Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of the Indian Chemical Society

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-the-indian-chemical-society

An overview of heterogeneous photocatalysis for the degradation of organic

compounds: A special emphasis on photocorrosion and reusability
Ansaf V. Karim 1, Sukanya Krishnan 1, Amritanshu Shriwastav *
Environmental Science and Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400 076, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Heterogeneous photocatalysis has been extensively investigated for the degradation of organic pollutants from
Photocatalysis wastewater. The remarkable advantages of the heterogeneous photocatalysis process depend upon its ability to
Photostability produce reactive oxygen species under visible/UV/solar light irradiation. However, the long-term stability and
Surface modification
reuse potential of these catalysts are of great concern these days, yet understudied. This review aims to sys­
Photocorrosion
Regeneration
tematically present a state of the art understanding of such catalysts’ reuse potential. Various important surface
characteristics of the photocatalysts for improving the photostability and activity of the catalyst are discussed.
Besides, the synergistic effect of different surface modified materials, composite materials and their surface
characteristics for their enhanced activity are also covered. Finally, a discussion on various regeneration pro­
cesses used for such catalysts is also presented, identifying some vital research needs in this field.

1. Introduction instability of the catalyst, particle aggregation, photocorrosion, and loss

The presence of recalcitrant organic compounds from the unregu­
lated discharge of industrial and domestic wastewater effluents may
cause serious threats to the ecosystem and human health [1–5]. The
conventional treatment methods are insufficient to treat these recalci­
trant organic pollutants present in polluted water. Advanced oxidation
processes (AOPs) such as photocatalysis, Fenton’s oxidation, sonolysis,
ozonation, etc., can potentially accomplish the treatment criteria for
wastewaters containing highly stable and low biodegradable com­
pounds [6–11]. Among these, heterogeneous photocatalysis using
semiconductor catalysts is being extensively studied to degrade organic
pollutants due to its ability to produce highly reactive radicals under
light irradiation without the need for additional chemicals [12–14].
The photocatalyst must possess long-term stability and activity in
any chemical environment which is dependent on its crystalline phase,
morphology, size etc. [15–17]. Also, surmounting the photocorrosion
originating from irreversible hole-driven oxidation reactions in semi­
conductor materials is strongly required to achieve stable photocatalysts
for long-time photocatalytic redox reactions [18]. Most of the studies
have utilized suspended semiconductor nanoparticles in slurry form as
the photocatalyst due to the ease of application. However, such slurry
based photocatalytic treatment has several limitations, including
of active catalyst surface [19–21]. In addition, the separation of pho­
tocatalyst from the slurry based photocatalyst system is time-consuming
and expensive [22–25].
Surface modification techniques could increase the photocatalytic
performance and stability of the catalyst by increasing the specific sur­
face area, pore size, etc. [26–29]. Also, the catalyst regeneration after
each treatment cycle significantly affects its photocatalytic performance
[30]. For instance, among the nanorod and nanoflower SnO2 photo­
catalysts, the hierarchical SnO2 nanoflower catalyst showed higher
photocatalytic activity owing to their larger specific surface area [31].
Further, the hierarchical structure improved the light absorption ability
and provided radial microchannels for pollutant diffusion to achieve
higher photocatalytic degradation. Similarly, the enhancement in the
porosity of Gd doped Ag3PO4 when compared to undoped Ag3PO4
improved the adsorption of Reactive Blue 19 and its photocatalytic
degradation [32]. Surface treatments also control the particles’
morphology and size, and create more active sites to enhance the
structural stability of photocatalyst [33]. The incorporation of ZrO2 in
WO3 inhibited the agglomeration of the WO3 nanoparticles, and
increased the number of active sites on the catalyst surface.
Comprehensive reviews are already available discussing the process
of heterogeneous photocatalysis, visible light activity, and catalyst

