUNCTION
Definition :
Function is a rule (or correspondence), from a non empty set A to a non empty set B, that associates each
member of A to a unique member of B. Symbolically, we write f: A  B. We read it as "f is a function
from A to B".
For example, let A  {–1, 0, 1} and B  {0, 1, 2}.
Then A × B  {(–1, 0), (–1, 1), (–1, 2), (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2)}

Now, " f : A  B defined by f(x) = x2 " is the function such that

f  {(–1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1)}
f can also be shown diagramatically by following mapping.
A B

Note : Every function say y = f(x) : A  B. Here x is independent variable which takes its values from A while
'y' takes its value from B. A relation will be a function if and only if
(i) x must be able to take each and every value of A and
(ii) one value of x must be related to one and only one value of y in set B.

Graphically : If any vertical line cuts the graph at more than one point, then the graph does not represent a
function.

Example # 10 : (i) Which of the following correspondences can be called a function ?

(A) f(x) = x3 ; {–1, 0, 1} {0, 1, 2, 3}
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 (B) f(x) = ± x ; {0, 1, 4} {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}
(C) f(x) = x ; {0, 1, 4} {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}
(D) f(x) = – x ; {0, 1, 4} {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}
(ii) Which of the following pictorial diagrams represent the function

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Solution :
(i) f(x) in (C) and (D) are functions as definition of function is satisfied. while in case of (A)
the given relation is not a function, as f(–1) 2nd set. Hence definition of function is not satisfied.
While in case of (B), the given relation is not a function, as f(1) = ± 1 and f(4) = ± 2 i.e. element
1 as well as 4 in 1st set is related with two elements of 2nd set.Hence definition of function is not
satisfied.
(ii) B and D. In (A) one element of domain has no image, while in (C) one element of 1st set
has two images in 2nd set

Self practice problem :

(7) Let g(x) be a function defined on [1, 1]. If the area of the equilateral triangle with two of
its vertices at (0,0) and (x,g(x)) is 3 / 4 sq. unit, then the function g(x) may be.

(A) g(x) =  (1  x 2 ) (B) g(x) = (1  x 2 ) (C) g(x) =  (1  x 2 ) (D) g(x) = (1  x 2 )

(8) Represent all possible functions defined from {} to {1, 2}.
Answers : (7) B, C

(8) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Domain, Co-domain and Range of a Function :

Let y = f(x) : A  B, then the set A is known as the domain of f and the set B is known as co-domain of f.

If x1 is mapped to y1, then y1 is called as image of x1 under f. Further x1 is a pre-image of y1 under f.

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 If only expression of f (x) is given (domain and co-domain are not mentioned), then domain is complete
set of those values of x for which f (x) is real, while codomain is considered to be (– , ) (except in
inverse trigonometric functions).
Range is the complete set of values that y takes. Clearly range is a subset of Co-domain.
A function whose domain and range are both subsets of real numbers is called a real function.
Example # 11 : Find the domain of following functions :

(i) f(x) = x2  5 (ii) sin (x3 – x)

Solution : (i) f(x) = x2  5 is real iff x2 – 5  0

 |x|  5  x  – 5 or x  5

 the domain of f is (–, – 5 ]  [ 5 , )

(ii) x3 – x  R   domain is x  R

Algebraic Operations on Functions :

If f and g are real valued functions of x with domain set A and B respectively, then both f and g are defined
in A  B. Now we define f + g, f  g, (f . g) and (f /g) as follows:

f f (x)
(iii)   (x) = domain is {x  x  A  B such that g(x)  0}.
g g(x)

Note :  For domain of (x) = {f(x)}g(x) , conventionally, the conditions are f(x) > 0 and g(x) must be real.

 For domain of (x) = f(x)Cg(x) or (x) = f(x)Pg(x) conventional conditions of domain are f(x)

 g(x) and f(x)  N and g(x)  W.

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Example # 12 : Find the domain of function f(x) = log(x3  x)
4  x2

Solution : Domain of 4  x2 is [2, 2] but 4  x2 = 0 for x = ± 2  x  (–2, 2)

log(x3  x) is defined for x3  x > 0 i.e. x(x  1)(x + 1) > 0.

  domain of log(x3  x) is (1, 0 )  (1, ).

Hence the domain of the given function is {(1, 0 )  (1, )} (2, 2)  (1, 0 )  (1, 2).
Self practice problems :
(9) Find the domain of following functions.
1 2x  1
(i) f(x) = + x 1 (ii) f(x) = 1  x – sin
log(2  x) 3

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Answers : (i) [–1, 1)  (1, 2) (ii) [–1, 1]

Methods of determining range :

(i) Representing x in terms of y

If y = f(x), try to express asx = g(y), then domain of g(y) represents possible values of y, which
is range of f(x).

(ii) Graphical Method :

The set of y– coordinates of the graph of a function is the range.
x2  x  1
Example # 13 : Find the range of f(x) =
x2  x  1

x2  x  1
Solution : f(x) = {x2 + x + 1 and x2 + x – 1 have no common factor}
x2  x  1

x2  x  1
y=
x2  x  1

 yx2 + yx – y = x2 + x + 1

 (y – 1) x2 + (y – 1) x – y – 1 = 0
If y = 1, then the above equation reduces to –2 = 0. Which is not true.
Further if y  1, then (y – 1) x2 + (y – 1) x – y – 1 = 0 is a quadratic and has real roots if

(y – 1)2 – 4 (y – 1) (–y – 1)  0
i.e. if y  –3/5 or y  1 but y  1
Thus the range is (–, –3/5]  (1, )

x2  4
Example # 14 : Find the range of f(x) =
x2

Solution :

x2  4
f(x) = = x + 2; x  2
x2
 graph of f(x) would be
Thus the range of f(x) is R – {4}

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 Further if f(x) happens to be continuous in its domain then range of f(x) is [min f(x), max. f(x)]. However
for sectionally continuous functions, range will be union of [min f(x), max. f(x)] over all those intervals
where f(x) is continuous, as shown by following example.

Example # 15 : Let graph of function y = f(x) is

Then range of above sectionally continuous function is [y2, y3]  [y7, y6)  (y4, y5]

(iii) Using monotonocity : Many of the functions are monotonic increasing or monotonic decreasing. In case of
monotonic continuous functions the minimum and maximum values lie at end points of domain. Some of
the common function which are increasing or decreasing in the interval where they are continuous is as
under.

For monotonic increasing functions in [a, b]

(i) f(x)  0 (ii) range is [f(a), f(b)]
for monotonic decreasing functions in [a, b]

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 (i) f(x)  0 (ii) range is [f(b), f(a)]

Example # 16 : Find the range of function y = n (2x – x2)

Solution : Step – 1
We have 2x – x2  (–, 1]

Step – 2 Let t = 2x – x2
For nt to be defined accepted values are (0, 1]
Now, using monotonocity of n t,
n (2x – x2)  (–, 0]
 range is (– , 0]Ans.

Self practice problems :

(10) Find domain and range of following functions.

x 2  2x  5 1
(i) y = x3 (ii) y= (iii) y=
x  2x  5
2
x x
2

3  5 3  5 
Answers : (i) domain R; range R (ii) domain R ; range  , 
 2 2 

(iii) domain R – [0, 1] ; range (0, )

Classification of Functions :
Functions can be classified as "One  One Function (Injective Mapping)" and "Many  One Function" :

One - One Function :

A function f : A  B is said to be a one-one function or injective mapping if different elements of A have

different f images in B.

Thus for x1, x2  A and f(x1), f(x2)  B, f(x1) = f(x2)  x1 = x2 or x1  x2  f(x1)  f(x2).

Diagrammatically an injective mapping can be shown as

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 OR

Many - One function :

A function f : A  B is said to be a many one function if there exist at least two or more elements of A
having the same f image in B.

Thus f : A  B is many one iff there exist atleast two elements x1, x2  A, such that f(x1) = f(x2) but x1

 x2.

Diagrammatically a many one mapping can be shown as

OR
Note :  If a function is oneone, it cannot be manyone and vice versa.

Methods of determining whether a given function is ONE-ONE or MANY-ONE :

(a) If x1, x2  A and f(x1), f(x2)  B, equate f(x1) and f(x2) and if it implies that x1 = x2, then and

only then function is ONE-ONE otherwise MANY-ONE.

(b) If there exists a straight line parallel to x-axis, which cuts the graph of the function atleast at two
points, then the function is MANY-ONE, otherwise ONE- ONE.
(c) If either f(x)  0,  x  domain or f(x)  0  x  domain, where equality can hold at discrete
point(s) only i.e. strictly monotonic, then function is ONE-ONE, otherwise MANY-ONE.

Note : If f and g both are one-one, then gof and fog would also be one-one (if they exist). Functions can also be
classified as "Onto function (Surjective mapping)" and "Into function":
Onto function :

If the function f : A  B is such that each element in B (codomain) must have atleast one
preimage in A, then we say that f is a function of A 'onto' B. Thus f : A  B is surjective iff  b  B,
there exists some a  A such that f (a) = b.

Diagrammatically surjective mapping can be shown as

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 OR
Into function :

If f : A  B is such that there exists atleast one element in codomain which is not the image of any
element in domain, then f(x) is into.

Diagrammatically into function can be shown as

OR

Note : (i) If range  codomain, then f(x) is onto, otherwise into

(ii) If a function is onto, it cannot be into and vice versa.

A function can be one of these four types:

(a) oneone onto (injective and surjective)

(b) oneone into (injective but not surjective)

(c) manyone onto (surjective but not injective)

(d) manyone into (neither surjective nor injective)

Note : (i) If f is both injective and surjective, then it is called a bijective mapping. The bijective
functions are also named as invertible, non singular or biuniform functions.

(ii) If a set A contains 'n' distinct elements, then the number of different functions defined
from
A  A is nn and out of which n! are one one.
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 (iii) If f and g both are onto, then gof or fog may or may not be onto.
(iv) The composite of two bijections is a bijection iff f and g are two bijections such that gof is
defined, then gof is also a bijection only when co-domain of f is equal to the domain of g.

Example # 17 : (i) Find whether f(x) = x + cos x is one-one.

3 2
(ii) Identify whether the function f(x) = –x + 3x – 2x + 4 for f : R  R is ONTO or INTO

(iii) f(x) = x2 – 2x; [0, 3]  A. Find whether f(x) is injective or not. Also find the
set A, if f(x) is surjective.
Solution : (i) The domain of f(x) is R. f (x) = 1  sin x.
 f (x)  0  x  complete domain and equality holds at discrete points only
 f(x) is strictly increasing on R. Hence f(x) is one-one.
(ii) As range  codomain, therefore given function is ONTO
(iii) f(x) = 2(x – 1); 0  x  3

 ve ; 0  x  1
 f(x) = 
 ve ; 1  x  3

 f(x) is non monotonic. Hence it is not injective.

For f(x) to be surjective, A should be equal to its range. By graph range is [–1, 3]
 A  [–1, 3]

Self practice problems :

(11) For each of the following functions find whether it is one-one or many-one and also into or onto
1
(i) f(x) = 2 tan x; (/2, 3/2)  R (ii) f(x) = ; (–, 0)  R
1  x2

(iii) f(x) = x2 + n x
Answers : (i) one-one onto (ii) one-one into (iii) one-one onto

Equal or dentical Functions :

Two functions f and g are said to be identical (or equal) iff :

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 (i) The domain of f  the domain of g.

(ii) f(x) = g(x), for every x belonging to their common domain.

1 x
e.g. f(x) = and g(x) = 2 are identical functions. Clearly the graphs of f(x) and g(x) are
x x
exactly same

x2
But f(x) = x and g(x) = are not identical functions.
x
Clearly the graphs of f(x) and g(x) are different at x = 0.

Example # 18 : Examine whether following pair of functions are identical or not ?

x2  1
(i) f(x) = and g(x) = x + 1
x 1

(ii) f(x) = sin2x + cos2x and g(x) = sec2x – tan2x

Solution : (i) No, as domain of f(x) is R – {1}
while domain of g(x) is R
(ii) No, as domain are not same. Domain of f(x) is R
  
while that of g(x) is R –  2n  1 ; n  I
 2 

Self practice problems

(12) Examine whether the following pair of functions are identical or not :
 x
 x0
(i) f(x) = sgn (x) and g(x) =  | x |
 0 x0


(ii) f(x) = cosec2x – cot2x and g(x) = 1

Answers : (i) Yes (ii) No

Composite Function :
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 Let f: XY1 and g: Y2 Z be two functions and D is the set of values of x such that if x  X, then

f(x)  Y2. If D  , then the function h defined on D by h(x) = g{f(x)} is called composite function of g

and f and is denoted by gof. It is also called function of a function.

Note :  Domain of gof is D which is a subset of X (the domain of f ). Range of gof is a subset of
the range of g. If D = X, then f(X) Y2.

Pictorially gof(x) can be viewed as under

Note that gof(x) exists only for those x when range of f(x) is a subset of domain of g(x).

Properties of Composite Functions :

(a) In general gof  fog (i.e. not commutative)
(b) The composition of functions are associative i.e. if three functions f, g, h are such that fo
(goh) and (fog) oh are defined, then fo (goh) = (fog) oh.

Example # 19 : Describe fog and gof wherever is possible for the following functions

(i) f(x) = x  3 , g(x) = 1 + x2 (ii) f(x) = x , g(x) = x2  1.

Solution : (i) Domain of f is [3, ), range of f is [0, ).

Domain of g is R, range of g is [1, ).

For gof(x)
Since range of f is a subset of domain of g,
 domain of gof is [3, ) {equal to the domain of f }
gof (x) = g{f(x)} = g ( x  3 ) = 1 + (x+3) = x + 4. Range of gof is [1, ).

For fog(x)
since range of g is a subset of domain of f,
  domain of fog is R {equal to the domain of g}

fog (x) = f{g(x)}= f(1+ x2 ) = x2  4 Range of fog is [2, ).

(ii) f(x) = x , g(x) = x2  1.

Domain of f is [0, ), range of f is [0, ).

Domain of g is R, range of g is [1, ).

For gof(x)
Since range of f is a subset of the domain of g,

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  domain of gof is [0, ) and g{f(x)}= g(x) = x  1. Range of gof is [1, )
For fog(x)
Since range of g is not a subset of the domain of f
i.e. [1, )  [0, )
 fog is not defined on whole of the domain of g.
Domain of fog is {xR, the domain of g : g(x) [0, ), the domain of f}.
Thus the domain of fog is D = {xR: 0  g(x) < }

i.e. D = { xR: 0  x2  1}= { xR: x  1 or x  1 }= (, 1]  [1, )

fog (x) = f{g(x)} = f(x21) = x2  1 Its range is [0, ).