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amritan@iitb.ac.in (A. Shriwastav).
1
Equal contribution.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jics.2022.100480
Received 19 January 2022; Received in revised form 29 March 2022; Accepted 16 April 2022
Available online 20 April 2022
0019-4522/© 2022 Indian Chemical Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A.V. Karim et al.
immobilization [12,34–38]. However, limited studies focus on the sta­
bility, reuse potential, and regeneration of different catalysts during
photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. Given their impor­
tance, these aspects are the major focus of the present review. This re­
view seeks to present a comprehensive picture of reusability of
semiconductor based photocatalyst during organic pollutant removal
and summarizes the strategies to improve the photostability. It begins by
introducing the overview of heterogeneous photocatalysis and its
mechanism during pollutant removal and then describes the different
reactive species involved in it. Subsequently, the special focus of this
review is on the stability and reusability of heterogeneous photocatalyst
and the governing characteristics properties of the photocatalyst. A brief
discussion on the photocorrosion and regeneration of photocatalyst is
also provided. The future research prospects are also discussed. To the
best of our knowledge, no previous studies are presented with the same
theme where the importance of reusability of are discussed.
2. Heterogeneous photocatalysis
Heterogeneous photocatalysis is an efficient method for the treat­
ment of wastewater contaminated with organic and inorganic pollutants
[39,40]. In the case of a heterogeneous photocatalyst system, all the
reactions occur at the semiconductor material’s surface. The basic
principle of photocatalytic mechanism is shown in Fig. 1 [41]. The major
steps in the heterogeneous photocatalysis degradation of pollutants are
adsorption of the pollutant from bulk solution onto the surface of the
catalysts, photocatalytic redox reactions and followed by the desorption
of products from the surface to the bulk solution [41].
In addition, reaction steps such as photoexcitation, diffusion, trap­
ping, recombination and oxidation are involved in the surface of TiO2
photocatalysis process [42].
The mechanism of semiconductor photocatalysis can be explained
as; when the light of incident energy greater than the bandgap energy
falls on the catalyst surface, electron-hole pairs are formed. The elec­
trons in the valence band (VB) of the catalyst move to the conduction
band (CB) through valence band transition leaving behind a positive
hole for the unfilled electrons in the VB. These electrons in the CB reacts
with adsorbed oxygen on the surface to form superoxide radicals (O−2 •)
or hydroperoxide radicals (HO−2 •), and the H2O molecules adsorbed in
the surface of photocatalysis are oxidized by the holes to generate hy­
droxyl radicals [43].
Therefore, the direct redox processes, induced by photogenerated
holes and electrons on the surface of catalysts, and indirect redox pro­
cess by the reactive oxygen species are responsible for the pollutant
degradation [44]. The following equations (1)–(5) explain the formation
Fig. 1. Basic heterogeneous photocatalytic mechanism. Reproduced from Ref. [41]. Copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier.
2
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
of different active species generated with a typical photocatalyst (i.e.
TiO2) during pollutants removal. The degradation of pollutants occurs
by the reaction with generated reactive oxygen species [45,46]. The
major challenges of semiconductor catalysis are large bandgap energy,
electron-hole pair recombination, and stability of the catalyst [47,48].
Several researchers have focussed on synthesizing photocatalyst with
narrow bandgap, which can be used under visible light irradiation.
Various surface improvement methods to achieve this include doping
with metal/non-metal ions [49], dye sensitization [50], coupling with
semiconductors [51,52], or hybrid materials, etc. [53].
TiO2 + ​ hv→hVB + + ​ eCB − (1)
hVB + + ​ H2 O→⋅ O H ​ + ​ H+ (2)
hVB + + ​ OH− →⋅ O H (3)
eCB − + O2 →O2 − ⋅
(4)
O2 − ⋅ ​ + ​ H+ →⋅ OH ​ + ​ HO−2 ⋅ (5)
Trapping experiment with radical scavengers are usually performed
to understand the underlying photocatalytic mechanism and reactive
species generated during photocatalysis processes. These radical scav­
engers include p-benzoquinone (as superoxide radical scavenger), iso­
propanol, t-butanol (as scavenger of hydroxyl radicals), disodium
ethylenediaminetetraacetate, ammonium oxalate, potassium iodide (as
holes scavenger), potassium bromate, potassium persulfate (as electrons
scavenger) [40,54–56]. The photocatalytic activity could be suppressed
by the radical scavengers suggesting the corresponding dominant spe­
cies responsible for the degradation process. Apart from experimental
approaches, several characterization techniques including Electron Spin
Resonance (ESR), Photoluminescence, X-ray photoelectron spectros­
copy, Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy etc. of semiconductor photo­
catalyst can also explain the photocatalytic mechanism [57–60]. For
instance, ESR technique directly monitors the unpaired electrons in the
photocatalytic surface and helps in understanding the reactive species
such as •OH, O−2 •, and HO−2 • [58]. Similarly, understanding the material
imperfections, fate of photogenerated electron-hole pairs and efficiency
of charge carrier trapping from photoluminescence spectroscopy could
help in proposing the degradation mechanism [61–63]. Apart from
semiconductor characterizations, computational calculations using
Density Functional Theory (DFT), quantum mechanical methods,
data-driven machine learning (ML) techniques etc. could be used to
explain the photocatalytic mechanism, photoexcitation, charge mobility
etc. [64–66]. In a study conducted by Ganguly et al. [67], the theoretical
studies using DFT revealed the importance of electronic and optical
A.V. Karim et al.
properties of AgBiS2–TiO2 heterojunctions for enhanced visible light
photocatalytic degradation of Doxycycline and disinfection. The DFT
analysis revealed the stability of AgBiS2 in the composite catalyst and
explained the electron travel Ag 4d and S 3p orbitals to the Bi 3p orbital
of AgBiS2. In another study [68], along with the scavenger studies to
understand the active species generated in the photocatalysis degrada­
tion process, DFT systematically studied exciton energy and carrier
mobility of SnO2 photocatalyst. In brief, computational methods in
photocatalysis degradation process can evaluate the degradation
mechanisms based on theoretical aspects and tackle the uncertainties
related to charge recombination, optical properties etc. that are chal­
lenging to be addressed through experiments only [69].
3. Stability and reusability of heterogeneous photocatalyst
From a broader perspective, the inherent properties of photocatalyst
materials such as light absorption, active surface sites, and charge
transfer, played a significant role in maintaining the photocatalytic ac­
tivity of these materials. However, from a practical point of view, the
reactivation of photocatalyst by surmounting the photocorrosion of
semiconductor-based composites is strongly required to achieve stable
photocatalysts for long-time photocatalytic redox reactions [20].
Nevertheless, the synthesis of high photoreactive and stable catalysts
can improve the reuse performance of these heterogeneous catalysts.
This section emphasizes the photocatalytic activity, stability and reus­
ability of different heterogeneous catalysts that were used for organic
compound removal.
The stability and reusability of the catalyst are two important pa­
rameters to be considered for the practical application of photocatalyst
materials [21,70]. The stability of a photocatalyst can be defined as its
ability to sustain the structural, morphological and chemical properties
to preserve its photocatalytic activity for a longer time. The stability of
photocatalyst significantly depends upon the synthesis methods, calci­
nation temperature, defects on catalyst surface etc. [71]. Reusability of a
photocatalyst could be defined as its quality to be used again. The loss of
photocatalytic activity in successive reuse cycles presents a major hurdle
in environmental applications. The stability and reusability of photo­
catalyst are mutually dependent properties that can control the cost and
treatment efficiency of photocatalyst processes [72]. Loss of photoactive
sites, decrease in surface area, irregular morphology, and low crystal­
linity of the catalyst may hinder the reusability of the catalyst [73]. The
photocatalytic activity and stability of the catalyst can be improved by
surface modification techniques such as forming heterojunction, metal
deposition, doping etc. [74–80].
The stability of a catalyst may depend upon several characteristic
properties such as crystallite nature, surface morphology, crystallite
size, specific surface area, surface functional groups etc. [71,81–85].
Fine and narrow peaks observed from the XRD diffractogram are in­
dicators of the highly crystalline nature of particles. Particle size and
crystallite size are the two critical parameters of a photocatalyst
contributing to the adsorption of more pollutants and absorbing lighter.
However, change in the particle size of photocatalyst particles can vary
its crystallinity and morphology [86]. The smaller size of the particles is
more preferred as it leads to the higher surface to the mass ratio, which
helps in easy diffusion of electrons to reach the interface solid/solution
[87–90]. Larger particle sizes may significantly reduce the specific
surface area of the catalyst [91,92].
Morphological change of the catalyst including the formation of
defects on the catalyst surface may also affect the stability of the catalyst
[93]. The catalytic activity of spherical shaped CuO nanostructures
exhibited higher photostability and activity when compared to oval,
layered oval, nano leaf and triangular-shaped particles. These spherical
sized particles possessed a higher surface area and improved the redox
reactions under irradiation [94]. It is also very important to have stable
photocatalytic structure that can maintain the photostability under
irradiation [95]. The structural properties of the photocatalyst relies on
3
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
its band structure, exposed facets, surface atoms etc., and may vary with
the synthesis process, metal deposition, type of semiconductor material,
substrate etc. [96,97]. For instance, the coupling of CdS on porous TiO2
substrate using a bifunctional linker, mercaptopropionic acid effectively
dispersed and stabilized CdS nanoparticles on TiO2 and enhanced the
overall stability when compared to the composite catalyst prepared by
direct deposition. In another study conducted by Pan et al. [98], a sig­
nificant change in the structural properties of TiO2 was observed during
the degradation of benzyl alcohol due to the formation of a large number
of oxygen vacancies on the surface sites which reduced the degradation
rate. The observed trend in photocatalytic activity could be attributed to
the aggregation of particles reducing the effective photochemical active
sites.
3.1. Stability of heterogenous photocatalyst
To understand the photocatalytic performance and stability of
semiconductor materials, the discussion starts with the most promising
heterogeneous photocatalyst TiO2 and ZnO that are extensively studied
for organic pollutant abatement owing to their cost effectiveness, non-
toxicity, high resistance to photocorrosion and availability in different
crystalline forms with high photocatalytic activity [99]. Though reuse
and recovery of the catalyst after the treatment process is a major
constraint, the applicability of TiO2 particles for contaminant removal
has gained greater popularity due to its surface properties, including
morphology, surface area, adsorption affinity, etc. [100]. Anatase phase
of TiO2 are as photochemically more active phase due to their charge
carrier dynamics, greater hole trapping ability and lower recombination
rates [101,102]. The higher crystallinity of anatase TiO2 particles pre­
pared by the hydrothermal homogeneous precipitation method showed
enhanced photocatalytic activity during the photocatalytic degradation
of X–3B dye [103]. Even though a structural variation on the particles
size of the catalyst was observed with calcination temperature, the
catalyst calcined at 800 ◦ C composed of predominantly anatase phase
and a small fraction of rutile had shown higher charge separation effi­
ciency and was effectively separated and reused for the degradation of
X–3B dye. The presence of sulfate ions from TiO2 precursor considerably
inhibited the phase transformation at these higher temperatures.
Among the different nanostructures of TiO2, 1-dimensional nano­
wires, fibers and tubes have superior catalytic performance and stability
relative to conventional powder particles. They possess a higher surface
area and their separation and regeneration are easy. TiO2 nanowire
microsphere synthesized by Zhang et al. (2009) exhibited excellent
stability and mechanical strength during the degradation of methylene
blue [104]. These hierarchically porous structures with 20–100 nm
diameter and 38.2 m2/g specific surface area allowed the easy pene­
tration of UV light into the microspheres and improved the photo­
catalytic performance. No significant decrease in degradation of
methylene blue was observed after 7 reuse cycles due to the mechanical
strength of the hierarchically microporous nanowires which prevented
the collapse of the structure and retained its surface for more adsorption
of pollutants. During the reuse cycles, the aggregation of TiO2 nanowires
were minimum and it helped in maintaining the active surface of the
catalyst. In another study, the hollow TiO2 microspheres with hierar­
chical porous structure as shown in Fig. 2 synthesized by a one-step
template method showed enhanced photocatalytic activity and reuse
potential for the degradation of rhodamine B. The catalyst was recycled
for successive 5 reuses due to the enhanced specific surface area due to
the porous surface for adsorption of pollutants and the hierarchical
porous structure promoting the mass transfer in the catalysts without
losing its photocatalytic activity [105]. Further, the self-organized TiO2
nanotube arrays synthesized by electrochemical anodization with an
average diameter of 53 nm revealed good stability during the photo­
catalytic degradation of metoprolol. Mixed anatase-rutile phase crys­
tallographic composition and morphology of catalyst helped in
maintaining the reactivity of the catalyst at different pH condition for
A.V. Karim et al. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480

Fig. 2. SEM images of the TiO2 microspheres. Reproduced from Ref. [105]. Copyright (2011), with permission from Elsevier.

repeated reuse cycles [106].
Nano ZnO particles with different electronic structure, high surface
to volume ratio, and more quantum efficiency are an alternative for TiO2
with the similar bandgap energy as of TiO2 [107,108]. ZnO nanocrystals
synthesized by thermal decomposition had a hexagonal wurtzite type
nano chain structure with 40–100 nm size [109]. These highly crystal­
lized nanoparticles had shown higher adsorption of dye molecules when
compared to commercial ZnO particles and retained remarkable pho­
tostability for 3 reuse cycles. The loss of activity of commercial ZnO
during photocatalytic activities are more pronounced in the form of
leaching of Zn ions due to photo corrosion. The higher photocatalytic
stability of ZnO for the degradation of pollutants may also depend on the
surface hydroxyl groups and active sites for the adsorption of pollutants
[108]. In another study by Chen et al. [110], ZnO particles were syn­
thesized with a composite ratio of 4:1 and different calcination tem­
peratures. The particles synthesized at 400 ◦ C was more crystalline and
smaller in size when compared to other catalyst prepared at higher
temperatures. These particles with more active sites resulted in the
removal of 3 different dyes for four reuse cycles with minimum loss in
the photocatalytic activity under UV irradiation.

Fig. 3. SEM images of ZnS Micropsheres assembled by nanoparticles of size ranging from 5 to 15 nm (A–C) and (D) elemental mapping of zinc and sulfur atom of
synthesized ZnS. Reproduced from Ref. [111], Copyright (2010), with permission from Elsevier.

4
A.V. Karim et al. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480

Many other photocatalysts, apart from conventionally used TiO2 and
ZnO, also possess excellent photocatalytic activity under UV and visible
light. For instance, aggregate free and well dispersed mesoporous ZnS
microspheres of uniform size synthesized by hydrothermal method for
the photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange. These microspheres
are assembled by nanoparticles of size ranging from 5 to 15 nm to form
surface structures of size ranging from 1 to 5 μm and are homogeneously
distributed by oriented attachment as shown in SEM image (Fig. 3). The
change in the concentration of the zinc precursor helped in altering the
pore size of the catalyst. Under identical experimental conditions, the
synthesized ZnS catalyst retained its photocatalytic stability by pre­
venting the photo corrosion in comparison with TiO2 and commercially
purchased ZnS and was effectively reused for 3 cycles of methyl orange
degradation [111].
Despite advances of semiconductor materials in photocatalysis,
various synthesis methods may also affect the photocatalytic activity
and stability of the catalyst. For example, BiVO4 particles synthesized by
solution combustion method (SCM) resulted in enhanced photocatalytic
activity when compared to hydrothermal and co-precipitation method
[112]. The catalyst synthesized by SCM possessed reduced bandgap and
well-defined spherical morphology and was effectively used for the
degradation of rhodamine B for 5 consecutive cycles. Moreover, the
catalyst retained higher crystallinity with minimum defects on its crystal
lattice which also improved the stability. Though silver based semi­
conductor catalyst such as Ag3PO4, Ag3VO4, Ag2CO3 etc. are effective
visible light photocatalyst materials, photocorrosion can deactivate
their performance [77,113]. In a study conducted by Dai et al. [114], the
instability of Ag2CO3 under visible light irradiation was overcome by
modifying the synthesis process by using AgNO3 with a simple precipi­
tation reaction between NaHCO3 and AgNO3. The lower electrode po­
tential of Ag/AgNO3 than that of Ag/Ag2CO3 improved the charge
separation and inhibited the photocorrosion of the catalyst. Further the
catalyst remained stable for six reuse cycles and the monoclinic struc­
ture and the morphology of Ag2CO3 catalyst remained relatively same
preventing the photocorrosion.
The stability of the catalyst also depends on the morphology of the
catalyst. The higher surface area and unique hierarchical structure of
SnO2 nanoflowers providing an easy diffusion of reaction through the
microchannels were more stable and active than SnO2 nanorods. Under
the same experimental conditions, SnO2 nanoflower exhibited higher
reusability due to their higher adsorption ability and stability [31].
Similar to the above study, the inherent structure of γ-Bi2MoO6 con­
sisting of perovskite-like slabs with square nanoplates morphology
synthesized by the hydrothermal method was stable and effective for
rhodamine degradation [115]. The higher catalytic activity was
observed due to the nanoplate morphology and inherent structure of

Table 1
Characteristics and reuse potential of semiconductor catalyst.
Catalyst Pollutant Synthesis method Morphology and Characteristics Reuse potential and Highlights Reference

LaCoO3 Rhodamine B Electrospinning and Randomly oriented electrospun fibres with Good reusability for five cycles with negligible [186]
nanofibers subsequent calcination 75–200 nm diameter loss in degradation efficiency
Calcination temperature affected the morphology
ZrO2-doped 2-chlorophenol Hydrothermal co- single phase cubic spinel structure for Doping with ZrO2 stabilized the ZnCo2O4 phase [187]
ZnCo2O4 precipitation method ZnCo2O4 with traces of orthorhombic ZrO2 and enhanced the surface area to achieve stable
with average particle size of 16–47 nm photocatalytic performance after 3 reuse cycles
Monoclinic Methyl Orange Precipitation followed Dumbbell shaped particles of 24 nm Highly porous and crystalline with oxygen defect [188]
ZrO2 by calcination method sites acting as recombination centres resulted in 5
reuse cycles with more than 90% degradation
SnO2 Rose Bengal Hydrothermal Flower like morphology with 19.5 nm size Catalyst was effectively recycled for four reuse [189]
Nanoflowers Synthesis and 44 m2g-1 surface area cycles
CuO Methylene blue, Hydrothermal method Porous nanostructures with 4.32 nm size High stability and reusability up to forth reuse [190]
Methyl orange and 9.027 m2 g-1 surface area cycle
SnO2 Rhodamine B One pot hydrothermal Novel hierarchical flower like structure with Excellent photocatalytic activity shown for [191]
method diameter of 1 μm and surface area of 78.8 repetitive use
m2g-1
WO3 nanorod Rhodamine B Solution precipitation 52 nm size and 6.6 m2g-1 specific surface Higher aspect ratio of nanorods helped in delayed [192]
method area recombination and exhibited high stability for 5
reuses
MoS2 Thiobencarb Solvent mixing Irregular microsphere with ~500 nm Excellent stability and reusability with causing [193]
followed by diameter photo corrosion for 3 successive runs
precipitation
CdS Reactive red Congo Hydrothermal method Nanostructure of 49.6 nm The surface modification of CdS using polymer [56]
red enhanced the stability of the catalyst for five
reuse cycles
CdTe/TiO2 tetracycline hydrothermal method CdTe nanoparticles distributed on large No noticeable change in crystallinity of catalyst [194]
hydrochloride TiO2 surface facilitating charge transfer was observed after 4 reuse cycles
process
BiOCl Atenolol Chemical precipitation 7–8 nm thickness nanosheets with 1.29 m2g- Higher activity for 10 reuse cycles [195]
1
method specific surface area
(Ag3PO4/ sulfamethazine and Facile chemical Coexistence of Ag3PO4 grown along the Catalyst remained stable for 4 reuse cycles with [196]
Bi2S3/Bi2O3 cloxacillin method Bi2S3 nanowire and were randomly attached some occurrence of photocorrosion
on the surface of the Bi2S3/Bi2O3 composite
Bi2MoO6 Congo red dye Solvothermal method Uniform morphology composed of plate-like High structural stability and degradation [197]
Ofloxacin structure efficiency for five reuse cycles
CdS/BiOBr/ Hydrothermal Atrazine BiOBr nanoplates dominantly present on the Negligible loss of photocatalytic activity after 4 [198]
Bi2O2CO3 method heterostructure material with agglomerated reuse cycles
CdS particles
BiVO4/WO3 hydrothermal 4-chlorophenol Uniform presence of highly porous BiVO4 on Effective degradation of 4-chlorophenol was [199]
process WO3. observed for 3 reuse cycles negligible loss in
photocatalytic activity due to adsorption of
pollutants molecules
BiOBr Solvothermal Ofloxacin and Flower-like microstructures with high Catalyst retained its structural stability even after [200]
method norfloxacin surface area which suppressed the electron 5 reuse cycles
hole recombination at the interfaces