  
Example # 20 : Let f(x) = ex ; R+  R and g(x) = sinx ;   ,  [–1, 1]. Find domain and range of fog(x)
 2 2

Solution : Domain of f(x) : (0, ) Range of g(x) : [–1, 1]

 
values in range of g(x) which are accepted by f(x) are  0,
 2 


 0 < g(x)  1  0 < sinx  1  0 < x 
2

Hence domain of fog(x) is x  (0, ]
2

Therefore Domain : (0, ]
2
Range : (1, e]

Example # 21 : If f (x) = 1 + x  2, 0  x  4

g (x) = 2  x,  1  x  3
Then find fog (x) and gof (x). Also draw their rough sketch.
Solution : fog (x) = {1 + g(x)  2, 0  g(x)  4 ,1x3
= {1 + 2  x 2, 0  2  x 4,  1  x  3
= {–1 + x ,  2  x  2,  1  x  3

(1  x ) ,  1 x  0
=  ;
 x  1 , 0 x 2

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 gof(x) = {2  f(x),  1  f(x)  3, 0  x  4
= {2  1 + x  2,  1  1 + x  2 3, 0  x  4
= {2  1 + x  2, –2  x  6, 0  x  4

x 1 , 0  x 1

3  x , 1 x  2
=  ;
x 1 , 2x3
5  x , 3x4

Self practice problems

(13) Define fog(x) and gof(x). Also find their domain and range.
(i) f(x) = [x], g(x) = sin x

(ii) f(x) = tan x, x  (–/2, /2); g(x) = 1  x2

(14) Let f(x) = ex : R+  R and g(x) = x2 – x : R  R. Find domain and range of fog (x) and gof
(x)

Answers :
(13) (i) gof = sin [x] domain : R range { sin a : a  }
fog = [ sin x] domain : R range : {–1, 0, 1}
  
(ii) gof  1  tan2 x , domain :   ,  range : [0, 1]
 4 4

fog  tan 1  x2 domain : [–1, 1] range [0, tan 1]

(14) fog (x) gof (x)

Domain : (–, 0)  (1, ) Domain : (0, )
Range : (1, ) Range : (0, )

Odd and Even Functions :

(i) If f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of ‘f’, then f is said to be an even function.
e.g. f (x) = cos x; g (x) = x² + 3.

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 (ii) If f (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of ‘f’, then f is said to be an odd function.

e.g. f (x) = sin x; g (x) = x3 + x.

Note : (i) A function may neither be odd nor even. (e.g. f(x) = ex , cos–1x)
(ii) If an odd function is defined at x = 0, then f(0) = 0

Properties of Even/Odd Function

(a) The graph of every even function is symmetric about the yaxis and that of every odd
function is symmetric about the origin.
For example graph of y = x2 is symmetric about y-axis, while graph of y = x3 is
symmetric about origin

(b) All functions (whose domain is symmetrical about origin) can be expressed as the sum of an
even and an odd function, as follows

f(x) =
(c) The only function which is defined on the entire number line and is even and odd at the same time
is f(x) = 0.

(d) If f and g both are even or both are odd, then the function f.g will be even but if any one of them
is odd and the other even then f.g will be odd.

(e) If f(x) is even then f(x) is odd while derivative of odd function is even. Note that same cannot be
said for integral of functions.

Example # 22 : Show that ax +a–x is an even function.

Solution : Let f(x) = ax + a–x

Then f(–x) = a–x + a–(–x) = a–x +ax = f(x). Hence f(x) is an even function

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  x x
Example # 23 : Prove that f(x) = x   is odd function
 e 1 x 2 

 x x  x x   x x
Solution : Let g(x) =   then g(–x) =   x   =  x  
 e 1
x 2   e 1 2   e 1 2 

 g(x) is even
 x x
hence f(x) = x.g(x) = x   is odd function.
 e 1
x 2 

Self practice problems

(15) Determine whether the following functions are even / odd / neither even nor odd?
e x  e x
(i) f(x) =
ex  e x

(ii) f : [–2, 3] 0, 9] , f(x) = x2

(iii) f(x) = x log x  x2  1 

Answers (i) Odd (ii) neither even nor odd (iii) Even

Periodic Functions :
A function f(x) is called periodic with a period T if there exists a real number T > 0 such that for each x in
the domain of f the numbers x – T and x + T are also in the domain of f and f(x) = f(x + T) for all x in the
domain of f(x). Graph of a periodic function with period T is repeated after every interval of 'T'.
e.g. The function sin x and cos x both are periodic over 2 and tan x is periodic over 
 The least positive period is called the principal or fundamental period of f(x) or simply the
period of the function.

Note : Inverse of a periodic function does not exist.

Properties of Periodic Functions :

1
(a) If f(x) has a period T, then and f (x) also have a period T.
f (x)

T
(b) If f(x) has a period T, then f (ax + b) has a period .
|a|

(c) Every constant function defined for all real x, is always periodic, with no fundamental
period.

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 (d) If f (x) has a period T1 and g (x) also has a period T2 then period of f(x) ± g(x) or f(x) .

f(x)
g(x) or is L.C.M. of T1 and T2 provided their L.C.M. exists. However that L.C.M. (if exists) need
g(x)

not to be fundamental period. If L.C.M. does not exists then f(x) ± g(x) or f(x) . g(x) or
f(x)
is nonperiodic.
g(x)

a p  L.C.M.(a, p, )
L.C.M. of  , , =
 b q m  H.C.F. (b, q, m)

e.g. |sinx| has the period , | cosx | also has the period 

 |sinx| + |cosx| also has a period . But the fundamental period of |sinx| + |cosx| is .
2

(e) If g is a function such that gof is defined on the domain of f and f is periodic with T, then
gof is also periodic with T as one of its periods.

Example # 24 : Find period of the following functions

x x
(i) f(x) = sin + cos
2 3
(ii) f(x) = {x} + sin x, where {.}denotes fractional part function
3x x 2x
(iii) f(x) = 4 cos x . cos 3x + 2 (iv) f(x) = sin – cos – tan
2 3 3
x x x x
Solution : (i) Period of sin is 4 while period of cos is 6 . Hence period of sin + cos is 12 
2 3 2 3
{L.C.M. of 4 and 6 is 12}
(ii) Period of sin x = 2
Period of {x} = 1
but L.C.M. of 2 and 1 is not possible as their ratio is irrational number
 it is aperiodic
(iii) f(x) = 4 cos x . cos 3x + 2
 2 
period of f(x) is L.C.M. of  2, = 2
 3 

2
but 2 may or may not be fundamental periodic, but fundamental period = , where
n

n  N. Hence cross-checking for n = 1, 2, 3, ....we find  to be fundamental period

f( + x) = 4(– cos x) (– cos 3x) + 2 = f(x)
2 2  4 3
(iv) Period of f(x) is L.C.M. of , , = L.C.M. of , 6 , = 12
3 / 2 1/ 3 2 / 3 3 2
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Inverse of a Function :

Let y = f(x) : A  B be a one-one and onto function. i.e. bijection, then there will always exist bijective
function x = g(y) : B  A such that if (p, q) is an element of f, (q, p) will be an element of g and the

functions f(x) and g(x) are said to be inverse of each other. g(x) is also denoted by f 1(x) and f(x) is
–1
denoted by g (x)

Note : (i) The inverse of a bijection is unique.

(ii) Inverse of an even function is not defined.

Properties of Inverse Function :

(a) The graphs of f and g are the mirror images of each other in the line y = x. For example
f(x) = ax and g(x) = loga x are inverse of each other, and their graphs are mirror images of each
other on the line y = x as shown below.

(b) Normally points of intersection of f and f–1 lie on the straight line y = x. However it must be noted
–1
that f(x) and f (x) may intersect otherwise also. e.g f(x) = 1/x

(c) In general fog(x) and gof(x) are not equal. But if f and g are inverse of each other, then
gof = fog. fog(x) and gof(x) can be equal even if f and g are not inverse of each other.
–1
e.g. f(x) = x + 1, g(x) = x + 2. However if fog(x) = gof(x) = x, then g(x) = f (x)

(d) If f and g are two bijections f : A  B, g : B  C, then the inverse of gof exists and

(gof)1 = f1 o g1.

1
(e) If f(x) and g(x) are inverse function of each other, then f(g(x)) =
g(x)

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 2x  3
Example # 25 : (i) Determine whether f(x) = for f : R  R, is invertible or not? If so find it.
4

(ii) Let f(x) = x2 + 2x; x  –1. Draw graph of f–1(x) also find the number of solutions of the

equation, f(x) = f–1(x)

(iii) If y = f(x) = x2 – 3x + 2, x  1. Find the value of g(2)where g is inverse of f
Solution : (i) Given function is one-one and onto, therefore it is invertible.
2x  3 4y  3 –1 4x  3
y=  x=  f (x) =
4 2 2

(ii) f(x) = f–1(x) is equivalent to f(x) = x  x2 + 2x = x  x(x + 1) = 0  x = 0, –1

Hence two solution for f(x) = f–1(x)

(iii) f(x) = x2 – 3x + 2, x  1

f(g(x) = g(x)2 – 3 g(x) + 2

 2 = g(2)2 – 3g(2) + 2
 g(2) = 0, 3  1
so g(2) = 0
f(x) = 2x – 3
1 1 1
f(g(x) = x  f(g(x)) . g(x) = 1  g(2) = = =–
f (g(2)) f (0) 3

Self practice problems :

–1
(16) Determine f (x), if given function is invertible
2
f : (–, –1)  (–, –2) defined by f(x) = –(x + 1) – 2
Answers : –1– x  2

Inverse Trigonometry Functions

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Introduction : The student may be familiar about trigonometric functions viz sin x, cos x, tan x, cosec x, sec x, cot
x with respective domains R, R, R – {(2n + 1) /2}, R – {n}, R – {(2n + 1) /2}, R – {n} and
respective ranges [–1, 1], [–1, 1], R, R – (–1, 1), R – (–1, 1), R.

Correspondingly, six inverse trigonometric functions (also called inverse circular functions) are defined.

Inverse Domain Range Graph

Trigonometric
Function

f(x) = sin–1x [–1, 1] [–/2, /2]

or arcsinx

f(x) = cos–1x [–1, 1] [0, ]

or arccosx

y
f(x) = tan–1x R (–/2, /2)
or arctanx
/2

o x

/2

f(x) = cot–1x R (0, )

or arccotx

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 f(x) = sec–1x R – (–1, 1) [0, ] – {/2}
or arcsecx

f(x) = cosec– R – (–1, 1) [–/2, /2] –

1x or {0}

arccosecx

  1  1 
Example # 26 : Find the value of tan . cos1    tan1   
 2  3  

  1  1       1
Solution : tan cos1    tan1     = tan       = tan   = .
 2  3    3  6  6 3

Example # 27 : Find domain of sin–1 (2x2 + 1)

Solution : Let y = sin–1 (2x2 + 1)

For y to be defined – 1  (2x2 + 1)  1  –2  2x2  0  x  {0}

Self practice problems :

  1 
(17) Find the value of (i) cos   sin1    
3  2 

(ii) cosec [sec–1 ( 2 ) + cot–1 (1)]

(18) Find the domain of

(i) y = sec–1 (x2 + 3x + 1)
 x2 
(ii) y = sin–1  
2 
 1 x 

(iii) y = cot–1 ( x 2  1)
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 (19) Find the range of (i) sin–1|x| + sec–1|x|

(ii) sin–1 x2  x  1

Answers : (17) (i) 0 (ii) 1

(18) (i) (– , – 3]  [ – 2, – 1]  [0, ) (ii) R
(iii) (– , –1]  [1, )
(19) (i) {/2} (ii) [/3, /2]

Property 1 : T(T–1)

(i) sin (sin1 x) = x,   1  x  1

Proof : Let  = sin–1x. Then x  [–1, 1] &  [–/2, /2].

 sin  = x, by meaning of the symbol  sin (sin–1 x) = x

Similar proofs can be carried out to obtain

(ii) cos (cos1 x) = x, 1  x  1 (iii) tan (tan1 x) = x, xR

(iv) cot (cot1 x) = x, xR (v) sec (sec1 x) = x, x  1, x  1

(vi) cosec (cosec1 x) = x, |x|  1

Property 2 : T–1(T)
 2n  x, x  [2n   / 2, 2n   / 2]
(i) sin–1 (sin x) = 
(2n  1)   x, x  [(2n  1)    / 2, (2n  1)   / 2], n  Z

Graph of y = sin–1 (sin x)

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 2n  x, x  [2n, (2n  1)]
(ii) cos–1 (cos x) = 
 2n  x, x  [(2n  1) , 2n], n  

Graph of y = cos–1 (cos x)

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(iii) tan–1 (tan x) = – n + x, n – /2 < x < n + /2, n  z

Graph of y = tan–1 (tan x)

(iv) cosec–1 (cosec x) is similar to sin–1 (sin x)

Graph of y = cosec–1 (cosec x)

(v) sec–1 (sec x) is similar to cos–1 (cos x)

Graph of y = sec–1 (sec x)

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 (vii) cot–1 (cot x) = –n + x, x  (n , (n + 1)  ), n  Z

Graph of y = cot–1 (cot x)

Remark : sin (sin–1x), cos (cos–1x), .... cot (cot–1x) are aperiodic (non periodic) functions where as

sin–1 (sin x), ..., cot–1(cot x) are periodic functions.

Property 3 : “–x”

The graphs of sin–1x, tan–1 x, cosec–1x are symmetric about origin.

Hence we get sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1x
tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1x
cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1x.

Also the graphs of cos–1x, sec–1x, cot–1x are symmetric about the point (0, /2). From this, we get
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 cos–1 (–x) =  – cos–1x

sec–1 (–x) =  – sec–1x

cot–1 (–x) =  – cot–1x.

Property 4 : “/2”

(i) sin1 x + cos1 x = , 1  x  1
2

Proof : Let A = sin–1x and B = cos–1x  sin A = x and cos B = x

 sin A = cos B  sin A = sin (/2 – B)
 A = /2 – B, because A and /2 – B  [–/2, /2]
 A + B = /2.