5
A.V. Karim et al.
catalyst which is stable towards oxidation decomposition and was
effectively reused for the degradation of rhodamine B for five reuse
cycles without any significant loss in photoactivity. In addition to the
above studies, Table 1 summarizes different semiconductor catalyst and
their reuse potential during the photocatalytic degradation of
pollutants.
This section had reviewed the characteristic properties of heteroge­
neous photocatalyst governing the photostability and reusability during
organic pollutant removal. The characteristic properties including the
morphology, particle size, surface area, functional groups etc. affects the
overall catalytic performance and improves the reuse potentials of the
catalyst. Further, the synthesis of a stable photocatalyst can improve the
degradation efficiency and can remain as a sustainable solution for
contaminant removal. More research work must be carried out to
accurately assess the photocorrosion occurring during the photo­
catalytic process to understand the stability of the catalyst material.
3.2. Surface modified heterogeneous catalyst
3.2.1. Doped photocatalyst
Surface modification of the catalyst to restrict the charge recombi­
nation and increase the visible light response through doping of metal/
non-metal have been extensively studied [115–117]. Doping of semi­
conductor catalyst with metals or non-metals can results in the forma­
tion of intermediate bandgap level and improves the charge carrier
separation [118–120]. For instance, N doping of TiO2 results in the
formation of an N 2p intermediate band above the O 2p VB and reduces
the overall bandgap of the catalyst as shown in Fig. (4a) [121]. Doping
could also help in controlling the crystallite size and surface to volume
ratio of the nanostructures to increase the adsorption of pollutants on its
surface [122]. Among the different non-metal dopants on TiO2, nitrogen
was the promising one owing to its comparable atomic size with oxygen
to substitute it on the TiO2 lattice and higher stability [123]. N-doped
Fig. 4. a) Photocatalytic mechanism of N-doped TiO2 photocatalysts. Reproduced from Ref. [121], Copyright (2021), with permission from Elsevier, b) Recyclability
of Nd-V-ZnO in the photocatalytic degradation of RhB for four repetitive cycles activity. Reproduced from Ref. [116], Copyright (2019), with permission from
Elsevier, c) Mechanism of dye-sensitized photocatalytic system under visible light irradiation. Reproduced from Ref. [139], Copyright (2018), with permission from
Elsevier, and d) Schematic for the charge transfer in the direct Z-scheme g-C3N4/Ag2WO4 photocatalysts. Reproduced from Ref. [148], Copyright (2017), with
permission from Elsevier.
6
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
TiO2 particles calcined at different temperature showed different crys­
talline nature and stability during the photocatalytic degradation of
methyl orange. The catalyst calcined at 400 ◦ C was predominantly in the
anatase phase exhibiting superior stability and higher surface area and
was reused for 8 times. At this calcination temperature, the organic
residues on the catalyst surface were removed, and calcination beyond
400 ◦ C resulted in the phase transition [124]. Further in another study,
the presence of mixed anatase-rutile phase combination of N–TiO2
particles improved the charge separation and retained the photo­
catalytic activity for 3 reuse cycles during the removal of dibenzothio­
phene [125].
Introduction of transition metal cation, Co on the surface BiVO4
particles improved the crystallinity due to their distinct monoclinic
phase structure and the distribution of cobalt oxides on the surface of
BiVO4 particles forming a hetero junction and prevented the photo­
corrosion of Co–BiVO4 nanocatalyst [126]. Further, the Schottky barrier
formed at the interface of BiVO4 and Co oxides acted as electrons traps
and reduced the charge recombination rates to improve the photo­
catalytic reusability for successive cycles. In another study, the forma­
tion of crystalline defects on Ag3PO4 by Gd doping improved the
spherical morphology and hindered the electron-hole recombination
centres. It was observed that doping helped in overcoming the
agglomeration and photo corrosion of the catalyst and enhanced the
degradation of RB19 dye for three successive photocatalytic runs [32].
Co-doping of the catalyst can also improve the charge separation,
lattice deformation, and crystallite size of the catalyst [127,128].
Co-doping of Cu and N on TiO2 helped in preserving the anatase phase of
TiO2 by inhibiting the crystallinity growth and reduced the bandgap to
2.64 eV compared to 3.17 for pure TiO2 during the photocatalytic
degradation of phenanthrene [129] Similarly Nd, V- codoped ZnO
photocatalyst controlled the crystallite size of the catalyst and created a
new impurity level for extending visible light response. These catalysts
with the higher surface area were filtered after each experiment,
A.V. Karim et al.
washed, and used for four reuse cycles for the degradation of rhodamine
B without losing their activity as shown in Fig. (4b) [116].
3.2.2. Dye-sensitization
Recently, dye sensitization technique has been a breakthrough in
green energy and environmental detoxification since it has been applied
not only in solar cells [130], but also in the photocatalytic treatment for
the degradation of various emerging contaminants from water
[131–136]. The dye molecules having high visible light absorption can
be incorporated onto the UV responsive semiconductor material as a
sensitizer for achieving visible light active catalysts. Porphyrin deriva­
tive compounds had been employed as sensitizers due to the presence of
a delocalized π electron system, hence efficient utilization of the solar
spectrum can be achieved [137]. The schematic illustration of mecha­
nism of dye-sensitized photocatalyst is shown in Fig (4c). The mecha­
nism generally involves photoexcitation of dye molecule from the
ground state to the excited state. Then the excited electrons are trans­
ferred from the dye to the CB of semiconductor, thereby charge sepa­
ration becomes easier [138]. In these types of systems, the type of light
used (UV, visible or solar light) plays an important role since it affects
the entire mechanism of a dye-sensitized system including the charge
transfer process and type of ROS produced during the reaction. How­
ever, the presence of UV light is essential for the excitation of electrons
from TiO2, whereas the sensitizer is active in visible light [139]. The
transferred electrons react with the adsorbed oxygen molecules on the
surface of the TiO2 catalyst resulting in the formation of superoxide
which is a precursor for the degradation of pollutants [140,141]. Also,
excited sensitizer may interact with surrounding solvent molecules and
return to its ground state for the next round of excitation by visible light
[142]. In most of the studies, the sensitizer is primarily used to indirect
activation of the TiO2 catalyst for the generation of ROS.
The study by Phongamwong et al. [133] developed chlorophyll
sensitized Mg–TiO2 for the degradation of Rhodamine B dye as a model
contaminant and observed that the efficiency of 0.5Chl-0.1 Mg/P25
(bandgap = 2.6 eV) was 2.3 times higher than pure TiO2 (bandgap =
3.02 eV) with 7 cycles of reuse potential. The addition of Mg onto the
catalyst has benefit in terms of enhanced stability by forming a new
complex structure with chlorophyll, thereby increasing the reusability of
the catalyst. Similarly, a comparative study of chlorophyll sensitized Cu
loaded ZnO and pure ZnO was employed for the degradation of
Rhodamine B and found that 99% degradation of RhB with
0.5Chl-0.10Cu/ZnO (bandgap = 2.77 eV) under 2 h of visible light
irradiation [132]. 0.5Chl-0.10Cu/ZnO catalyst retained its activity until
six cycles of reuse with more than 80% degradation efficiency.
3.2.3. Z-scheme catalyst
Z-scheme photocatalysts are typically made of semiconductor ma­
terial with high oxidative and reductive properties due to the alignment
of band structures [143]. According to the recent development in the
field of Z-scheme photocatalysts research, the Z-scheme systems are
broadly classified into two such as all-solid-state Z-scheme system and
direct Z-scheme system. In all-solid-state Z-scheme photocatalyst sys­
tems, the charge transfer between two semiconductors take place via
noble metals (Au, Ag and Cu) as electron mediators [144]. These con­
ducting materials provide Ohmic contact which results in the high
charge migration ability of photogenerated electrons from CB of one
semiconductor to the VB holes of second semiconductor in the Z-scheme
system [145]. Whereas in case of direct Z-scheme system, there is no
electron mediators for the charge transfer from one semiconductor to
another. The charge transfer between two semiconductors take place via
photogenerated electrons in the semiconductor with low reduction po­
tential will recombine with the photogenerated holes on the second
semiconductor as shown in Fig. (4d) [146,147]. For instance, the direct
Z-scheme system formed between g-C3N4 and Ag2WO4 as shown in
Fig. (4c) generates electrons and holes pair with the light exposure. This
results in the efficient charge separation in the Z-scheme system by
7
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
electron transfer from CB of Ag2WO4 to the VB of g-C3N4 which reduces
the recombination rate of electron and holes within Ag2WO4 and g-C3N4
[148]. Similarly, in Ag3PO4/Co3(PO4)2@Ag ternary photocatalyst the
formation of 3D hierarchical structures effectively restrained the
electron-hole recombination and increased the surface area for active
adsorption of tetracycline. As shown in Fig. (5a), the flower-like
Co3(PO4)2 carrying rhombic Ag3PO4 particles had shown excellent
crystallinity and more active site for adsorption of pollutants and
remained stable for five reuse cycles. Apart from that, the surface plas­
mon resonance property of Ag particles attached to the catalyst extended
the visible light absorption range in the composite [149]. Further, the
charge carrier separation of Z-scheme catalyst is generally greater than
the usual heterojunction catalyst due to the faster migration of electron
through the electron mediators and the strong interaction between the
VB of individual semiconductor catalysts [150]. For instance, the strong
interfacial contact between Ag3PO4 and AgBr in the Ag3PO4/AgBr
Z-scheme composite extended the lifetime of charge carriers and
improved the charge separation which simultaneously inhibit photo­
corrosion of the catalyst [151]. Further the catalyst remained active for
three reuse cycles and maintained the photostability over a wider range
of pH values. In compliance with the above study, the Z-scheme
configuration in CeO2–Ag/AgBr composite accelerated the interfacial
charge transfer and migration of electron-hole pairs resulting in
reducing the photocorrosion of AgBr and improved the overall stability
of the catalyst for four successive cycles of degradation of ciprofloxacin
without losing its activity [152]. Further, the co-existence of Ag nano­
particles on AgBr and CeO2 decreased the agglomeration rate and par­
ticle size of the catalyst and thereby increasing the surface area of the
catalyst for more adsorption. The rapid transfer of electrons from CeO2
to AgBr also reduced the photo corrosion of AgBr and enhanced the
overall stability of the catalyst.
3.2.4. Nanocomposites
Coupling of semiconductors is gaining popularity due to their
enhanced photocatalytic activity, efficient charge separation, and
decreased recombination rate [153–157]. The coupling of semi­
conductors is possible only when the CB of one semiconductor has more
negative potential than the other as shown in Fig. (5b) [158]. Thereby,
the electron transfer takes place from semiconductor with more negative
CB to another which further results in the generation of superoxide and
hydroxyl radicals. Moreover, the selection of semiconductors for
coupling also depends upon the bandgap and charge carrier efficiency of
each component. The formation of these heterojunction catalysts can
overcome the limitations of individual catalysts and improve the pho­
tostability, interfacial charge transfer, and light absorption properties.
As an example, the complex band configuration of the Ag3PO4/SnO2
composite as shown in Fig. (5c), helped in easy transport of electrons
from Ag3PO4 to SnO2 and decreasing the probability of charge recom­
bination [159]. Besides, this hybrid composite had shown excellent
stability and photocatalytic activity due to reduced bandgap and pro­
tecting of dissolution of Ag3PO4 by the insoluble SnO2 on its surface for
the removal of methyl orange for 4 successive cycles without significant
loss of photocatalytic activity Similarly, a novel Bi5O7Br/BiOBr heter­
ojunction photocatalyst was prepared by the facile hydrolysis process
and was effectively used for the degradation of carbamazepine [160]. In
the composite, Bi5O7Br nanosheets were well dispersed and firmly
attached to the micro-spherical BiOBr structures with numerous nano­
flakes as shown in Fig. (5d). The strong interaction between the com­
ponents and effective charge transfer in the heterojunction improved the
stability of composite for five reuse cycles of carbamazepine under
visible light irradiation.
The optimal ratio of each component in the binary heterogeneous
photocatalyst can control the photocatalytic performance of the com­
posite. For example, the maximum photocatalytic stability and quantum
efficiency of CuS fabricated on BiVO4 was observed at 7% CuS/BiVO4.
The p-n heterojunction provided higher surface area and enhanced
A.V. Karim et al. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480

Fig. 5. a) Mechanism of charge transfer in flower-like Co3(PO4)2 carrying rhombic Ag3PO4 particles. Reproduced from Ref. [149], Copyright (2020), with permission
from Elsevier, b) Schematic illustration of the charge separation and migration process in ZFO/ZnFe2O4 under visible light irradiation. Reproduced from Ref. [158],
Copyright (2018), with permission from Elsevier, c) Bandgap and charge separation in Ag3PO4/SnO2 composite. Reproduced from Ref. [159], Copyright (2012), with
permission from Royal Society of Chemistry, and d) SEM images of well-dispersed Bi5O7Br/BiOBr heterojunction photocatalyst. Reproduced from Ref. [160],
Copyright (2020), with permission from Elsevier.

charge separation resulting in an excellent photocatalytic performance
for four successive cycles of ciprofloxacin removal [161].
In line with the ability of nanocomposites to reduce recombination
rates, they also contributed to improving the catalyst stability. As in the
case of ZnO/MoS2 binary semiconductor nanocomposite, the photo
corrosion of ZnO nanoparticles was prevented due to the hybridization
with MoS2 nanosheets. The composite remained stable for five degra­
dation cycles of methylene blue due to the unique 3D porous structure
and higher visible light activity of the nanocomposite [162]. The firmly
reached and overlapped band structure at the interface of CdS and BiOBr
in the CdS/BiOBr composite enhanced the stability and effective charge
separation of the composite. The close contact between the materials
facilitated enhanced charge transfer, prevented photo corrosion of CdS,
and exhibited excellent stability for repeated cycles of rhodamine B
degradation under visible light irradiation [163].
Ternary coupled systems with a visible responsive catalyst and
appropriate potential for VB and CB can enable vectorial electron
transfer to obtain better photocatalytic performance. In this context, in
MoS2/CdS/TiO2 the effective charge separation in CdS, faster migration
of holes to the VB MoS2 and suppression of photo corrosion by the
composite maintained the stability of the catalyst for reuse studies
[164]. However, in CuS–CdS/TiO2 ternary nanocomposite, the
agglomeration of spherical catalyst in comparison with CdS/TiO2 in the
presence of metal sulfides resulted in photo corrosion and reduced the
degradation efficiency of AO7 dye from 100% to 71.25% after 4
repeated cycles of experiments [165].
The surface modifications of heterogenous photocatalyst materials
can result in shifting the absorption edge to the visible region and im­
proves photocatalytic activity under visible light. The structural changes
occurring on the catalyst surface can improve the photostability of the
catalyst and enhances their long-term performance. Further, the reten­
tion of photocatalytic activity and reuse observed for the surface
modified catalyst can act as a key aspect of nanotechnology for practical
application. Despite enormous research on surface modified catalyst are
done, there are still many challenges that are yet to be met to understand
the photocorrosion and leaching the during the photocatalytic
applications.
4. Photocorrosion of heterogeneous photocatalyst
Photocorrosion is the rapid deactivation of semiconductor photo­
catalyst occurring under irradiation due to the lack of photogenerated
charge transfer from its surface to an acceptor material [166]. It results
in loss of crystal structure and morphology of the catalyst and can
significantly alter the photocatalytic activity and reusability of the
catalyst. Many photocatalyst materials exhibit relatively lower chemical
stability under irradiation and result in its photo deactivation [167].
When the mobility of electrons to the surface-active sites is decreased, it
reduces metal centres, leading to the release of metal ions. For instance,
ZnO is an efficient semiconductor catalyst with high reactivity, none­
theless, faster recombination of charge carriers’ results in photo­
corrosion and acts as a barrier for its photocatalytic effectiveness [168].
Under irradiation in aqueous solutions, the photogenerated holes were
transferred to the solid-solution interface, whereas some of them reacted
with ZnO resulting in their dissolution, as shown in Eqn. (6). The value
‘n’ depends upon the pH of the solution. In another case, a narrow
bandgap semiconductor catalyst CdS lost its photoactivity due to the low
separation efficiency of photogenerated electron-hole pairs of the cata­
lyst and the stability of the catalyst was lost during cyclic studies [169].