Similarly, we can prove

 
(ii) tan1 x + cot1 x = , x  R (iii) cosec1 x + sec1 x = , x  1
2 2

  3  
Example # 28 : Find the value of cosec cot  cot 1   .
  4 

Solution :
 cot (cot–1 x) = x,  x  R
 3  3
 cot  cot 1  =
 4  4

  3    3 
cosec cot  cot 1   = cosec   = . 2
  4   4 

 3 
Example # 29 Find the value of tan–1  tan .
4   

  
Solution :  tan–1 (tan x) = x if x    , 
 2 2

3      3  3
As   ,   tan–1  tan   
4  2 2  4  4

3   3 
     , 
4 2 2 

graph of y = tan–1 (tan x) is as :

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30
  3
   from the graph we can see that if < x< ,
2 2

then tan–1 (tan x) = x – 

 3  3 
 tan–1  tan  = – =–
 4  4 4

Example # 30 : Find the value of sin–1 (sin7) and sin–1 (sin (–5)).
Solution. Let y = sin–1 (sin 7)
   5
sin–1 (sin 7)  7 as 7    ,    2 < 7 <
 2 2 2

graph of y = sin–1 (sin x) is as :

5
From the graph we can see that if 2  x  , then
2

y = sin–1(sin x ) can be written as :

y = x – 2

 sin–1 (sin 7) = 7 – 2

Similarly if we have to find sin–1 (sin(–5)) then

3
 – 2 < – 5 < –
2
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31
  from the graph of sin–1 (sin x), we can say that sin–1 (sin(–5)) = 2 + (–5) = 2 – 5

Example # 31 : Solve sin–1 (x2 – 2x + 1) + cos–1(x2 – x) =
2

Solution : sin–1(f(x)) + cos–1(g(x)) =  f(x) = g(x) and –1  f(x), g(x)  1
2

x2 – 2x + 1 = x2 – x  x = 1, accepted as a solution

Self practice problems :

   
(20) Find the value of (i) cos sin  sin1  
  6 

  3  
(ii) sin cos  cos1  (iii) cos–1 (cos 13)
  4 

  7     1 
(iv) cos–1 (– cos 4) (v) tan–1 tan    (vi) tan–1 cot    
  8    4 

 5 
(21) Find sin–1 (sin ), cos–1(cos), tan–1 (tan ), cot–1(cot) for    , 3 
2  

(22) Solve the following equations (i) 5 tan–1x + 3 cot–1x = 2 (ii) 4 sin–1x

=  – cos–1x

(iii) Solve sin–1(x2 – 2x + 3) + cos–1(x2 – x) =
2

3
Answer : (20) (i) (ii) not defined (iii) 13 – 4
2

  1 
(iv) 4 –  (v) (vi) 4  2
8  

(21) 3 – , – 2,  – 3,  – 2

1
(22). (i) x=1 (ii) x= (iii) No solution
2

Interconversion & Simplification

Interconversion of any trigonometric ratio inverse means its conversion in remaining five trigonometric
ratio inverse. Example

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32
  for x  (0,1) for x  (–1,0)
 1
 cos 1  x
2
 cos1 1  x 2
 x x
 tan1 tan1
 1  x2 1  x2

sin–1 x =  1 1  x 2 1  x2
cot   cot 1
 x x

sec  1 1
1
 sec 1
 1  x2 1  x2

 cos ec 1 1 cos ec 1
1
 x x

Example # 32 : Convert (i) tan–13, (ii) sin–1 (–1/3) in terms of cosine inverse.
1 1
Sol. (i) Let  = tan–13  tan = 3  cos =   = cos–1
10 10

(ii) sin–1 (–1/3) = – sin–1 (1/3)

1 2 2 2 2
Let  = sin–1 (1/3)  sin =  cos =   = cos–1
3 3 3

2 2
 sin–1 (–1/3) = – cos–1
3

 tan1(1/ x), x0

Example # 33 : Show that cot–1x =  1
  tan (1/ x), x  0

Sol. Let cot–1x =  (x = cot)   (0, )

  
     0, 
  2
Now tan–1(1/x) = tan–1tan() = 
       ,  
 2 
 

 cot 1 x x0
=  1
cot x x 0

 tan1(1/ x), x0

 cot–1x =  1
  tan (1/ x), x  0

 2 tan1 x if | x |  1

Example # 34 : Show that sin1
2x
=    2 tan1 x if x  1
1  x2 
 
    2 tan1 x  if x  1

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33
   
Sol : Let tan–1 x = (x = tan)    ,   2 (–)
 2 2

     
  2 2   ,   or    ,  
  2  2 4
2x 
      
Now sin–1 = sin–1sin2 =  2 2    ,  or     , 
1  x2   2 2   4 4
    
   2 2   ,   or    , 
 2  4 2 

 2 tan1 x if x  [–1, 1]

=    2 tan1 x if x 1

 
    2 tan1 x  if x  1

Example # 35 : Define y = cos–1 (4x3 – 3x) in terms of cos–1 x

Solution :  Let cos–1x = (x = cos)    [0, ]  3 = [0, 3]
–1 –1
Now y = cos (4x – 3x) = cos cos3
3

  
 3 3  [0, ] or   0, 
  3
   2 
= 2  3 3  [, 2] or    ,  
 3 3 
  2 
 3   3  [2, 3] or    ,  
 3 

 1 1
 3cos x ;  x 1
2

 1 1
  y = cos–1 (4x3 – 3x) =  2  3cos1 x ;   x 
 2 2
 1 1
2  3cos x ; 1  x   2


   2   
Example # 36 : Simplify (i) sin   tan cot 1   
  3   
 

 1
(ii) sin  2 tan1
 2 

(iii) cos (2cos–1(1/5) + sin–1(1/5))

  2  
Solution : (i) Let y = tan cot 1    ........(A)
  3 

 cot–1 (–x) =  – cot–1x, x  R

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 (A) can be written as
  2 
y = tan   cot 1   
 3  

 2
y = – tan  cot 1 
 3 

1
 cot–1 x = tan–1 if x>0
x

 3 3    2     3 
 y = – tan  tan1   y =– so sin   tan cot 1     = sin  2  = 1
2  2    3    

 1  1 1   1 1   1 1   1 2 
(ii) sin  2 tan1 = 2sin  tan 2  cos  tan 2  = 2sin  sin  × cos  cos 
 2       5  5

1 2 4
=2×  
5 5 5

 1 1  1 1 1
(iii) cos  2cos1  sin1  = cos  cos1  sin1  cos1 
 5 5  
5 5 5 

 1   1 
= cos   cos1  = – sin  cos1    .........(i)
2 5   5 

2
 1 2 6
= – 1   =– .
5 5

Self practices problem :

 1  x2 
(23) Define (i) cos1  2 
–1
 in terms of tan x
 1 x 

 3x  x3 
(ii) tan–1   in terms of tan–1 x
2 
 1  3x 

  2    1 
(24) Find the value of (i) sec  cos1    , (ii) cosec  sin1    ,
3      3  

 41   1 16  1 1  3  
(iii) tan  cosec 1  , (iv) sec  cot 63  , (v) sin  cot  
 4    2  4 

  1 
(vi) tan 2 tan1     ,
  5  4

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 (25) If x  (–1, 1) and 2 tan–1 x = tan–1y then find y in term of x.
1
(26) Find the value of sin (2cos–1x + sin–1x) when x =
5

1  x2  2 tan1 x if x  0
Answers : (23) (i) cos1 = 
1 x   2 tan1 x if x  0
2

 1 1 1
 3 tan x ;  x
 3 3
 3x  x3   1
(ii) tan–1  1
 =    3 tan x ;   x  
2 
 1  3x   3
 1 1
  3 tan x ; x
 3

3 4 65 2 5 7
(24) (i) (ii) – 3 (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
2 5 16 5 17

2x
(25) y=
1  x2
1
(26)
5

Identities on addition and subtraction :

S.No. Identities Condition

(1) tan–1x + tan–1y = /2 x, y > 0 & xy = 1

(2)  xy  x, y  0 & xy < 1

tan–1x + tan–1y = tan1  
 1  xy 

(3)  xy  x, y  0 & xy > 1

tan–1x + tan–1y =   tan1  
 1  xy 

(4)  xy  x  0, y  0
tan–1x – tan–1y = tan–1  
 1  xy 

(5)

sin1 x + sin1 y = sin1 x 1  y2  y 1  x2  x  0, y  0 and (x2 + y2)  1

(6)

sin1 x + sin1 y =   sin1 x 1  y2  y 1  x2  x  0, y  0 and (x2 + y2)  1

(7)

sin–1x – sin–1y = sin–1 x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2  x, y  [0, 1]

(8)

cos–1 x + cos–1y = cos–1 xy  1  x2 1  y 2  x, y  [0, 1]

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 (9)

cos–1 x – cos–1y = cos1 xy  1  x 2 1  y 2  0x<y1

(10)

cos–1 x – cos–1y = – cos1 xy  1  x 2 1  y 2  0y<x1

Some useful Results :

(i) If tan1 x + tan1 y + tan1 z =  , then x + y + z = xyz


(ii) If tan1 x + tan1 y + tan1 z = , then xy + yz + zx = 1
2

(iii) tan1 1 + tan1 2 + tan1 3 = 

1 
tan1 1 + tan1 + tan1 =
1
(iv)
2 3 2

4 15  84
Example # 37 : Show that cos–1 + sin–1 = + cos–1
5 17 2 85
4 3
Solution : cos–1 = sin–1 
5 5
2 2
3 15 3  15  8226
   > 0, > 0 and   +   = >1
5 17 5  17  7225

3 15 3 225 15 9 
  sin–1 + sin–1 =  – sin–1  1  1 
5 17 5 289 17 25 

3 8 15 4  84   84  84
=  – sin–1  .  .  =  – sin–1   =  – 2 + cos
–1 = + cos–1
5 17 17 5  85  85 2 85

1 4
Example # 38 : Evaluate cot–1 + cot–1 + cot–11
9 5
1 4 5
Solution : cot–1 + cot–1 + cot–11 = tan–1 9 + tan–1 + cot–11
9 5 4

5  5
   9 > 0, > 0 and  9   > 1
4  4

 5 
5  9 4 
 tan–1 9 + tan–1 + cot–11 =  + tan–1   + cot–11 =  + tan–1 (– 1) + cot–11
4  1  9. 5 
 4 


=– + cot–11 =  .
4

Self practice problems:

SCO 78-78, SECTOR 17-C, CHD, +91-87108-26000,87109-26000
37
 4 5 16
(27) Evaluate sin–1 + sin–1 + sin–1
5 13 65

(28) If tan–14 + tan–1 5 = cot–1 , then find ‘’

3 16 1 7
(29) Prove that 2 cos–1 + cot–1 + cos–1 = 
13 63 2 25

 19 1
Answers. (27) (28) =– (29) x=
2 9 2

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38
 QUADRATIC EQUATION
1. Polynomial :

A function f defined by f(x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + .......+ a1x + a0

where a0, a1, a2, ......, an  R is called a polynomial of degree n with real coefficients (a n  0, n  W).

If a0, a1, a2, ....., an  C, it is called a polynomial with complex coefficients.

2. Quadratic polynomial & Quadratic equation :

A polynomial of degree 2 is known as quadratic polynomial. Any equation f(x) = 0, where f is a quadratic
polynomial, is called a quadratic equation. The general form of a quadratic equation is
ax2 + bx + c = 0 .......(i)
Where a, b, c are real numbers, a  0.
If a = 0, then equation (i) becomes linear equation.

3. Difference between equation & identity :

If a statement is true for all the values of the variable, such statements are called as identities. If the
statement is true for some or no values of the variable, such statements are called as equations.

Example : (i) (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9 is an identity

(ii) (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 8, is an equation having no root.

(iii) (x + 3)2 = x2 + 5x + 8, is an equation having – 1 as its root.

A quadratic equation has exactly two roots which may be real (equal or unequal) or imaginary.
a x2 + b x + c = 0 is:

  a quadratic equation if a  0 Two Roots

  a linear equation if a = 0, b  0 One Root
  a contradiction if a = b = 0, c  0 No Root
  an identity if a=b=c=0 Infinite Roots
If ax2 + bx + c = 0 is satisfied by three distinct values of ' x ', then it is an identity.

Example # 1 : (i) 3x2 + 2x – 1 = 0 is a quadratic equation here a = 3.

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39
 (ii) (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1 is an identity in x.
Solution : Here highest power of x in the given relation is 2 and this relation is satisfied by three different
values x = 0, x = 1 and x = – 1 and hence it is an identity because a polynomial equation of nth
degree cannot have more than n distinct roots.

4. Relation Between Roots & Co-efficients:

(i) The solutions of quadratic equation, a x2 + b x + c = 0, (a  0) is given by

 b  b2  4ac
x=
2a

The expression, b2  4 a c  D is called discriminant of quadratic equation.

(ii) If ,  are the roots of quadratic equation,

a x2 + b x + c = 0 .......(i)
then equation (i) can be written as
a(x – ) (x – ) = 0 or ax2 – a( + )x + a  = 0 ......(ii)
equations (i) and (ii) are identical,
b coefficient of x
 by comparing the coefficients sum of the roots,  +  = – = –
a coefficient of x 2

c constant term
and product of the roots, = =
a coefficient of x 2

b c
(iii) Dividing the equation (i) by a, x2 + x+ =0 
a a

 b  c
  x2 –   x + =0  x2 – ( + )x +  = 0
 a  a

 x2 – (sum of the roots) x + (product of the roots) = 0

Hence we conclude that the quadratic equation whose roots are  &  is x2 – ( + )x +  = 0

Example # 2 : If  and  are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, find the equation whose roots are +2 and +2.
Solution : Replacing x by x – 2 in the given equation, the required equation is
a(x – 2)2 + b(x – 2) + c = 0 i.e., ax2 – (4a – b)x + (4a – 2b + c) = 0.