8
A.V. Karim et al.
1 approaches used for regeneration were discussed. Photocatalyst regen­
ZnO ​ + ​ 2h+ + ​ nH2 O → Zn(OH)(2− n)+
+ O2 + nH+ (6)
n
2 eration is a major bottleneck that determines the cost-effectiveness of
Photocatalytic reactions and photocorrosion are competitive pro­
cesses, and overcoming the photocorrosion of semiconductor-based
materials is strongly required for long-term photocatalytic redox re­
actions [20,170]. In general, good stability of photocatalyst evaluates
the effectiveness of the catalyst and its ability to maintain the reactivity
for sustainable practical applications [169]. To alleviate the problems
associated with the photocorrosion of catalysts and to meet the eco­
nomic demands for sustainability, several structural modifications
including the combination of semiconductor catalyst, nanomaterials,
polymers etc. are required. It can reduce the recombination probability
of photogenerated electron-hole pairs and enhance the charge separa­
tion, making it more durable for practical application [171]. Some
materials act as a photocatalyst shield and enable higher charge sepa­
ration on the catalyst surface specifically for large bandgap semi­
conductor materials and overcome photocorrosion [172]. This section
had reviewed the photocorrosion of catalyst occurring under irradiation
which decreases the stability of the catalyst for repetitive uses.
5. Regeneration of photocatalyst materials
Deactivation of photocatalyst due to strong adsorption of contami­
nants on the active surface sites is one of the major disadvantages of
photocatalysis. These compounds are usually irreversibly attached to
the catalyst surface retarding its photocatalytic reactions. Recovery and
reuse of photocatalyst and the subsequent decrease in the photocatalytic
performance in consecutive cycles presents a major hurdle in the real-
life application of photocatalytic treatment. Most of the studies
showed a gradual decrease in the photocatalytic performance and initial
reaction rate as the number of reuse cycles increased. The reason for
diminishing the photocatalytic activity is mainly due to mass loss of
catalyst, accumulation of reaction intermediates on the surface, and
presence of inorganic ions/carbonaceous species/metals etc. [173].
Catalyst regeneration is essential to reactivate the deactivated sur­
face to enhance their activity, environment-friendly benefit and to
reduce the cost of treatment [174–176]. However, very few studies are
reported on the longevity of regenerated photocatalyst. In most of the
photocatalysis process, the regeneration of catalysts is done by simple
centrifugation followed by washing with water and drying them [177,
178]. However, in some cases, advanced processes are required to
completely remove the accumulated organic intermediates to regain the
catalytic properties.
Regeneration of photocatalyst surface includes thermal treatment,
acid or alkali washing, washing with solvents, external energy such as
UV or ultrasound, use of oxidising agents such as H2O2 etc. [179–183].
Depending upon the regeneration process, the surface charges of the
catalyst may vary [180]. Even though heat treatment is efficient in
regenerating catalyst surface, the agglomeration of catalyst occurring
during the process is unfavourable for photocatalytic activity [98].
Hierarchical ZnO photocatalyst was regenerated using a simple
chemical process in which the adsorbed functional groups are stripped
to reactivate the surface for repeatable usage [184]. Another study by Li
et al. [185] developed the soft mechanochemical ion exchange process
having fluidized mixed bed system with airflow for the regeneration of
ZnO nanoparticles after the methyl orange degradation experiments.
During the regeneration process, the ions of intermediate products
adsorbed on the photocatalyst and surface hydroxyl ions on resin were
removed. It was observed that the catalyst was regenerated easily by
reducing the thickness of the interface film, thereby changing the crystal
lattice and morphology of the catalyst surface. The results implied that
the regenerated catalyst showed excellent photocatalytic activity for 4
reuse cycles whereas without regeneration the photocatalytic activity
got diminished from 96% to 58% after 4 reuse operations. In this section,
the importance of regeneration of photocatalyst and different
9
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
the treatment and should be taken into consideration for the longevity of
catalyst performance.
6. Conclusion and future prospects
Numerous investigations have been reported in literature regarding
semiconductor photocatalysis synthesis, characterization, and environ­
mental applications for water and wastewater treatment. In this review,
an evaluation of the reusability and photostability of the catalysts, the
two fundamental drawbacks hindering the application of photocatalysis
on a large, is presented. Besides, the important characteristic properties
affecting the photocatalytic stability, such as crystallite size,
morphology and surface area were also discussed. Currently, many of
the heterogeneous photocatalyst materials are susceptible to react with
photogenerated holes and undergo photo corrosion during experiments
due to poor stability. It can further lead to leaching of metals resulting in
secondary pollution. The properties of these catalysts can be controlled
during their synthesis by regulating the synthesis method, calcination
temperature, solvent selection, etc. The chemical stability of the pho­
tocatalyst materials and their reuse potential are mutually dependent
parameters which govern the overall photocatalytic performance and
are reviewed in-depth. This study underlined the need of synthesizing
stable photocatalytic materials for environmental applications. Intense
research in the field of modifying the properties of photocatalytic ma­
terials will be needed to address several important technical constraints
before commercializing the technology.
Recent advances in the field of photocatalysis have also opened
numerous possibilities for the degradation of organic pollutants. How­
ever, this path is not without limitations to make the most of the
structural and catalytic properties of photocatalysts. Some of the key
research objectives, which should be focussed in future and are impor­
tant for large scale industrial application, are identified as following: (i)
the development of efficient and cost-effective visible or solar light
active photocatalysts having a good recovery and reuse potential
without any significant loss in its photocatalytic activity; (ii) to ensure
the self-stability of the photocatalyst by proper tuning of the structural
properties; (iii) to use computational and spectroscopy approach to
understand the photocatalytic mechanism and to review the photo­
corrosion; (iv) optimization of sustainable and innovative regeneration
methods; (v) incorporating the photocatalyst on various support mate­
rials that can be synthesized in more sustainable and environmentally
friendly manner and can sustain longer catalytic performance. In short,
extensive research on the synthesis of photocatalytic materials with
higher structural properties, photostability, reusability and effective
regeneration processes is required for the wide range of applications.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the funding support from Department of Science
and Technology (DST), Government of India (DST/TMD/EWO/WTI/
2K19/EWFH/2019/183).
References
[1] L.J.M. Githinji, M.K. Musey, R.O. Ankumah, Evaluation of the fate of
ciprofloxacin and amoxicillin in domestic wastewater, Water, Air. Soil Pollut. 219
(2011) 191–201, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-010-0697-1.
[2] M. Ibáñez, E. Gracia-Lor, L. Bijlsma, E. Morales, L. Pastor, F. Hernández, Removal
of emerging contaminants in sewage water subjected to advanced oxidation with
ozone, J. Hazard Mater. 260 (2013) 389–398, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhazmat.2013.05.023.
A.V. Karim et al.
[3] J. Wang, S. Wang, Removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products
(PPCPs) from wastewater: a review, J. Environ. Manag. 182 (2016) 620–640,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.07.049.
[4] P.R. Rout, T.C. Zhang, P. Bhunia, R.Y. Surampalli, Treatment technologies for
emerging contaminants in wastewater treatment plants: a review, Sci. Total
Environ. 753 (2021), 141990, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141990.
[5] B.S. Rathi, P.S. Kumar, P.L. Show, A review on effective removal of emerging
contaminants from aquatic systems: current trends and scope for further research,
J. Hazard Mater. 409 (2021), 124413, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhazmat.2020.124413.
[6] A. Surenjan, B. Sambandam, T. Pradeep, L. Philip, Synthesis, characterization and
performance of visible light active C-TiO2 for pharmaceutical photodegradation,
J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 5 (2017) 757–767, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jece.2016.12.044.
[7] M. Umar, F. Roddick, L. Fan, H.A. Aziz, Application of ozone for the removal of
bisphenol A from water and wastewater - a review, Chemosphere 90 (2013)
2197–2207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.09.090.
[8] M.P. Rayaroth, U.K. Aravind, C.T. Aravindakumar, Sonochemical degradation of
Coomassie Brilliant Blue: effect of frequency, power density, pH and various
additives, Chemosphere 119 (2015) 848–855, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chemosphere.2014.08.037.
[9] P.V. Nidheesh, Heterogeneous Fenton catalysts for the abatement of organic
pollutants from aqueous solution: a review, RSC Adv. 5 (2015) 40552–40577,
https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA02023A.
[10] A. Giwa, A. Yusuf, H.A. Balogun, N.S. Sambudi, M.R. Bilad, I. Adeyemi,
S. Chakraborty, S. Curcio, Recent advances in advanced oxidation processes for
removal of contaminants from water: a comprehensive review, Process Saf.
Environ. Protect. 146 (2021) 220–256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
psep.2020.08.015.
[11] D. Ma, H. Yi, C. Lai, X. Liu, X. Huo, Z. An, L. Li, Y. Fu, B. Li, M. Zhang, L. Qin,
S. Liu, L. Yang, Critical review of advanced oxidation processes in organic
wastewater treatment, Chemosphere 275 (2021), 130104, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130104.
[12] S. Dong, J. Feng, M. Fan, Y. Pi, L. Hu, X. Han, M. Liu, J. Sun, J. Sun, Recent
developments in heterogeneous photocatalytic water treatment using visible
light-responsive photocatalysts: a review, RSC Adv. 5 (2015) 14610–14630,
https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra13734e.
[13] H. Mohan, V. Ramalingam, N. Karthi, S. Malathidevi, T. Shin, J. Venkatachalam,
K.K. Seralathan, Enhanced visible light-driven photocatalytic activity of reduced
graphene oxide/cadmium sulfide composite: methylparaben degradation
mechanism and toxicity, Chemosphere 264 (2021), 128481, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128481.
[14] S. Kanan, M.A. Moyet, R.B. Arthur, H.H. Patterson, Recent advances on TiO2-
based photocatalysts toward the degradation of pesticides and major organic
pollutants from water bodies, Catal. Rev. Sci. Eng. 62 (2020) 1–65, https://doi.
org/10.1080/01614940.2019.1613323.
[15] Y.-F. Lee, K.-H. Chang, C.-C. Hu, K.-M. Lin, Synthesis of activated carbon-
surrounded and carbon-doped anatase TiO2 nanocomposites, J. Mater. Chem. 20
(2010) 5682, https://doi.org/10.1039/c0jm00286k.
[16] Y. Zou, Y. Hu, Z. Shen, L. Yao, D. Tang, S. Zhang, S. Wang, B. Hu, G. Zhao,
X. Wang, Application of aluminosilicate clay mineral-based composites in
photocatalysis, J. Environ. Sci. 115 (2022) 190–214, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jes.2021.07.015.
[17] L. Yao, H. Yang, Z. Chen, M. Qiu, B. Hu, X. Wang, Bismuth oxychloride-based
materials for the removal of organic pollutants in wastewater, Chemosphere 273
(2021), 128576, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128576.
[18] C. Zhou, W. Xia, D. Huang, M. Cheng, H. Zhang, T. Cai, W. Xiong, Y. Yang,
B. Song, W. Wang, M. Zhou, G. Zeng, Strategies for enhancing the perylene
diimide photocatalytic degradation activity: method, effect factor, and
mechanism, Environ. Sci. Nano. 8 (2021) 602–618, https://doi.org/10.1039/
d0en01245a.
[19] B. Gao, P.S. Yap, T.M. Lim, T.T. Lim, Adsorption-photocatalytic degradation of
Acid Red 88 by supported TiO2: effect of activated carbon support and aqueous
anions, Chem. Eng. J. 171 (2011) 1098–1107, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cej.2011.05.006.
[20] B. Weng, M.Y. Qi, C. Han, Z.R. Tang, Y.J. Xu, Photocorrosion inhibition of
semiconductor-based photocatalysts: basic principle, current development, and
future perspective, ACS Catal. 9 (2019) 4642–4687, https://doi.org/10.1021/
acscatal.9b00313.
[21] M. Qiu, B. Hu, Z. Chen, H. Yang, L. Zhuang, X. Wang, Challenges of organic
pollutant photocatalysis by biochar-based catalysts, Biochar 3 (2021) 117–123,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-021-00098-y.
[22] P. Fu, Y. Luan, X. Dai, Preparation of activated carbon fibers supported TiO2
photocatalyst and evaluation of its photocatalytic reactivity, J. Mol. Catal. A
Chem. 221 (2004) 81–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2004.06.018.
[23] M. Vaez, A. Zarringhalam Moghaddam, S. Alijani, Optimization and modeling of
photocatalytic degradation of azo dye using a response surface methodology
(RSM) based on the central composite design with immobilized titania
nanoparticles, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (2012) 4199–4207, https://doi.org/
10.1021/ie202809w.
[24] Z. Xing, J. Zhang, J. Cui, J. Yin, T. Zhao, J. Kuang, Z. Xiu, Recent advances in fl
oating TiO2- based photocatalysts for environmental application, Appl. Catal. B
Environ. 225 (2018) 452–467, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2017.12.005.
[25] B. Srikanth, R. Goutham, R. Badri Narayan, A. Ramprasath, K.P. Gopinath, A.
R. Sankaranarayanan, Recent advancements in supporting materials for
10
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
immobilised photocatalytic applications in waste water treatment, J. Environ.
Manag. 200 (2017) 60–78, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.063.
[26] S. Bagheri, Z.A. Mohd Hir, A. Termeh Yousefi, S.B. Abd Hamid, Photocatalytic
performance of activated carbon-supported mesoporous titanium dioxide,
Desalination Water Treat. 57 (2016) 10859–10865, https://doi.org/10.1080/
19443994.2015.1038593.
[27] X. Meng, Z. Li, J. Chen, H. Xie, Z. Zhang, Enhanced visible light-induced
photocatalytic activity of surface-modified BiOBr with Pd nanoparticles, Appl.
Surf. Sci. 433 (2018) 76–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.09.103.
[28] Z. Wang, C. Li, K. Domen, Recent developments in heterogeneous photocatalysts
for solar-driven overall water splitting, Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 (2019) 2109–2125,
https://doi.org/10.1039/c8cs00542g.
[29] C. Zhou, E. Almatrafi, X. Tang, B. Shao, W. Xia, B. Song, W. Xiong, W. Wang,
H. Guo, S. Chen, G. Zeng, Investigation on the structure-performance of phthalic
acid carboxyl position and carbon nitride towards efficient photocatalytic
degradation of organic pollutants, Separ. Purif. Technol. 286 (2022), 120464,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.120464.
[30] R. Shetty, V.B. Chavan, P.S. Kulkarni, B.D. Kulkarni, S.P. Kamble, Photocatalytic
degradation of pharmaceuticals pollutants using N-doped TiO2 photocatalyst:
identification of CFX degradation intermediates, Indian Chem. Eng. 59 (2017)
177–199, https://doi.org/10.1080/00194506.2016.1150794.
[31] H. Zhang, C. Hu, Effective solar absorption and radial microchannels of SnO2
hierarchical structure for high photocatalytic activity, Catal. Commun. 14 (2011)
32–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2011.07.012.
[32] E. Ghazalian, N. Ghasemi, A.R. Amani-Ghadim, Effect of gadollunium doping on
visible light photocatalytic performance of Ag3PO4: evaluation of activity in
degradation of an anthraquinone dye and mechanism study, J. Mol. Catal. A
Chem. 426 (2017) 257–270, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2016.11.026.
[33] D. Chen, F. Huang, G. Ren, D. Li, M. Zheng, Y. Wang, Z. Lin, ZnS nano-
architectures: photocatalysis, deactivation and regeneration, Nanoscale 2 (2010)
2062–2064, https://doi.org/10.1039/c0nr00171f.
[34] J. Chen, F. Qiu, W. Xu, S. Cao, H. Zhu, Recent progress in enhancing
photocatalytic efficiency of TiO2-based materials, Appl. Catal. A Gen. 495 (2015)
131–140, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2015.02.013.
[35] W.K. Jo, R.J. Tayade, New generation energy-efficient light source for
photocatalysis: LEDs for environmental applications, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53
(2014) 2073–2084, https://doi.org/10.1021/ie404176g.
[36] G. Iervolino, I. Zammit, V. Vaiano, L. Rizzo, Limitations and Prospects for
Wastewater Treatment by UV and Visible-Light-Active Heterogeneous
Photocatalysis: A Critical Review, Springer International Publishing, 2020,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41061-019-0272-1.
[37] A.G. Akerdi, S.H. Bahrami, Application of heterogeneous nano-semiconductors
for photocatalytic advanced oxidation of organic compounds: a review,
J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 7 (2019), 103283, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jece.2019.103283.
[38] S. Patnaik, D.P. Sahoo, K. Parida, Recent advances in anion doped g-C3N4
photocatalysts: a review, Carbon N. Y. 172 (2021) 682–711, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.carbon.2020.10.073.
[39] M. Ma, Y. Yang, Y. Chen, Y. Ma, P. Lyu, A. Cui, W. Huang, Z. Zhang, Y. Li, F. Si,
Photocatalytic degradation of MB dye by the magnetically separable 3D flower-
like Fe3O4/SiO2/MnO2/BiOBr-Bi photocatalyst, J. Alloys Compd. 861 (2021),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.158256.
[40] J. Liu, Q. Zhang, X. Tian, Y. Hong, Y. Nie, N. Su, G. Jin, Z. Zhai, C. Fu, Highly
efficient photocatalytic degradation of oil pollutants by oxygen deficient SnO2
quantum dots for water remediation, Chem. Eng. J. 404 (2021), https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cej.2020.127146.
[41] L.V. Bora, R.K. Mewada, Visible/solar light active photocatalysts for organic
effluent treatment : fundamentals , mechanisms and parametric review, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 76 (2017) 1393–1421, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2017.01.130.
[42] H. Dong, G. Zeng, L. Tang, C. Fan, ScienceDirect an overview on limitations of
TiO2 -based particles for photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants and the
corresponding countermeasures, Water Res. 79 (2015) 128–146, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.watres.2015.04.038.
[43] D. Zhu, Q. Zhou, Action and mechanism of semiconductor photocatalysis on
degradation of organic pollutants in water treatment: a review, Environ.
Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag. 12 (2019), 100255, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enmm.2019.100255.
[44] E. Friehs, Y. Alsalka, R. Jonczyk, A. Lavrentieva, A. Jochums, J. Walter, F. Stahl,
T. Scheper, D. Bahnemann, Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C :
photochemistry Reviews Toxicity , phototoxicity and biocidal activity of
nanoparticles employed in photocatalysis, J. Photochem. Photobiol. C
Photochem. Rev. 29 (2016) 1–28, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotochemrev.2016.09.001.
[45] C. Byrne, G. Subramanian, S.C. Pillai, Recent advances in photocatalysis for
environmental applications, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. (2017) 1–10, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jece.2017.07.080.
[46] C. Wang, Z. Sun, Y. Zheng, Y.H. Hu, Recent progress in visible light photocatalytic
conversion of carbon dioxide, J. Mater. Chem. A. 7 (2019) 865–887, https://doi.
org/10.1039/c8ta09865d.
[47] H. Sun, P. Qin, Z. Wu, C. Liao, J. Guo, S. Luo, Y. Chai, Visible light-driven
photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants by a novel Ag3VO4/Ag2CO3 p–n
heterojunction photocatalyst: mechanistic insight and degradation pathways,
J. Alloys Compd. 834 (2020), 155211, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2020.155211.
A.V. Karim et al.
[48] S. Wu, H. Hu, Y. Lin, J. Zhang, Y.H. Hu, Visible light photocatalytic degradation
of tetracycline over TiO2, Chem. Eng. J. 382 (2020), 122842, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cej.2019.122842.
[49] A.V. Karim, A. Shriwastav, Degradation of amoxicillin with sono, photo, and
sonophotocatalytic oxidation under low-frequency ultrasound and visible light,
Environ. Res. 200 (2021), 111515, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envres.2021.111515.
[50] S. Krishnan, A. Shriwastav, Application of TiO2 nanoparticles sensitized with
natural chlorophyll pigments as catalyst for visible light photocatalytic
degradation of methylene blue, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9 (2021), 104699, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104699.
[51] P. Bharathi, S. Harish, J. Archana, M. Navaneethan, S. Ponnusamy,
C. Muthamizhchelvan, M. Shimomura, Y. Hayakawa, Enhanced charge transfer
and separation of hierarchical CuO/ZnO composites: the synergistic effect of
photocatalysis for the mineralization of organic pollutant in water, Appl. Surf.
Sci. 484 (2019) 884–891, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.03.131.
[52] N.G. Menon, S.S.V. Tatiparti, S. Mukherji, Synthesis, characterization and
photocatalytic activity evaluation of TiO2 – ZnO nanocomposites: elucidating
effect of varying Ti:Zn molar ratio, Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp.
565 (2019) 47–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2018.12.053.
[53] M. Pelaez, N. Nolan, M. Seery, A review on the visible light active titanium
dioxide photocatalysts for environmental applications, Appl. Catal. B Environ.
125 (2012) 331–349, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2012.05.036.
[54] J. Yang, X. Sun, W. Yang, M. Zhu, J. Shi, The improvement of coralline-like
ZnGa2O4 by cocatalysts for the photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B,
Catalysts 10 (2020), https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10020221.
[55] A. El Mragui, O. Zegaoui, J.C.G. Esteves da Silva, Elucidation of the
photocatalytic degradation mechanism of an azo dye under visible light in the
presence of cobalt doped TiO2 nanomaterials, Chemosphere 266 (2021) 128931,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128931.
[56] T. Senasu, K. Hemavibool, S. Nanan, Hydrothermally grown CdS nanoparticles for
photodegradation of anionic azo dyes under UV-visible light irradiation, RSC
Adv. 8 (2018) 22592–22605, https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra02061b.
[57] X. Xu, Y. Sun, Z. Fan, D. Zhao, S. Xiong, B. Zhang, S. Zhou, G. Liu, Mechanisms for
⋅O2- and ⋅OH production on flowerlike BiVO4 photocatalysis based on electron
spin resonance, Front. Chem. 6 (2018) 1–12, https://doi.org/10.3389/
fchem.2018.00064.
[58] Z. Wang, W. Ma, C. Chen, H. Ji, J. Zhao, Probing paramagnetic species in titania-
based heterogeneous photocatalysis by electron spin resonance (ESR)
spectroscopy-A mini review, Chem. Eng. J. 170 (2011) 353–362, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cej.2010.12.002.