Example # 3 : The coefficient of x in the quadratic equation x2 + px + q = 0 was taken as 17 in place of 13, its
roots were found to be – 2 and – 15. Find the roots of the original equation.
Solution : Here q = (– 2) × (– 15) = 30, correct value of p = 13. Hence original equation is
x2 + 13x + 30 = 0 as (x + 10) (x + 3) = 0
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   roots are – 10, – 3
Self practice problems :

(1) If ,  are the roots of the quadratic equation cx2 – 2bx + 4a = 0 then find the quadratic equation
whose roots are
 
(i) , (ii) 2, 2 (iii)  + 1,  + 1
2 2
1  1    
(iv) , (v) ,
1  1    

(r  1)2 b2
(2) If r be the ratio of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, show that = .
r ac

Answers : (1) (i) cx2 – bx + a = 0

(ii) c2x2 + 4(b2 – 2ac)x + 16a2 = 0
(iii) cx2 – 2x(b + c) + (4a + 2b + c) = 0
(iv) (c – 2b + 4a)x2 + 2(4a – c) x + (c + 2b + 4a) = 0

(v) 4acx2 + 4(b2 – 2ac) x + 4ac = 0

5. Theory Of Equations :
If 1, 2, 3,......n are the roots of the equation;

f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2 +.... + an-1x + an = 0 where a0, a1,....,an are all real & a0  0 then, 

a1 a a a
 1 =  ,  1 2 = + 2 , 1 2 3 =  3 ,....., 1 2 3........n = (1)n n
a0 a0 a0 a0

Note : (i) If  is a root of the equation f(x) = 0, then the polynomial f(x) is exactly divisible by (x ) or
(x ) is a factor of f(x) and conversely.

(ii) Every equation of nth degree (n 1) has exactly n roots & if the equation has more than n roots, it
is an identity.
(iii) If the coefficients of the equation f(x) = 0 are all real and  + i is its root, then   i is also a
root. i.e. imaginary roots occur in conjugate pairs.
(iv) An equation of odd degree will have odd number of real roots and an equation of even degree will
have even numbers of real roots.

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 (v) If the coefficients in the equation are all rational &  +  is one of its roots, then 

  is also a root where ,   Q &  is not square of a rational number.

(vi) If there be any two real numbers 'a' & 'b' such that f(a) & f(b) are of opposite signs, then
f(x) = 0 must have odd number of real roots (also atleast one real root) between ' a ' and ' b '.
(vii) Every equation f(x) = 0 of degree odd has atleast one real root of a sign opposite to that of its
last term. (If coefficient of highest degree term is positive).

Example # 4 : If 2x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 has roots , ,  then find  +  + ,  + +  and .
Solution : Using relation between roots and coefficients, we get
3 5 6
+  +  = = – , +  +  = ,  = – = – 3.
2 2 2

Self practice problems :

(3) If 2p3 – 9pq + 27r = 0 then prove that the roots of the equations rx3 – qx2 + px – 1 = 0 are in H.P.

(4) If , ,  are the roots of the equation x3 + qx + r = 0 then find the equation whose roots are
(a)  + 2,  + , 
r r r
(b)  ,  , 
  

(c) 2, 2, 2

(d) 3, 3, 3

Answers : (4) (a) x3 + qx – r = 0 (b) x3 – qx2 – r2 = 0

(c) x3 + 2qx2 + q2 x – r2 = 0 (d) x3 – 3x2r + (3r2 + q3) x
– r3 = 0

6. Nature of Roots:

Consider the quadratic equation, a x2 + b x + c = 0 having ,  as its roots;

D  b2  4 a c

D=0 D0
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 Roots are equal i.e.  =  =  b/2a Roots are unequal
& the quadratic expression can be expressed
as a perfect square of a linear polynomial

a, b, c  R & D > 0 a, b, c  R & D < 0

Roots are real Roots are imaginary  = p + i q,  = p  i q

a, b, c  Q & a, b, c  Q &
D is square of a rational number D is not square of a rational number
 Roots are rational  Roots are irrational
 i.e.  = p + q ,  = p  q

a = 1, b, c   & D is square of an integer

Roots are integral.

Example # 5 : For what values of m the equation (1 + m) x2 – 2(1 + 3m)x + (1 + 8m) = 0 has equal roots.

Solution : Given equation is (1 + m) x2 – 2(1 + 3m)x + (1 + 8m) = 0 ........(i)

Let D be the discriminant of equation (i).
Roots of equation (i) will be equal if D = 0.
or 4(1 + 3m)2 – 4(1 + m) (1 + 8m) = 0
or 4(1 + 9m2 + 6m – 1 – 9m – 8m2) = 0
or m2 – 3m = 0 or, m(m – 3) = 0
  m = 0, 3.

Example # 6 : Find all the integral values of a for which the quadratic equation (x – a) (x – 10) + 1 = 0 has
integral roots.

Solution : Here the equation is x2 – (a + 10)x + 10a + 1 = 0. Since integral roots will always be rational it
means D should be a perfect square.
From (i) D = a2 – 20a + 96.

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   D = (a – 10)2 – 4  4 = (a – 10)2 – D
If D is a perfect square it means we want difference of two perfect square as 4 which is possible
only when (a – 10)2 = 4 and D = 0.
 (a – 10) = ± 2  a = 12, 8

Example # 7 : If the roots of the equation (x – a) (x – b) – k = 0 be c and d, then prove that the roots of the
equation (x – c) (x – d) + k = 0, are a and b.
Solution : By given condition (x – a) (x – b) – k  (x – c) (x – d)
or (x – c) (x – d) + k  (x – a) (x – b)
Above shows that the roots of (x – c) (x – d) + k = 0 are a and b.

Example # 8 : Determine 'a' such that x2 – 11x + a and x2 – 14x + 2a may have a common factor.
Solution : Let x –  be a common factor of x2 – 11x + a and x2 – 14x + 2a.

Then x =  will satisfy the equations x2 – 11x + a = 0 and x2 – 14x + 2a = 0.

  2 – 11 + a = 0 and 2 – 14 + 2a = 0

Solving (i) and (ii) by cross multiplication method, we get a = 0, 24.

Example # 9 : Show that the expression x2 + 2(a + b + c)x + 3(bc + ca + ab) will be a perfect square
if a = b = c.
Solution : Given quadratic expression will be a perfect square if the discriminant of its corresponding
equation is zero.
i.e. 4(a + b + c)2 – 4.3 (bc + ca + ab) = 0
or (a + b + c)2 – 3(bc + ca + ab) = 0
1
or ((a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2) = 0
2
which is possible only when a = b = c.

Self practice problems :

(5) For what values of 'k' the expression (4 – k)x2 + 2(k + 2)x + 8k + 1 will be a perfect square ?

(6) If (x – ) be a factor common to a1x2 + b1x + c and a2x2 + b2x + c, then prove that 

 (a1 – a2) = b2 – b1.

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 (7) If 3x2 + 2xy + 2y2 + 2ax – 4y + 1 can be resolved into two linear factors, Prove that '' is a root

of the equation x2 + 4ax + 2a2 + 6 = 0.

(8) Let 4x2 – 4( – 2)x +  – 2 = 0 (  R) be a quadratic equation. Find the values of '' for which
(i) Both roots are real and distinct.
(ii) Both roots are equal.
(iii) Both roots are imaginary
(iv) Both roots are opposite in sign.
(v) Both roots are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.

(9) If P(x) = ax2 + bx + c, and Q(x) = – ax2 + dx + c, ac  0 then prove that P(x) . Q(x) = 0 has
atleast two real roots.

Answers. (5) 0, 3
(8) (i) (– , 2)  (3, ) (ii)  {2, 3} (iii) (2, 3) (iv) (– , 2) (v) 

7. Graph of Quadratic Expression :

 the graph between x, y is always a parabola.

 b D 
 the coordinate of vertex are   , 
 2a 4a 

 If a > 0 then the shape of the parabola is concave upwards & if a < 0 then the shape of the parabola
is concave downwards.

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  the parabola intersect the yaxis at point (0, c).

 the xcoordinate of point of intersection of parabola with xaxis are the real roots of the
quadratic equation f (x) = 0. Hence the parabola may or may not intersect the xaxis.

8. Range of Quadratic Expression f(x) = ax2 + bx + c.

(i) Range :
 D 
If a > 0   f (x)  , 
 4a 

 D 
If a < 0   f (x)    ,  
 4a 

D
Hence maximum and minimum values of the expression f (x) is  in respective cases and it
4a

b
occurs at x =  (at vertex).
2a

(ii) Range in restricted domain:

Given x  [x1, x2]

b
(a) If   [x1, x2] then,
2a

f (x) [min{ f(x1),f(x 2 )} , max { f(x1),f(x 2 )}]

b
(b) If   [x1, x2] then,
2a

  D   D 
f (x)  min  f ( x1 ) , f ( x 2 ) ,   , max  f ( x1 ) , f ( x 2 ) ,  
  4a   4a  

9. Sign of Quadratic Expressions :

The value of expression f (x) = a x2 + b x + c at x = x0 is equal to ycoordinate of the point on parabola

y = a x2 + b x + c whose xcoordinate is x0. Hence if the point lies above the xaxis for some x = x0,

then f (x0) > 0 and viceversa.

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We get six different positions of the graph with respect to xaxis as shown.

(i) Conclusions :

(a) a>0
(b) D>0
(c) Roots are real & distinct.
(d) f(x) > 0 in x  (– , )  (, )
(e) f(x) < 0 in x  (, )

(ii) (a) a>0

(b) D=0
(c) Roots are real & equal.
(d) f(x) > 0 in x  R – {}

(iii) (a) a>0

(b) D<0
(c) Roots are imaginary.
(d) f(x) > 0 x  R.

(iv) (a) a<0

(b) D>0
(c) Roots are real & distinct.
(d) f(x) < 0 in x  (– , )  (, )
(e) f(x) > 0 in x  (, )

(v) (a) a<0

(b) D=0
(c) Roots are real & equal.
(d) f(x) < 0 in x  R – {}

(vi) (a) a<0

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 (b) D<0
(c) Roots are imaginary.
(d) f(x) < 0 x  R.

Example # 10 : If c < 0 and ax2 + bx + c = 0 does not have any real roots then prove that
(i) a–b+c<0 (ii) 9a + 3b + c < 0.

Solution : c < 0 and D < 0   f(x) = ax2 + bx + c < 0 for all x  R

     f(– 1) = a – b + c < 0
and f(3) = 9a + 3b + c < 0

Example # 11 : Find the range of f(x) = x2 – 5x + 6.

D b  25  24  5 1
Solution : minimum of f(x) =– at x = – =–   at x = =–
4a 2a  4  2 4

maximum of f(x)  
 1 
Hence range is   ,  
4  

x2  x  4
Example # 12 : Find the range of rational expression y = if x is real.
x2  x  4

x2  x  4
Solution : y=   (y – 1)x 2 + (y + 1) x + 4(y – 1) = 0 ........(i)
x2  x  4
case- : if y  1, then equation (i) is quadratic in x
and  x is real

  D0   (y + 1) 2 – 16(y – 1) 2  0  (5y – 3) (3y – 5)  0

3 5
 y ,  – {1}
5 3

case- : if y = 1, then equation becomes

2x = 0  x = 0 which is possible as x is real.
3 5
 Rangec  ,
5 3 

x3
Example # 13 : Find the range of y = , if x is real.
2x  3x  9
2

x3
Solution : y=
2x  3x  9
2

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   2yx2 + (3y – 1)x + 3(3y – 1) = 0  .......(i)
case- : if y  0, then equation (i) is quadratic in x
  x is real
 D0

  (3y – 1)2 – 24y (3y – 1)  0

  (3y – 1) (21y + 1)  0
 1 1
y   ,  – {0}
 21 3

case- : if y = 0, then equation becomes

x = –3 which is possible as x is real
 1 1
  Range y   , 
 21 3

Self practice problems :

(10) If c > 0 and ax2 + 2bx + 3c = 0 does not have any real roots then prove that
(i) 4a – 4b + 3c > 0(ii) a + 6b + 27c > 0 (iii) a + 2b + 6c > 0

(a  b)2
(11) If f(x) = (x – a) (x – b), then show that f(x)  – .
4
(12) Find the least integral value of 'k' for which the quadratic polynomial
(k – 1) x2 + 8x + k + 5 > 0  x  R.

x 2  34x  71
(13) Find the range of the expression , if x is a real.
x 2  2x  7

mx 2  3x  4
(14) Find the interval in which 'm' lies so that the expression can take all real
4x 2  3x  m

values,x  R.

Answers : (12) k = 4 (13) (– , 5]  [9, ) (14) m  (1, 7)

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10. Location of Roots :

Let f (x) = ax² + bx + c, where a > 0 & a, b, c  R.

(i) (ii) (iii)

(i) Conditions for both the roots of f (x) = 0 to be greater than a specified number‘x0’ are

b²  4ac  0 & f (x0) > 0 & ( b/2a) > x0.

(ii) Conditions for both the roots of f (x) = 0 to be smaller than a specified number ‘x0’ are

b²  4ac  0 & f (x0) > 0 & ( b/2a) < x0.

(iii) Conditions for a number ‘x0’ to lie between the roots of f (x) = 0 is f (x0) < 0.

(iv) (v)

(iv) Conditions that both roots of f (x) = 0 to be confined between the numbers x1 and

x2, (x1 < x2) are b²  4ac  0 & f (x1) > 0 & f (x2) > 0 & x1 < ( b/2a) < x2.

(v) Conditions for exactly one root of f (x) = 0 to lie in the interval (x1, x2) i.e.
x1 < x < x2 is f (x1). f (x2) < 0.

Example # 14 : Let x2 – (m – 3) x + m = 0 (m  R) be a quadratic equation, then find the values of 'm' for which
(a) both the roots are greater than 2.
(b) both roots are positive.
(c) one root is positive and other is negative.
(d) One root is greater than 2 and other smaller than 1
(e) Roots are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
(f) both roots lie in the interval (1, 2)

Solution : (a)

Condition - : D  0   (m – 3)2 – 4m  0  m2 – 10m + 9  0

      (m – 1) (m – 9)  0 
       m  (– , 1]  [9, ) ......(i)

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 Condition - : f(2) > 0  4 – (m – 3)2 + m > 0 m < 10 ......(ii)
b m3
Condition - : – >2  2  m>7 ......(iii)
2a 2

Intersection of (i), (ii) and (iii) gives m  [9, 10)

(b)

Condition -  D0  m  (– , 1] [9, )

Condition -  f(0) > 0  m>0
b m3
Condition -   >0  >0  m>3
2a 2

intersection gives m  [9, ) Ans.

(c)

Condition -  f(0) < 0   m < 0 Ans.

(d)

Condition -  f(1) < 0  4<0   m 

Condition -  f(2) < 0  m > 10 
Intersection gives m   Ans.
(e) sum of roots = 0  m=3
and f(0) < 0  m<0  m  Ans.

(f)

Condition -  D  0   m  (– , 1]  [9, )

Condition -  f(1) > 0  1 – (m – 3) + m > 0  4 > 0which is true  m  R
Condition -  f(2) > 0  m < 10
b m3
Condition - V 1 < – <2  1< <2  5<m<7
2a 2

intersection gives m  Ans.

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Example # 15 : Find all the values of 'a' for which both the roots of the equation (a – 2)x2 – 2ax + a = 0 lies
in the interval (– 2, 1).
Solution : Case-I : f(–2) > 0  4(a – 2) + 4a + a > 0
8
9a – 8 > 0  a>
9

f(1) > 0  a – 2 – 2a + a > 0

– 2 > 0 not possible  a 
Case-II : a–2<0  a<2
8
f(–2) < 0  a<
9

f(1) < 0   aR

b 4
–2< –<1  a<
2a 3

D0   a0
 8
intersection gives a  0, 

9 

 8
complete solution a  0,   {2}
9 

Self practice problems :

(15) Let x2 – 2(a – 1)x + a – 1 = 0 (a  R) be a quadratic equation, then find the value of 'a' for which
(a) Both the roots are positive (b) Both the roots are negative
(c) Both the roots are opposite in sign. (d) Both the roots are greater than 1.
(e) Both the roots are smaller than 1.
(f) One root is small than 1 and the other root is greater than 1.

(16) Find the values of p for which both the roots of the equation 4x 2 – 20px + (25p2 + 15p – 66) = 0
are less than 2.

(17) Find the values of '' for which 6 lies between the roots of the equation x2 + 2( – 3)x + 9 = 0.

(18) Let x2 – 2(a – 1)x + a – 1 = 0 (a  R) be a quadratic equation, then find the values of 'a' for
which
(i) Exactly one root lies in (0, 1). (ii) Both roots lies in (0, 1).

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 (iii) Atleast one root lies in (0, 1).
(iv) One root is greater than 1 and other root is smaller than 0.

(19) Find the values of a, for which the quadratic expression ax2 + (a – 2) x – 2 is negative for
exactly two integral values of x.

Answers : (15) (a) [2, ) (b)  (c) (– , 1) (d)  (e) (– , 1] (f) (2, )

 3
(16) (– , –1) (17)  ,  
 4 

(18) (i) (– , 1)  (2, ) (ii)  (iii) ( – , 1)  (2, ) (iv) 

(19) [1, 2)

11. Common Roots:

Consider two quadratic equations, a1 x2 + b1 x + c1 = 0 & a2 x2 + b2 x + c2 = 0.

(i) If two quadratic equations have both roots common, then the equations are identical and their
co-efficient are in proportion.
a1 b1 c
i.e. = = 1
a2 b2 c2

(ii) If only one root is common, then the common root '  ' will be :
c1 a2  c 2 a1 b1 c 2  b2 c1
= =
a1 b2  a2 b1 c1 a2  c 2 a1

Hence the condition for one common root is :

  c1 a2  c 2 a1  =  a1 b2  a2 b1   b1 c 2  b2 c1 
2

Note : If f(x) = 0 & g(x) = 0 are two polynomial equation having some common root(s) then those common
root(s) is/are also the root(s) of h(x)  a f(x) + bg (x) = 0.

Example # 16 : If x2 – ax + b = 0 and x2 – px + q = 0 have a root in common and the second equation has
ap
equal roots, show that b + q = .
2

Solution : Given equations are : x2 – ax + b= 0 ........ (i)

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 and x2 – px + q = 0. ........ (ii)
Let  be the common root. Then roots of equation (ii) will be  and . Let  be the other root of
equation (i). Thus roots of equation (i) are ,  and those of equation (ii) are , .
Now +=a ........ (iii)
 = b ........ (iv)
2 = p ........ (v)

2 = q ........ (vi)

L.H.S. = b + q =  + 2 = ( + ) ........ (vii)

ap (  ) 2
and R.H.S. = = =  ( + ) ........ (viii)
2 2
from (vii) and (viii), L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Example # 17 : If a, b, c  R and equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 and x2 + 2x + 9 = 0 have a common root, show that
a : b : c = 1 : 2 : 9.
Solution : Given equations are : x2 + 2x + 9 = 0 ........(i)
and ax2 + bx + c = 0 ........(ii)
Clearly roots of equation (i) are imaginary since equation (i) and (ii) have a common root,
therefore common root must be imaginary and hence both roots will be common.
Therefore equations (i) and (ii) are identical
a b c
 = =
1 2 9

 a:b:c=1:2:9
Self practice problems :
(20) If the equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 and x3 + x – 2 = 0 have two common roots then show that
2a = 2b = c.
a b c
(21) If ax2 + 2bx + c = 0 and a1x2 + 2b1x + c1 = 0 have a common root and , , are in A.P.
a1 b1 c1

show that a1, b1, c1 are in G.P.

12. Graphs of Polynomials

y = anxn + ............ + a1x + a0. The points where y' = 0 are called turning points which are critical in
plotting the graph.

Example # 18 : Draw the graph of y = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x + 1

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Solution. y = 6x2 – 30x + 36 = 6(x – 3) (x – 2)

x 2 3  –

y 29 28  –

Example # 19 : Draw the graph of y = –3x4 + 4x3 + 3,

Solution. y = –12x3 + 12x

y = –12x2 (x – 1)

x 0 1  –

y 3 4 – –

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 COMPLEX NUMBER
The complex number system
A complex number (z) is a number that can be expressed in the form z = a + ib where a and b are real
numbers and i2 = –1. Here ‘a’ is called as real part of z which is denoted by (Re z) and ‘b’ is called as
imaginary part of z, which is denoted by (Im z).
Any complex number is :
(i) Purely real, if b = 0 ;
(ii) Imaginary, if b  0.
(iii) Purely imaginary, if a = 0

Note :
(a) The set R of real numbers is a proper subset of the Complex Numbers. Hence the complete number
system is N  W  I  Q  R  C.
(b) Zero is purely real as well as purely imaginary but not imaginary.

(c) i= 1 is called the imaginary unit.

Also i² =  1; i3 =  i ; i4 = 1 etc.
(d) a b = ab only if atleast one of a or b is non - negative.

(e) If z = a + ib, then a – ib is called complex conjugate of z and written as z = a – ib

(f) Real numbers satisfy order relations where as imaginary numbers do not satisfy order relations
i.e. i > 0, 3 + i < 2 are meaningless.

Self Practice Problems

(1) Write the following as complex number

(i) 16 (ii) x , (x > 0) (iii) –b + 4ac , (a, c> 0)

(2) Write the following as complex number

(i) x (x < 0) (ii) roots of x2 – (2 cos) x + 1 = 0

Answers : (1) (i) 0 + 4i (ii) x + 0i (iii) –b + i 4ac

(2) (i) 0+i x (ii) cos  + i sin  , cos  – i sin 

Algebraic Operations:
Fundamental operations with complex numbers
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 In performing operations with complex numbers we can proceed as in the algebra of real numbers,

replacing i2 by – 1 when it occurs.

1. Addition (a + bi) + (c + di) = a + bi + c + di = (a + c) + (b + d) i
2. Subtraction (a + bi) – (c + di) = a + bi – c – di = (a – c) + (b – d) i

3. Multiplication (a + bi) (c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = (ac – bd) + (ad+ bc)i
a  bi a  bi c  di ac  adi  bci  bdi2 ac  bd  (bc  ad)i ac  bd
4. Division = . = = = +
c  di c  di c  di c d i
2 22
c d
2 2
c 2  d2
bc  ad
i
c 2  d2
Inequalities in imaginary numbers are not defined. There is no validity if we say that imaginary number is
positive or negative.
e.g. z > 0, 4 + 2i < 2 + 4 i are meaningless.

In real numbers if a2 + b2 = 0 then a = 0 = b however in complex numbers,

z12 + z22 = 0 does not imply z1 = z2 = 0.

Example # 1 : Find the multiplicative inverse of 4 + 3i .

Solution : Let z be the multiplicative inverse of 4 + 3i then
z (4 + 3i) = 1
1 4  3i 4  3i 4  3i 4  3i
z= × = = . Ans.
4  3i 4  3i 16  9 25 25

Self Practice Problem :

(3) Simplify in + in+1 + in+2 + in+3 , n  . Ans. 0

Equality In Complex Number :

Two complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 & z2 = a2 + ib2 are equal if and only if their real and

imaginary parts are equal respectively

i.e. z1 = z2   Re(z1) = Re(z2) and m (z1) = m (z2).

Example # 2 : Find the value of x and y for which

(x4 + 2xi) – (3x2 + yi) = (3 – 5i) + (1 + 2iy) , where x, yR

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Solution : (x4 + 2xi) – (3x2 + yi) = (3 – 5i) + (1 + 2iy)
 x4 – 3x2 – 4 = 0 x2 = 4  x = ± 2
and 2x – y = – 5 + 2y
2x + 5 = 3y
when x=2  y=3
and x=–2  y = 1/3 Ans. (2,3) or (–2,1/3)

Example # 3 : Find the value of expression x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + 2x + 3, when x = – 1 + i.

Solution : x=–1+i
(x + 1)2 = i2
x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
now, x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + 2x + 3 = (x2 + 2x + 2) (x2 + 2x – 1) + 5 = 5

Example # 4 : Find the square root of – 21 – 20i

Solution : Let x + iy = –21– 20i

(x + iy)2 = – 21 – 20 i
x2 – y2 = – 21 ----- (i)
xy = – 10 ----- (ii)
From (i) & (ii)
x2 = 4  x=±2
when x = 2, y = – 5 and x = –2, y = 5
x + iy = (2 – i5) or (–2 + i5)

Self Practice Problem

(4) Solve for z : z = i z2

(5) Given that x, y  R, solve : 4x² + 3xy + (2xy  3x²)i = 4y²  (x2/2) + (3xy  2y²)i
3 1 3K
Answers : (4) ± – i, 0, i (5) x = K, y = KR
2 2 2

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Representation of a complex number :

To each complex number there corresponds one and only one point in plane, and conversely to each point
in the plane there corresponds one and only one complex number. Because of this we often refer to the
complex number z as the point z.

(a) Cartesian Form (Geometric Representation) :

Every complex number z = x + i y can be represented by a point on the Cartesian plane known as
complex plane (Argand diagram) by the ordered pair (x, y).

Length OP is called modulus of the complex number which is denoted by z &  is called argument or
amplitude.
y
 z = x 2  y 2 and tan  =   (angle made by OP with positive xaxis)
x

Note :
(i) Argument of a complex number is a many valued function. If  is the argument of
a complex number then 2n+ ; n  I will also be the argument of that complex number. Any two
arguments of a complex number differ by 2n

(ii) The unique value of  such that   <   is called the principal value of the argument.
Unless otherwise stated, amp z implies principal value of the argument.

(iii) By specifying the modulus & argument a complex number is defined completely. For the complex number
0 + 0 i the argument is not defined and this is the only complex number which is only given by its
modulus.

(b) Trignometric/Polar Representation :

z = r (cos  + i sin ) where z = r; arg z = ; z = r (cos  i sin )

Note : cos  + i sin  is also written as CiS 

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 (c) Euler's Formula :

z = rei, |z| = r, arg z = 

z = rei

ei= cos + i sin . 

ei  ei ei  ei
Note : If is real then cos  = ; sin  =
2 2i

(d) Vectorial Representation :

Every complex number can be considered as the position vector of a point. If the point P represents the
 
complex number z then, OP = z &  OP  = z

Agrument of a Complex Number :

Argument of a non-zero complex number P(z) is denoted and defined by arg(z) = angle which
OP makes with the positive direction of real axis.
If OP = |z| = r and arg(z) = , then obviously z = r(cos + isin), called the polar form of z.
'Argument of z' would mean principal argument of z(i.e. argument lying in (–, ] unless the context requires
otherwise. Thus argument of a complex number z = a + ib = r(cos + isin) is the value of  satisfying rcos = a

Let  = tan–1
b
and rsin = b.
a

(i) a > 0, b > 0 p.v. arg z = 


(ii) a = 0, b > 0 p.v. arg z =
2

(iii) a < 0, b > 0 p.v. arg z =  – 

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 (iv) a < 0, b = 0 p.v. arg z = 

(v) a < 0, b < 0 p.v. arg z = – ( – )


(vi) a = 0, b < 0 p.v. arg z = –
2

(vii) a > 0, b < 0 p.v. arg z = – 

(viii) a > 0, b = 0 p.v. arg z = 0

Example # 5 : Solve for z if (z)2 + 2|z| = 0.

Solution : Let z = x + iy

 x2 – y2 – 2ixy + 2 x 2  y 2 = 0  x2 – y2 + 2 x 2  y 2 = 0 and 2xy = 0

when x = 0,  – y2 + 2|y| = 0
 y = 0, 2, – 2
 z = 0, 2i, – 2i

when y=0  x2 + 2|x| = 0

 x=0z=0
Ans. z = 0, 2i, –2i.

3
Example # 6 : Find the modulus and principal argument of complex number z = 1 + i tan , <  <
2
3
Solution : |z| = 1  tan2  = |sec| = – sec,  where <  <
2

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 tan 
Arg (z) = tan–1 = tan– 1 (tan) = –
1

 Ans. – sec , –

Self Practice Problems

(2  i) (3 – 4i)
(6) Find the principal argument and |z|. If z =
3i
(7) Find the |z| and principal argument of the complex number
z =–8(cos 310º – i sin 310°)
5 2
Answers : (6) – /4 , (7) 8, –130°
2
Demoivre’s Theorem :

(i) (cos  + i sin  )n = cos n + i sin nwhere n  

(ii) (cos 1 + i sin 1) (cos 2 + i sin 2) (cos3 + i sin 2) (cos 3 + i sin 3) .....(cos n + i sin n)

= cos (1 + 2 + 3 + ......... n) + i sin (1 + 2 + 3 + ....... + n) where n  

(iii) If p, q  Z and q  0, then (cos  + i sin )p/q can take 'q' distinct values which are equal to
 2k  p   2k  p 
cos   + i sin   where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ......, q – 1
 q   q 

Note : Continued product of the roots of a complex quantity should be determined using theory of equations.
Self practice problems :

(8) Prove the identity: cos 5 = 16 cos5 – 20 cos3 + 5 cos ;

1 1 3
(9) Prove that identity: cos4 = cos 4 + cos 2 +
8 2 8
Geometrical Representation of Fundamental Operations :
(i) Geometrical representation of addition.

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 If two points P and Q represent complex numbers z1 and z2 respectively in the Argand plane, then the sum

z1 + z2 is represented by the extremity R of the diagonal OR of parallelogram OPRQ having OP and OQ

as two adjacent sides.

(ii) Geometric representation of substraction.

(iii) Modulus and argument of multiplication of two complex numbers.

Theorem : For any two complex numbers z1, z2 we have |z1 z2| = |z1| |z2| and

arg (z1z2) = arg (z1) + arg (z2).

Proof : z1 = r1 ei1 , z2 = r2 ei2

z1z2 = r1r2 ei( 1 2 )  |z1z2| = |z1| |z2|

arg (z1z2) = arg (z1) + arg (z2)

i.e. to multiply two complex numbers, we multiply their absolute values and add their arguments.
Note : (i) P.V. arg (z1z2)  P.V. arg (z1) + P.V. arg (z2)

(ii) |z1 z2 .... zn| = |z1| |z2| ..... |zn|

(iii) arg (z1z2 .... zn) = arg z1 + arg z2 + ..... + arg zn

(iv) Geometrical representation of multiplication of complex numbers.

Let P, Q be represented by z1 = r1 ei1 , z2 = r2 ei2 repectively. To find point R representing

complex number z1z2 , we take a point L on real axis such that OL = 1 and draw triangle OQR similar to

triangle OLP. Therefore

OR OP ˆ =
=  OR = OP.OQ i.e. OR = r1r2 and QOR 1
OQ OL

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 ˆ = LOP
LOR ˆ
ˆ + POQ ˆ = + – + = +
+ QOR 1 2 1 1 1 2

Hence, R is represented by z1z2 = r1r2 ei( 1 2 )

(v) Modulus and argument of division of two complex numbers.

z1 |z | z 
Theorem : If z1 and z2 (0) are two complex numbers, then = 1 and arg  1  = arg(z1)–arg (z2)
z2 | z 2 |  z2 

 z1 
Note : P.V. arg    P.V. arg (z1) – P.V. arg (z2)
 z2 
(vi) Geometrical representation of the division of complex numbers.

Let P, Q be represented by z1 = r1ei1 , z2 = r2 ei2 respectively. To find point R representing complex

z1
number , we take a point L on real axis such that OL = 1 and draw a triangle OPR similar to OQL.
z2

OP OR r1 ˆ – ROP
ˆ = LOP ˆ = –
Therefore =  OR = and LOR 1 2
OQ OL r2

z1 r
Hence, R is represented by = 1 ei( 1 2 )
z2 r2

Conjugate of a complex Number :

Conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib is denoted and defined by z = a – ib.

In a complex number if we replace i by – i, we get conjugate of the complex number. z is the mirror
image of z about real axis on Argand's Plane.

Geometrical representation of conjugate of complex number.

|z| = | z |
arg (z) = – arg (z)

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 General value of arg (z) = 2n – P.V. arg (z)

Properties
zz zz
(i) If z = x + iy, then x = ,y=
2 2i
(ii) z= z  z is purely real
(iii) z+ z =0  z is purely imaginary

(iv) Relation between modulus and conjugate. |z|2 = z z

(v) zz

(vi) (z1  z2 ) = z1 ± z2

(vii) (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2 , In general (zn ) = (z)n

 z1  (z1 )
(viii)  = (z2  0)
 z2  (z2 )
Theorem : Imaginary roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs

Note : If w = f(z), then w = f( z )

Theorem : |z1 ± z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2 ± (z1 z2 + z1 z2) = |z1|2 + |z2|2 ± 2 Re(z1 z2 )

= |z1|2 + |z2|2 ± 2 |z1| |z2| cos (1 – 2)

z 1
Example # 7 : If is purely imaginary, then prove that | z | = 1
z 1

 z  1 z 1  z  1
Solution : Re   =0  +   = 0
 z  1 z 1  z  1

z 1 z 1
 + =0  zz –z + z – 1 + zz – z + z – 1 = 0
z 1 z 1

 zz =1  | z |2 = 1  | z | = 1 Hence proved

Example # 8 : If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers and c > 0, then prove that

|z1 + z2|2  (1 + c) |z1|2 + (1 + c–1) |z2|2

Solution : We have to prove : |z1 + z2|2  (1 + c) |z1|2 + (1 + c–1) |z2|2

i.e. |z1|2 + |z2|2 + z1 z 2 + z 1z2  (1 + c) |z1|2 + (1 +c–1) |z2|2

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 or z1 z 2 + z 1z2  c|z1|2 + c–1|z2|2
1
or c|z1|2 + |z2|2 – z1 z 2 – z 1 z2  0
c
2
 1 
(using Re (z1 z 2)  |z1 z 2|) or  c z1  | z2 |   0 which is always true.
 c 

Example # 9 : Let z1 and z2 be complex numbers such that z1  z2 and |z1| = |z2|. If z1 has positive real part

z1  z2
and z2 has negative imaginary part, then show that is purely imaginary.
z1  z2

 
Solution : z1 = r (cos + i sin ), – <<
2 2
z2 = r (cos + i sin ), –  <  < 0

z1  z2    3
 = – i cot  , – < <
z1  z2  2  4 2 4

Hence purely imaginary.

Self Practice Problem

(10) If |z + | > | z  1| and |  | 1, then show that |z| < 1.

(11) If z = x + iy and f(z) = x2 – y2 – 2y + i(2x – 2xy), then show that f(z) = z 2 +2iz

Distance, Triangular Inequality

If z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2 , then distance between points z1, z2 in argand plane is

|z1 – z2| = (x1  x 2 )2  (y1  y 2 )2

In triangle OAC
OC  OA + AC
OA  AC + OC
AC  OA + OC
using these in equalities we have ||z1| – |z2||  |z1 + z2|  |z1| + |z2|

Similarly from triangle OAB

we have ||z1| – |z2||  |z1 – z2|  |z1| + |z2|

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Note :

(a) ||z1| – |z2|| = |z1 + z2|, |z1 – z2| = |z1| + |z2| iff origin, z1 and z2 are collinear and origin lies between z1

and z2.

(b) |z1 + z2| = |z1| + |z2|, ||z1| – |z2|| = |z1 – z2| iff origin, z1 and z2 are collinear and z1 and z2 lies on the

same side of origin.

Example # 10 : If |z – 5 – 7i| = 9, then find the greatest and least values of |z – 2 – 3i|.
Solution : We have 9 = |z – (5 + 7i)| = distance between z and 5 + 7i.
Thus locus of z is the circle of radius 9 and centre at 5 + 7i. For such a z (on the circle), we
have to find its greatest and least distance as from 2 + 3i, which obviously 14 and 4.

Example # 11 : Find the minimum value of |z| + |z – 2|

Solution : |z| + |z – 2| |z + 2 – z|
|z| + |z – 2| 2

Example # 12 : If i  [/6, /3], i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and z4 cos 1 + z3 cos 2 + z2 cos 3. + z cos 4 + cos5 =

3
2 3, then show that |z| >
4

Solution : Given that cos1 . z4 + cos2 . z3 + cos3 . z2 + cos4 . z + cos5 = 23

or |cos1 . z4 + cos2 . z3 + cos3 . z2 + cos4 . z + cos5| = 23

23  |cos1 . z4 | + |cos2 . z3 | + |cos3 . z2 | + cos4 . z| + |cos5 |

 i  [/6, /3]

1 3
  cosi 
2 2

3 4 3 3 3 3
2 3  |z| + |z|3 + |z|2 + |z| +
2 2 2 2 2

3  |z|4 + |z|3 + |z|2 + |z|

Case I : If |z| > 1, then above result is automatically true
Case II : If |z| < 1, then

3 < |z| + |z|2 + |z|3 + |z|4 +|z|5 + .........

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 |z| 3 3
3<  3 – 3 |z| < |z|  |z| > Hence by both cases, |z|>
1 | z | 4 4

3
Example # 13 : z = 2, then find maximum and minimum value of | z |.
z

3 3
Solution : z  z
z z

Let |z| = r
3 3
r 2 –2r– 2
r r

r2 + 2r – 3  0 ........(i) and r2 – 2r – 3  0 ........(ii)

  r  [1, 3]
from (i) and (ii)
|z|max = 3 and |z|min = 1.

Self Practice Problem

(12) |z – 3| < 1 and |z – 4i| > M then find the positive real value of M for which there exist at least
one complex number z satisfying both the equation.
1 1
(13) If z lies on circle |z| = 2, then show that 
z  4z  3
4 2
3

Answers : (12) M  (0, 6)

Important results :

(i) arg z =  represnets points (non-zero) on ray

eminating from origin making an angle  with positive direction of real axis

(ii) arg (z – z1) =  represents points (z1) on ray eminating from z1 making an angle

 with positive direction of real axis

 2
Example # 14 : Solve for z, which satisfy Arg (z – 3 – 2i) = and Arg (z – 3 – 4i) = .
6 3
Solution : From the figure, it is clear that there is no z, which satisfy both ray
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Example # 15 : Sketch the region given by
(i) /2  Arg (z – 1 – i) /3 (ii) |z|  4 & Arg (z – i – 1) >/4
Solution :
/3
m

(i) /3
(ii)

Self Practice Problems

(14) Sketch the region given by

(i) |Arg (z – i – 2)| < /4 (ii) Arg (z + 1 – i) /6

(15) Consider the region |z – 4 – 3i|  3. Find the point in the region which has
(i) max |z| (ii) min |z|
(iii) max arg (z) (iv) min arg (z)

Answers : (14) (i) (ii)

32 24 8 6 28 96
(15) (i) i (ii) i (iii) i (iv) 4 + 0i
5 5 5 5 25 25
Rotation theorem :

(i) If P(z1) and Q(zz) are two complex numbers such that |z1| = |z2|, then z2 = z1 eiwhere  = POQ

 z3  z 2  z3  z2 i
(ii) If P(z1), Q(z2) and R(z3) are three complex numbers and PQR = , then   = e
 z1  z2  z1  z2

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  

z3  z 4 z3  z 4 i
(iii) If P(z1), Q(z2), R(z3) and S(z4) are four complex numbers and STQ= , then = e
z1  z2 z1  z2

 


 z  1 
Example # 16 : If arg   = then interpret the locus.
 z  1 4

 z  1   1 z  
Solution : arg 
  = 4  arg  1  z  = 4
 z 1   

 1 z 
Here arg   represents the angle between lines joining –1 and z, and 1 and z. As this
 1  z 

angle is constant, the locus of z will be a larger segment of circle. (angle in a segment is
constant).

Example # 17 : If A(2 + 3i) and B(3 + 4i) are two vertices of a square ABCD (take in anticlock wise order) then
find C and D.

Solution : Let affix of C and D are z3 and z4 respectively.

Considering DAB = 90º and AD = AB

i
z4  (2  3 i) AD 2
we get = e
(3  4i) – (2  3i) AB

   z4 – (2 + 3i) = (1 + i) i  z4 = 2 + 3i+ i – 1 = 1 + 4i

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 i
z3  (3  4 i) CB –
and = e 2   z3 = 3 + 4i – (1 + i) (–i)
(2  3i) – (3  4i) AB

 z3 = 3 + 4i + i – 1 = 2 + 5i

Self Practice Problems

(16) Let ABC be an isosceles triangle inscribed in the circle |z|= r with AB = AC. If z1, z2, z3 represent

the points A, B, C respectively, show that z2 z3 = z12

(17) Check that z1z2 and z3z4 are parallel or, not

where, z1 = 1 + i z3 = 4 + 2i

z2 = 2 – i z4 = 1 – i

(18) P is a point on the argand diagram on the circle with OP as diameter, two point Q and R are taken
such that POQ = QOR = If O is the origin and P, Q, R are represented by complex z1, z2,

z3 respectively then show that z22 cos 2 = z1z3cos2    

(19) If a, b, c ; u, v, w are complex numbers representing the vertices of two triangles such that
c = (1 – r) a + rb, w = (1 – r) u + rv where r is a complex number show that the two triangles are
similiar.

Answers : (17) z1z2 and z3z4 are not parallel.

Cube Root of Unity :

1  i 3 1  i 3
(i) The cube roots of unity are 1, , .
2 2

(ii) If  is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity then 1 +  + ² = 0. In general 1 + r + 2r = 0;
where r   but is not the multiple of 3.

(iii) In polar form the cube roots of unity are :

2 2 4 4
cos 0 + i sin 0; cos + i sin, cos + i sin
3 3 3 3

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 (iv) The three cube roots of unity when plotted on the argand plane constitute the verties of an
equilateral triangle.

(v) The following factorisation should be remembered :

(a, b, c  R &  is the cube root of unity)

a3  b3 = (a  b) (a  b) (a  ²b) ; x2 + x + 1 = (x  ) (x  2) ;

a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a + b) (a + 2b) ; a2 + ab + b2 = (a – b) (a – b2)

a3 + b3 + c3  3abc = (a + b + c) (a + b + ²c) (a + ²b + c)

Example # 18 : Find the value of 200 + 198 + 193.

Solution : 200 + 198 + 193

2 + 1 +  = 0.

1 1 1
Example # 19 If W is an imaginary cube root of unity then find the value of + –
1  2w 2  w 1 w
1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution : + – = + –
1  w  w 1  (1  w) 1 w –w  w 1– w
2 2 –w2

1 1 1 w(1  w)  w 2  1– w 2 1 w  w2
=   2 = = 2 =0
w(1– w) (1– w ) w
2 2
w (1– w )2
w (1– w 2 )

Ans. 0
Self Practice Problem

100
(20) Find  (1  
r 0
r
 2r )

(21) It is given that n is an odd integer greater than three, but n is not a multiple of 3. Prove that

x3 + x2 + x is a factor of (x + 1)n – xn – 1

(22) If x = a + b, y = a + b , z = a + b where ,  are imaginary cube roots of unity show that

xyz = a3 + b3
5 2
 n 1 
(23) If x2 – x + 1 = 0, then find the value of 
n 1
x  n 
 x 

Answers : (20) 102 (23) 8

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nth Roots of Unity :

If 1, 1, 2, 3..... n  1 are the n, nth root of unity then :

(i) They are in G.P. with common ratio ei(2/n)

(ii) 1p +  1p +  p2 +.... + pn 1 = 0 if p is not an integral multiple of n

= n if p is an integral multiple of n

(iii) (1  1) (1  2)...... (1  n  1) = n &

(1 + 1) (1 + 2)....... (1 + n  1) = 0 if n is even and 1 if n is odd.

(iv) 1. 1. 2. 3......... n  1 = 1 or 1 according as n is odd or even.

Example # 20 : Find the roots of the equation z5 = – 32i, whose real part is negative.
Solution : z5 = – 32i

i(4n1)
z5 = 25 e 2 , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.


i(4n 1)
z = 2e 10

 3 7 11 15  7 11
i i i i i i i
z = 2e 10
, 2e 10 , 2e 10 , 2e 10 , 2e 10 roots with negative real part are 2e 10 , 2e 10 .

6
 2k 2k 
Example # 21 : Find the value   sin
k 1
7
 cos
7 

6 6 6 6
 2k   2k  2k 2k
Solution :   sin 7  –
k 1 
 cos 7  =
 k 1  
 
k 0
sin
7
–  cos
k 0
7
+1

6
= 
k 0
(Sum of imaginary part of seven seventh roots of unity)

6
– 
k 0
(Sum of real part of seven seventh roots of unity) + 1 = 0 – 0 + 1 = 1

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Self Practice Problems
4

2–
1
(24) If 1, 1, 2 , 3 , 4 are the fifth roots of unity then find
i1 i

(25) If , ,  are the roots of x3 – 3x2 + 3x + 7 = 0 and  is a complex cube root of unity then prove
 –1  –1  –1
that    32
 –1  –1  –1

(26) Find all values of ( 256)1/4. Interpret the result geometrically.

49
Answers : (24)
31

  2r  1   2r  1  
(26) 4 cos     isin    , r = 0, 1, 2, 3; vertices of a square in a
  4   4  

circle of radius 4 & centre (0, 0)

The Sum Of The Following Series Should Be Remembered :

sin n / 2   n  1
(i) cos  + cos 2  + cos 3  +..... + cos n  = cos   
sin   / 2   2 

sin n / 2   n  1
(ii) sin  + sin 2  + sin 3  +..... + sin n  = sin   
sin   / 2   2 

Note : If  = (2/n) then the sum of the above series vanishes.

Geometrical Properties :

Section formula

If z1 and z2 are affixes of the two points P and Q respectively and point C divides the line segment joining

P and Q internally in the ratio m : n then affix z of C is given by

mz2  nz1
z= where m, n > 0
mn
mz2  nz1
If C divides PQ in the ratio m : n externally then z =
mn

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Note : If a, b, c are three real numbers such that az1 + bz2 + cz3 = 0 ; where a + b + c = 0 and a,b,c are not all

simultaneously zero, then the complex numbers z1, z2 & z3 are collinear.

(1) If the vertices A, B, C of a  are represented by complex numbers z1, z2, z3 respectively and a, b, c are the

length of sides then,

z1  z2  z3
(i) Centroid of the  ABC = :
3

(ii) Orthocentre of the  ABC =

 a sec A  z1   b sec B  z 2   c sec C  z3 z1 tan A  z2 tanB  z3 tan C
or
a sec A  b sec B  c sec C tan A  tan B  tanC

(iii) Incentre of the  ABC = (az1 + bz2 + cz3)  (a + b + c).

(iv) Circumcentre of the  ABC = :

(Z1 sin 2A + Z2 sin 2B + Z3 sin 2C)  (sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C).

(2) amp(z) =  is a ray emanating from the origin inclined at an angle  to the positive x axis.

(3) z  a = z  b is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining a to b.

(4) The equation of a line joining z1 & z2 is given by, z = z1 + t (z1  z2) where t is a real parameter.

(5) z = z1 (1 + it) where t is a real parameter is a line through the point z1 & perpendicular to the line joining

z1 to the origin.

z z 1
(6) The equation of a line passing through z1 & z2 can be expressed in the determinant form as z1 z1 1 =
z2 z2 1

0. This is also the condition for three complex numbers z, z1, z2 to be collinear. The above equation on

manipulating, takes the form  z   z  r = 0 where r is real and  is a non zero complex constant.

z  z2 
(7) The equation of the circle described on the line segment joining z1 & z2 as diameter is arg = ± or
z  z1 2

(z  z1) ( z  z 2) + (z  z2) ( z  z 1) = 0.

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 z z z z
(8) Condition for four given points z1, z2, z3 & z4 to be concyclic is the number 3 1 . 4 2 should be
z3  z2 z 4  z1

real. Hence the equation of a circle through 3 non collinear points z1, z2 & z3 can be taken

as
 z  z2   z3  z1  is real 
 z  z1   z3  z2 

 z  z2   z3  z1  =
 z  z2   z3  z1  .
 z  z1   z3  z2   z  z1   z3  z2 

 z  z1 
(9) Arg   = represent (i) a line segment if  = 
 z  z2 

(ii) Pair of ray if  = 0 (iii) a part of circle, if 0 <  < 

(10) If |z – z1| + |z – z2| = K > |z1 – z2| then locus of z is an ellipse whose focii are z1 & z2

z  z1
(11) If =k where k  (0, 1)  (1, ), then locus of z is circle.
z  z2

(12) If z – z1  – z – z2 = K < z1 – z2 then locus of z is a hyperbola, whose focii are z1 & z2.

Match the following columns :

Column -  Column - 
(i) If | z – 3+2i | – | z + i | = 0, (i) circle
then locus of z represents ..........
 z  1 
(ii) If arg  = , (ii) Straight line
 z  1 4

then locus of z represents...

(iii) if | z – 8 – 2i | + | z – 5 – 6i | = 5 (iii) Ellipse

then locus of z represents .......
 z  3  4i  5
(iv) If arg  = , (iv) Hyperbola
 z  2  5i  6

then locus of z represents .......

(v) If | z – 1 | + | z + i | = 10 (v) Major Arc

then locus of z represents ........

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 (vi) |z–3+i|–|z+2–i|=1 (vi) Minor arc
then locus of z represents .....

(vii) | z – 3i | = 25 (vii) Perpendicular bisector of a line segment

 z  3  5i 
(viii) arg  =  (viii) Line segment
 zi 

Ans.  (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

 (ii),(vii)(v) (viii) (vi) (iii) (iv) (i) (viii)

Example # 22 : If z1, z2 & z3 are the affixes of three points A, B & C respectively and satisfy the condition

|z1 – z2| = |z1| + |z2| and |(2 - i) z1 + iz3 | = |z1| + |(1 – i) z1 + iz3| then prove that  ABC in a right

angled.
Solution : |z1 – z2| = |z1| + |z2| 

   z1, z2 and origin will be collinear and z1, z2 will be opposite side of origin

Similarly |(2 - i) z1 + iz3 | = |z1| + |(1 – i) z1 + iz3|

 z1 and (1 – i) z1 + iz3 = z4 say, are collinear with origin and lies on same

side of origin. Let z4 = z1 ,  real

then (1 – i) z1 + iz3 = z1

(z3  z1 ) z z
 i (z3 – z1) = ( – 1) z1  = ( – 1) I  3 1 =mei/2 , m =  – 1
z1 0  z1

 z3 – z1 is perpendicular to the vector 0 – z1 .

i.e. also z2 is on line joining origin and z1

so we can say the triangle formed by z1 , z2 and z3 is right angled.

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 PERMUATION AND COMBINATION
The most fundamental application of mathematics is counting. There are many natural methods used for counting
This chapter is dealing with various known techniques those are much faster than the usual counting
methods.
We mainly focus, our methods, on counting the number of arrangements (Permutations) and the number of
selections (combinations), even although we may use these techniques for counting in some other situations also .
Let us start with a simple problem

A group G1 of 3 circles C1, C2, C3 having different centers are situated in such a way that C2 lie entirely

inside C1 ; C3 lie entirely inside C2. Another group G2 of 4 circles C1, C2, C3, C4 are also situated in a

similar fashion. The two groups of circles are in such a way that each member of G 1 intersect with every
member of G2, as shown in the following figure

(i) How many centres the circles altogether has ?

(ii) How many common chords are obtained ?

The answer to the first part is "3 + 4 = 7" and answer to the second part is "3 × 4 = 12" . The method in
which we calculated first part of the problem is called as "addition rule" and the method we used to
calculate its second part is called as the "multiplication rule". These rules altogether are the most important
tools in counting, popularly known as "the fundamental counting principle".

Fundamental counting principle :

Suppose that an operation O1 can be done in m different ways and another operation O2 can be done in n

different ways.

(i) Addition rule : The number of ways in which we can do exactly one of the operations O1, O2
is m + n
(ii) Multiplication rule : The number of ways in which we can do both the operations O1, O2 is mn.

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Note : The addition rule is true only when O1 & O2 are mutually exclusive and multiplication rule is true only
when O1 & O2 are independent (The reader will understand the concepts of mutual exclusiveness and
independence, in the due course)

Example # 1 : There are 8 buses running from Kota to Jaipur and 10 buses running from Jaipur to Delhi. In
how many ways a person can travel from Kota to Delhi via Jaipur by bus?
Solution : Let E1 be the event of travelling from Kota to Jaipur & E2 be the event of travelling from Jaipur

to
Delhi by the person.
E1 can happen in 8 ways and E2 can happen in 10 ways.
Since both the events E1 and E2 are to be happened in order, simultaneously,
the number of ways = 8 × 10 = 80.

Example # 2 : How many numbers between 10 and 10,000 can be formed by using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if
(i) No digit is repeated in any number. (ii) Digits can be repeated.

Solution : (i) Number of two digit numbers = 5 × 4 = 20

Number of three digit numbers = 5 × 4 × 3 = 60
Number of four digit numbers = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120
Total = 200
(ii) Number of two digit numbers = 5 × 5 = 25
Number of three digit numbers = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
Number of four digit numbers = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625
Total = 775

Self Practice Problems :

(1) How many 4 digit numbers are there, without repetition of digits, if each number is divisible
by 5 ?

(2) Using 6 different flags, how many different signals can be made by using atleast three flags,
arranging one above the other?
Ans. (1) 952 (2) 1920

Arrangements :

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 If nPr denotes the number of permutations (arrangements) of n different things, taking r at a time, then
n!
Pr = n (n  1) (n  2)..... (n  r + 1) =
n
(n  r)!

NOTE : (i) Factorials of negative integers are not defined.

(ii) 0 ! = 1 ! = 1
(iii) nPn = n ! = n. (n  1) !
(iv) (2n) ! = 2n. n ! [1. 3. 5. 7... (2n  1)]

Example # 3 : How many three digit can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, without repetition of digits?
How many of these are even?
Solution : Three places are to be filled with 5 different objects.
 Number of ways = 5P3 = 5 × 4 × 3 = 60

For the 2nd part, unit digit can be filled in two ways & the remaining two digits can be filled
in 4P2 ways.

 Number of even numbers = 2 × 4P2 = 24.

Example # 4 : If all the letters of the word 'QUEST' are arranged in all possible ways and put in dictionary
order, then find the rank of the given word.
Solution : Number of words beginning with E = 4P4 = 24

Number of words beginning with QE = 3P3 = 6

Number of words beginning with QS = 6
Number of words beginning withQT = 6.
Next word is 'QUEST'
 its rank is 24 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 1 = 43.

Self Practice Problems :

(3) Find the sum of all four digit numbers (without repetition of digits) formed using the digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

(4) Find 'n', if n – 1P3 : nP4 = 1 : 9.

(5) Six horses take part in a race. In how many ways can these horses come in the first, second
and third place, if a particular horse is among the three winners (Assume No Ties)?
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 (6) Find the sum of all three digit numbers those can be formed by using the digits. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.

Ans. (3) 399960 (4) 9 (5) 60 (6) 27200

Result : Let there be 'n' types of objects, with each type containing atleast r objects. Then the number of ways of

arranging r objects in a row is nr.

Example # 5 : How many 3 digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. In how many of
these we have atleast one digit repeated?
Solution : We have to fill three places using 6 objects (repetition allowed), 0 cannot be at 100 th place.

The number of numbers = 180.

Number of numbers in which no digit is repeated = 100

 Number of numbers in which atleast one digit is repeated = 180 – 100 = 80
Example # 6 : How many functions can be defined from a set A containing 5 elements to a set B having 3
elements? How many of these are surjective functions?
Solution : Image of each element of A can be taken in 3 ways.
 Number of functions from A to B = 35 = 243.

Number of into functions from A to B = 25 + 25 + 25 – 3 = 93.

 Number of onto functions = 150.

Self Practice Problems :

(7) How many functions can be defined from a set A containing 4 elements to a set B containing 5
elements? How many of these are injective functions?
(8) In how many ways 5 persons can enter into a auditorium having 4 entries?

Ans. (7) 625, 120 (8) 1024.

Combination :

If nCr denotes the number of combinations (selections) of n different things taken r at a time, then
n
n ! P
n
Cr = = r where r  n ; n  N and r  W.
r! (n  r)! r!

NOTE : (i) nCr = nCn – r

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 (ii) nCr + nCr – 1 = n + 1Cr

(iii) nCr = 0 if r  {0, 1, 2, 3........, n}

Example # 7 : There are fifteen players for a cricket match.

(i) In how many ways the 11 players can be selected?
(ii) In how many ways the 11 players can be selected including a particular player?
(iii) In how many ways the 11 players can be selected excluding two particular players?
Solution : (i) 11 players are to be selected from 15
Number of ways = 15C11 = 1365.
(ii) Since one player is already included, we have to select 10 from the remaining 14
Number of ways = 14C10 = 1001.
(iii) Since two players are to be excluded, we have to select 11 from the remaining 13.
Number of ways = 13C11 = 78.

Example # 8 : If 49C3r – 2 = 49C2r + 1, find 'r'.

Solution : nC = nC if either r = s or r + s = n.
r s
Thus 3r – 2 = 2r + 1  r=3
or 3r – 2 + 2r + 1 = 49  5r – 1 = 49  r = 10
  r = 3, 10

Example # 9 : A regular polygon has 20 sides. How many triangles can be drawn by using the vertices, but
not using the sides?

Solution : The first vertex can be selected in 20 ways. The remaining two are to be selected from 17
vertices so that they are not consecutive. This can be done in 17C2 – 16 ways.

 The total number of ways = 20 × (17C2 – 16)

But in this method, each selection is repeated thrice.

20  (17 C2  16)
 Number of triangles = = 800.
3

Example # 10 : 15 persons are sitting in a row. In how many ways we can select three of them if adjacent
persons are not selected ?

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Solution : Let P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, P10 ,P11 , P12 , P13 ,P14 ,P15 be the persons sitting in this
order.
If three are selected (non consecutive) then 12 are left out.
Let P,P,P,P,P,P,P,P,P,P,P,P be the left out & q, q, q be the selected. The number of ways in
which these 3 q's can be placed into the 13 positions between the P's (including extremes) is
the number ways of required selection.
Thus number of ways = 13C3 = 286.

Example # 11 : In how many ways we can select 4 letters from the letters of the word MSSSSPP?
Solution : M

SSSS
PP
Number of ways of selecting 4 alike letters = 2C1 = 2.

Number of ways of selecting 3 alike and 1 different letters = 2C1 × 3C1 = 6

Number of ways of selecting 2 alike and 2 alike letters = 3C2 = 3

Number of ways of selecting 2 alike & 2 different = 3C1 × 3C2 = 9

Number of ways of selecting 4 different = 4C4 = 1

Total number of ways = 2 + 6 + 3 + 9 + 1 = 21

Self Practice Problems :

(9) In how many ways 7 persons can be selected from among 5 Indian, 4 British & 2 Chinese, if
atleast two are to be selected from each country ?

(10) Find a number of different seven digit numbers that can be written using only three digits 1,2&3
under the condition that the digit 2 occurs exactly twice in each number ?

(11) In how many ways 6 boys & 6 girls can sit at a round table so that girls & boys sit alternate?

(12) In how many ways 4 persons can occupy 10 chairs in a row, if no two sit on adjacent chairs?

(13) In how many ways we can select 3 letters of the word PROPORTION ?

Ans. (9) 100 (10) 672 (11) 86400 (12) 840 (13) 36
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Arrangement of n things, those are not all different :

The number of permutations of 'n' things, taken all at a time, when 'p' of them are same & of one type, q of
them are same & of second type, 'r' of them are same & of a third type & the remaining
n!
n  (p + q + r) things are all different, is .
p ! q !r !

Example # 12 : In how many ways we can arrange 3 red flowers, 4 yellow flowers and 5 white flowers in a row?
In how many ways this is possible if the white flowers are to be separated in any arrangement?
(Flowers of same colour are identical).
Solution : Total we have 12 flowers 3 red, 4 yellow and 5 white.
12 !
Number of arrangements = = 27720.
3 ! 4 ! 5 !

For the second part, first arrange 3 red & 4 yellow

7 !
This can be done in = 35 ways
3 ! 4 !

Now select 5 places from among 8 places (including extremes) & put the white flowers there.
This can be done in 8C5 = 56.

 The number of ways for the 2nd part = 35 × 56 = 1960.

Example # 13 : In how many ways the letters of the word "ARRANGE" can be arranged without altering the
relative positions of vowels & consonants?
4!
Solution : The consonants in their positions can be arranged in = 12 ways.
2!
3!
The vowels in their positions can be arranged in = 3 ways
2!
 Total number of arrangements = 12 × 3 = 36
Self Practice Problems :

(14) How many words can be formed using the letters of the word ASSESSMENT if each word
begin with A and end with T?

(15) If all the letters of the word ARRANGE are arranged in all possible ways, in how many of words
we will have the A's not together and also the R's not together?

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 (16) How many arrangements can be made by taking four letters of the word MISSISSIPPI?

Ans. (14) 840 (15) 660 (16) 176.

Formation of Groups :

Number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can be divided into three different groups containing
m  n  p  !
m, n & p things respectively is ,
m !n !p !

If m = n = p and the groups have identical qualitative characteristic then the number of groups
(3n)!
= .
n! n! n! 3!

(3n)!
Note : If 3n different things are to be distributed equally among three people then the number of ways = .
n!3
Example # 14 : 12 different toys are to be distributed to three children equally. In how many ways this can be
done ?
Solution : The problem is to divide 12 different things into three different groups.
12!
Number of ways = = 34650.
4! 4! 4!

Example # 15 : In how many ways 10 persons can be divided into 5 pairs?

Solution : We have each group having 2 persons and the qualitative characteristic are same (Since there
is no purpose mentioned or names for each pair).
10!
Thus the number of ways = = 945.
(2!)5 5!

Self Practice Problems :

(17) 9 persons enter a lift from ground floor of a building which stops in 10 floors (excluding ground
floor), if it is known that persons will leave the lift in groups of 2, 3, & 4 in different floors. In how
many ways this can happen?

(18) In how many ways one can make four equal heaps using a pack of 52 playing cards?

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 (19) In how many ways 11 different books can be parcelled into four packets so that three of the
packets contain 3 books each and one of 2 books, if all packets have the same destination?
52! 11!
Ans. (17) 907200 (18) (19)
(13!) 4
4! (3!)4 2

Circular Permutation :
The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is (n  1) !.
(n  1)!
If clockwise & anticlockwise circular permutations are considered to be same, then it is .
2

Note : Number of circular permutations of n things when p are alike and the rest are different, taken all at a time,
(n  1) !
distinguishing clockwise and anticlockwise arrangement is .
p!

Example # 16 : In how many ways can we arrange 6 different flowers in a circle? In how many ways we
can form a garland using these flowers?
Solution : The number of circular arrangements of 6 different flowers = (6 – 1)! = 120
When we form a garland, clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are similar. Therefore, the
1
number of ways of forming garland = (6 – 1) ! = 60.
2

Example # 17 : In how many ways 6 persons can sit at a round table, if two of them prefer to sit together?
Solution : Let P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6 be the persons, where P1, P2 want to sit together.
Regard these person as 5 objects. They can be arranged in a circle in (5 – 1)! = 24 ways. Now
P1, P2 can be arranged in 2! ways. Thus the total number of ways = 24 × 2 = 48.

Self Practice Problems :

(20) In how many ways letters of the word 'MONDAY' can be written around a circle, if vowels
are to be separated in any arrangement ?

(21) In how many ways we can form a garland using 3 different red flowers,5 different yellow flowers
and 4 different blue flowers, if flowers of same colour must be together?
Ans. (20) 72 (21) 17280

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Selection of one or more objects

(a) Number of ways in which atleast one object may be selected out of 'n' distinct objects, is
nC + nC + nC +...............+ nC = 2n – 1
1 2 3 n
(b) Number of ways in which atleast one object may be selected out of 'p' alike objects of one
type, 'q' alike objects of second type and 'r' alike objects of third type, is
(p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) – 1
(c) Number of ways in which atleast one object may be selected from 'n' objects where 'p' alike of one
type, 'q' alike of second type and 'r' alike of third type and rest n – (p + q + r) are different, is (p +

1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2n – (p + q + r) – 1

Example # 18 : There are 12 different books in a shelf. In how many ways we can select atleast one of them?

Solution : We may select 1 book, 2 books,........, 12 books.

  The number of ways = 12C1 + 12C2 + ....... + 12C12 = 212 – 1. = 4095

Example # 19 : There are 11 fruits in a basket of which 6 are apples, 3 mangoes and 2 bananas (fruits of same
species are identical). How many ways are there to select atleast one fruit?
Solution : Let x be the number of apples being selected
y be the number of mangoes being selected and
z be the number of bananas being selected.
Then x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6
y = 0, 1, 2, 3
z = 0, 1, 2
Total number of triplets (x, y, z) is 7 × 4 × 3 = 84
Exclude (0, 0, 0)
 Number of combinations = 84 – 1 = 83.
Self Practice Problems
(22) In a shelf there are 6 physics, 4 chemistry and 3 mathematics books. How many combinations
are there if (i) books of same subject are different? (ii) books of same subject are identical?

(23) From 5 apples, 4 mangoes & 3 bananas, in how many ways we can select atleast two fruits of
each variety if (i) fruits of same species are identical? (ii) fruits of same species are different?

Ans. (22) (i) 8191 (ii) 139 (23) (i) 24 (ii) 212 – 4
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Results : Let N = pa. qb. rc...... where p, q, r...... are distinct primes & a, b, c..... are natural numbers then:

(a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 & N is = (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1)........

(b) The sum of these divisors is =

(p0 + p1 + p2 +.... + pa) (q0 + q1 + q2 +.... + qb) (r0 + r1 + r2 +.... + rc)........

(c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two factors is

 1 (a  1) (b  1) (c  1) .... if N is not a perfect square
=  12
 2 (a  1) (b  1) (c  1) ....  1 if N is a perfect square

(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into two factors which are

relatively prime (or coprime) to each other is equal to 2n1 where n is the number of different
prime factors in N.

Example # 20 : Find the number of divisors of 1350. Also find the sum of all divisors.
Solution : 1350 = 2 × 33 × 52
 Number of divisors = (1+ 1) (3 + 1) (2 + 1) = 24

sum of divisors = (1 + 2) (1 + 3 + 32 + 33) (1 + 5 + 52) = 3720.

Example # 21 : In how many ways 8100 can be resolved into product of two factors?

Solution : 8100 = 22 × 34 × 52
1
Number of ways = [(2 + 1) (4 + 1) (2 + 1) + 1] = 23
2
Self Practice Problems :

(24) How many divisors of 9000 are even but not divisible by 4? Also find the sum of all such
divisors.

(25) In how many ways the number 8100 can be written as product of two coprime factors?

Ans. (24) 12, 4056 (25) 4

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Negative binomial expansion :

(1 – x)– n = 1 + nC1x + n + 1C2 x2 + n + 2C3x3 + ........ to  , if – 1 < x < 1.

Coefficient of xr in this expansion = n+r1Cr (n  N)

Result : Number of ways in which it is possible to make a selection from m + n + p = N things, where p are alike
of one kind, m alike of second kind & n alike of third kind, taken r at a time is given by coefficient of xr in
the expansion of
(1 + x + x2 +...... + xp) (1 + x + x2 +...... + xm) (1 + x + x2 +...... + xn).
For example the number of ways in which a selection of four letters can be made from the letters of the
word PROPORTION is given by coefficient of x4 in
(1 + x + x2 + x3) (1 + x + x2) (1 + x + x2) (1 + x) (1 + x) (1 + x).

Method of fictious partition :

Number of ways in which n identical things may be distributed among p persons if each person may

receive none, one or more things is n+p1Cn.

Example # 22 : Find the number of solutions of the equation x + y + z = 6, where x, y, z  W.

Solution : Number of solutions = coefficient of x6 in (1 + x + x2 + ....... x6)3

= coefficient of x6 in (1 – x7)3 (1 – x)–3

= coefficient of x6 in (1 – x)–3
= 3+6–1C6 = 8C2 = 28.
Example # 23 : In a bakery four types of biscuits are available. In how many ways a person can buy 10
biscuits if he decide to take atleast one biscuit of each variety?
Solution : Let the person select x biscuits from first variety, y from the second, z from the third and w
from the fourth variety. Then the number of ways = number of solutions of the equation
x + y + z + w = 10.
where x = 1, 2, .........,7
y = 1, 2, .........,7
z = 1, 2, .........,7
w = 1, 2, .........,7

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 So, number of ways = coefficient of x10 in (x + x2 + ...... + x7)4
= coefficient of x6 in (1 + x + ....... + x6)4
= coefficient of x6 in (1 – x7)4 (1 – x)–4
= coefficient x6 in (1 – x)–4
= 4+6–1C6 = 9C3 = 84

Self Practice Problems:

(26) Three distinguishable dice are rolled. In how many ways we can get a total 15?
(27) In how many ways we can give 5 apples, 4 mangoes and 3 oranges (fruits of same species are
similar) to three persons if each may receive none, one or more?
Ans. (26) 10 (27) 3150
Derrangements :

Number of ways in which 'n' letters can be put in 'n' corresponding envelopes such that no letter goes to
 1 1 1 1 1 
correct envelope is n !  1      ..........  ( 1)n 
 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! n !

Example # 24 : In how many ways we can put 5 writings into 5 corresponding envelopes so that no writing go
to the corresponding envelope?
Solution : The problem is the number of dearragements of 5 digits.
 1 1 1 1 
This is equal to 5!      = 44.
2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 !
Example # 25 : Four slip of papers with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 written on them are put in a box. They are drawn
one by one (without replacement) at random. In how many ways it can happen that the ordinal
number of atleast one slip coincide with its own number?

Solution : Total number of ways = 4 ! = 24.

The number of ways in which ordinal number of any slip does not coincide with its own number
 1 1 1 
is the number of dearrangements of 4 objects = 4 !    =9
 2 ! 3 ! 4 !

Thus the required number of ways. = 24 – 9 = 15

Self Practice Problems:
(28) In a match the column question, Column  contain 10 questions and Column II contain 10
answers written in some arbitrary order. In how many ways a student can answer this question
so that exactly 6 of his matching are correct ?
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 (29) In how many ways we can put 5 letters into 5 corresponding envelopes so that atleast one
letter go to wrong envelope ?
Ans. (28) 1890 (29) 119
Exponent of prime p in n! :

Let p be a prime number, n be a positive integer and Let Ep(n) denote the exponent of the prime p in the positive
integer n. Then,
n   n   n  n
Ep (n!)      2    3   ......   s 
     
p p p p 

where s is the largest positive integer such that ps  n < ps+1

Example # 26 : Find exponent 2 and 3 in 100!
 100   100   100   100 
Solution : Exponent of 2 in 100! is represented by E2 (100!)      2    3   ......   6 
 2   2   2   2 

= 50 + 25 + 12 + 6 + 3 + 1 = 97
 100   100   100   100 
Exponent of 3 in 100! is represented by E3 (100!)    2  3  4 
 3   3   3   3 

= 33 +11 + 3 + 1 = 48

Example # 27 : If 100! is divided by (24)k (where k  n), then find maximum value of k.
 100   100   100   100 
Solution : Exponent of 2 in 100! is represented by E2 (100!)      2    3   ......   6 
 2   2   2   2 

= 50 + 25 + 12 + 6 + 3 + 1 = 97
 Exponent of 23 in 100! is 32.
 100   100   100   100 
Exponent of 3 in 100! is represented by E3 (100!)    2  3  4 
 3   3   3   3 

= 33 +11 + 3 + 1 = 48
 Exponent of (23 × 3) in 100! is min{48, 32} = 32
 Exponent of (24) in 100! is = 32
 maximum value of k is 32.

Self Practice Problems:

(30) Find the number of zeros at the end of 50C25.

(31) Find the last non zero digits of 25!.
Ans (30) 0 (31) 4

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