[59] L. Muñoz-Fernandez, A. Sierra-Fernandez, G. Flores-Carrasco, O. Milošević, M.
E. Rabanal, Solvothermal synthesis of Ag/ZnO micro/nanostructures with
different precursors for advanced photocatalytic applications, Adv. Powder
Technol. 28 (2017) 83–92, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2016.09.033.
[60] C. Luo, X. Ren, Z. Dai, Y. Zhang, X. Qi, C. Pan, Present perspectives of advanced
characterization techniques in TiO2-based photocatalysts, ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 9 (2017) 23265–23286, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b00496.
[61] R. Sasikala, K. Karthikeyan, D. Easwaramoorthy, I.M. Bilal, S.K. Rani,
Photocatalytic degradation of trypan blue and methyl orange azo dyes by cerium
loaded CuO nanoparticles, Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag. 6 (2016) 45–53,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2016.07.001.
[62] N. Van Hung, B. Thi, M. Nguyet, N. Huu, N. Dinh, Q. Khieu, N. Van Hung, B.T.
M. Nguyet, N.H. Nghi, D.Q. Khieu, Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue
by using ZnO/longan seed activated carbon under visible-light region, J. Inorg.
Organomet. Polym. Mater. 31 (2021) 446–459, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10904-
020-01734-z.
[63] S. Guo, Z. Yang, H. Zhang, W. Yang, J. Li, K. Zhou, Enhanced photocatalytic
degradation of organic contaminants over CaFe2O4 under visible LED light
irradiation mediated by peroxymonosulfate, J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 62 (2021)
34–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2020.05.057.
[64] X.P. Wu, I. Choudhuri, D.G. Truhlar, Computational studies of photocatalysis
with metal–organic frameworks, Energy Environ. Mater. 2 (2019) 251–263,
https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12051.
[65] W. Liu, Y. Li, F. Liu, W. Jiang, D. Zhang, J. Liang, Visible-light-driven
photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac by carbon quantum dots modified
porous g-C3N4: mechanisms, degradation pathway and DFT calculation, Water
Res. 151 (2019) 8–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.11.084.
[66] P.M. Martins, C.G. Ferreira, A.R. Silva, B. Magalhães, M.M. Alves, L. Pereira, P.A.
A.P. Marques, M. Melle-Franco, S. Lanceros-Méndez, TiO2/graphene and TiO2/
graphene oxide nanocomposites for photocatalytic applications: a computer
modeling and experimental study, Compos. B Eng. 145 (2018) 39–46, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.03.015.
[67] P. Ganguly, S. Mathew, L. Clarizia, R. Syam Kumar, A. Akande, S. Hinder,
A. Breen, S.C. Pillai, Theoretical and experimental investigation of visible light
responsive AgBiS2-TiO2 heterojunctions for enhanced photocatalytic applications,
Appl. Catal. B Environ. 253 (2019) 401–418, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apcatb.2019.04.033.
[68] Y. Li, Q. Yang, Z. Wang, G. Wang, B. Zhang, Q. Zhang, D. Yang, Rapid fabrication
of SnO2 nanoparticle photocatalyst: computational understanding and
photocatalytic degradation of organic dye, Inorg. Chem. Front. 5 (2018)
3005–3014, https://doi.org/10.1039/c8qi00688a.
[69] X. Meng, N. Yun, Z. Zhang, Recent advances in computational photocatalysis: a
review, Can. J. Chem. Eng. 97 (2019) 1982–1998, https://doi.org/10.1002/
cjce.23477.
11
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
[70] M. Hao, M. Qiu, H. Yang, B. Hu, X. Wang, Recent advances on preparation and
environmental applications of MOF-derived carbons in catalysis, Sci. Total
Environ. 760 (2021), 143333, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143333.
[71] W. Kongsuebchart, P. Praserthdam, J. Panpranot, A. Sirisuk,
P. Supphasrirongjaroen, C. Satayaprasert, Effect of crystallite size on the surface
defect of nano-TiO2 prepared via solvothermal synthesis, J. Cryst. Growth 297
(2006) 234–238, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2006.09.018.
[72] B. Subash, B. Krishnakumar, M. Swaminathan, M. Shanthi, Highly efficient, solar
active, and reusable photocatalyst: Zr-loaded Ag-ZnO for reactive red 120 dye
degradation with synergistic effect and dye-sensitized mechanism, Langmuir 29
(2013) 939–949, https://doi.org/10.1021/la303842c.
[73] T. Ahmed, H. ling Zhang, H. bin Xu, Y. Zhang, m-BiVO4 hollow spheres coated on
carbon fiber with superior reusability as photocatalyst, Colloids Surfaces A
Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 531 (2017) 213–220, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
colsurfa.2017.08.004.
[74] J. He, D.W. Shao, L.C. Zheng, L.J. Zheng, D.Q. Feng, J.P. Xu, X.H. Zhang, W.
C. Wang, W.H. Wang, F. Lu, H. Dong, Y.H. Cheng, H. Liu, R.K. Zheng,
Construction of Z-scheme Cu2O/Cu/AgBr/Ag photocatalyst with enhanced
photocatalytic activity and stability under visible light, Appl. Catal. B Environ.
203 (2017) 917–926, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.10.086.
[75] S. Qian, C. Wang, W. Liu, Y. Zhu, W. Yao, X. Lu, An enhanced CdS/TiO2
photocatalyst with high stability and activity: effect of mesoporous substrate and
bifunctional linking molecule, J. Mater. Chem. 21 (2011) 4945–4952, https://
doi.org/10.1039/c0jm03508d.
[76] J. Fu, B. Chang, Y. Tian, F. Xi, X. Dong, Novel C3N4-CdS composite photocatalysts
with organic-inorganic heterojunctions: in situ synthesis, exceptional activity,
high stability and photocatalytic mechanism, J. Mater. Chem. A. 1 (2013)
3083–3090, https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ta00672c.
[77] D. Xu, B. Cheng, S. Cao, J. Yu, Enhanced photocatalytic activity and stability of Z-
scheme Ag2CrO4-GO composite photocatalysts for organic pollutant degradation,
Appl. Catal. B Environ. 164 (2015) 380–388, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apcatb.2014.09.051.
[78] J. Liu, N. Ma, W. Wu, Q. He, Recent progress on photocatalytic heterostructures
with full solar spectral responses, Chem. Eng. J. 393 (2020), 124719, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124719.
[79] X. Liu, R. Ma, L. Zhuang, B. Hu, J. Chen, X. Liu, X. Wang, Recent developments of
doped g-C3N4 photocatalysts for the degradation of organic pollutants, Crit. Rev.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 51 (2021) 751–790, https://doi.org/10.1080/
10643389.2020.1734433.
[80] K.K. Das, S. Patnaik, S. Mansingh, A. Behera, A. Mohanty, C. Acharya, K.
M. Parida, Enhanced photocatalytic activities of polypyrrole sensitized zinc
ferrite/graphitic carbon nitride n-n heterojunction towards ciprofloxacin
degradation, hydrogen evolution and antibacterial studies, J. Colloid Interface
Sci. 561 (2020) 551–567, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2019.11.030.
[81] D.S. Kim, S.J. Han, S.Y. Kwak, Synthesis and photocatalytic activity of
mesoporous TiO2 with the surface area, crystallite size, and pore size, J. Colloid
Interface Sci. 316 (2007) 85–91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2007.07.037.
[82] S.K. Pardeshi, A.B. Patil, Effect of morphology and crystallite size on solar
photocatalytic activity of zinc oxide synthesized by solution free
mechanochemical method, J. Mol. Catal. A Chem. 308 (2009) 32–40, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.molcata.2009.03.023.
[83] J. Yan, G. Wu, N. Guan, L. Li, Z. Li, X. Cao, Understanding the effect of surface/
bulk defects on the photocatalytic activity of TiO2: anatase versus rutile, Phys.
Chem. Chem. Phys. 15 (2013) 10978–10988, https://doi.org/10.1039/
c3cp50927c.
[84] K. Singh, W.H. Kan, B. Patton, A. Huq, V. Thangadurai, Amine-functionalized Al-
MOF at yx Sm2O3ZnO: a visible light-driven nanocomposite with excellent
photocatalytic activity for the photo-degradation of amoxicillin, Inorg. Chem. 57
(2018) 2609–2619, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.inorgchem.7b02984.
[85] S. Hu, F. Li, Z. Fan, The influence of preparation method, nitrogen source, and
post-treatment on the photocatalytic activity and stability of N-doped TiO2
nanopowder, J. Hazard Mater. 196 (2011) 248–254, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhazmat.2011.09.021.
[86] M. Strauss, M. Pastorello, F.A. Sigoli, J.M. De Souza E Silva, I.O. Mazali, Singular
effect of crystallite size on the charge carrier generation andphotocatalytic
activity of nano-TiO2, Appl. Surf. Sci. 319 (2014) 151–157, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.06.071.
[87] Y. Belaissa, D. Nibou, A.A. Assadi, B. Bellal, M. Trari, A new hetero-junction p-
CuO/n-ZnO for the removal of amoxicillin by photocatalysis under solar
irradiation, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 68 (2016) 254–265, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jtice.2016.09.002.
[88] A.B.D. Nandiyanto, R. Zaen, R. Oktiani, Correlation between crystallite size and
photocatalytic performance of micrometer-sized monoclinic WO3 particles, Arab.
J. Chem. 13 (2020) 1283–1296, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.10.010.
[89] J. Becker, K.R. Raghupathi, J. St. Pierre, D. Zhao, R.T. Koodali, Tuning of the
crystallite and particle sizes of ZnO nanocrystalline materials in solvothermal
synthesis and their photocatalytic activity for dye degradation, J. Phys. Chem. C
115 (2011) 13844–13850, https://doi.org/10.1021/jp2038653.
[90] H. Cheng, J. Wang, Y. Zhao, X. Han, Effect of phase composition, morphology,
and specific surface area on the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 nanomaterials,
RSC Adv. 4 (2014) 47031–47038, https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra05509h.
[91] N.S. Allen, N. Mahdjoub, V. Vishnyakov, P.J. Kelly, R.J. Kriek, The effect of
crystalline phase (anatase, brookite and rutile) and size on the photocatalytic
activity of calcined polymorphic titanium dioxide (TiO2), Polym. Degrad. Stabil.
150 (2018) 31–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2018.02.008.
A.V. Karim et al.
[92] A. Arce-Sarria, F. Machuca-Martínez, C. Bustillo-Lecompte, A. Hernández-
Ramírez, J. Colina-Márquez, Degradation and loss of antibacterial activity of
commercial amoxicillin with TiO2/WO3-assisted solar photocatalysis, Catalysts 8
(2018) 222, https://doi.org/10.3390/catal8060222.
[93] Q. Li, H. Kong, R. Jia, J. Shao, Y. He, Enhanced catalytic degradation of
amoxicillin with TiO2–Fe3O4 composites via a submerged magnetic separation
membrane photocatalytic reactor (SMSMPR), RSC Adv. 9 (2019) 12538–12546,
https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA00158A.
[94] T. Pandiyarajan, R. Saravanan, B. Karthikeyan, F. Gracia, H.D. Mansilla, M.
A. Gracia-Pinilla, R.V. Mangalaraja, Sonochemical synthesis of CuO
nanostructures and their morphology dependent optical and visible light driven
photocatalytic properties, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 28 (2017) 2448–2457,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-016-5817-2.
[95] H. Yu, L. Xu, P. Wang, X. Wang, J. Yu, Enhanced photoinduced stability and
photocatalytic activity of AgBr photocatalyst by surface modification of Fe(III)
cocatalyst, Appl. Catal. B Environ. 144 (2014) 75–82, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apcatb.2013.06.023.
[96] M. Fang, X. Tan, Z. Liu, B. Hu, X. Wang, Recent progress on metal-enhanced
photocatalysis: a review on the mechanism, Research (2021) 1–16, https://doi.
org/10.34133/2021/9794329, 2021.
[97] S. Sharma, S. Basu, Highly reusable visible light active hierarchical porous WO3/
SiO2 monolith in centimeter length scale for enhanced photocatalytic degradation
of toxic pollutants, Separ. Purif. Technol. 231 (2020), 115916, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.seppur.2019.115916.
[98] X. Pan, N. Zhang, X. Fu, Y.J. Xu, Selective oxidation of benzyl alcohol over TiO2
nanosheets with exposed {0 0 1} facets: catalyst deactivation and regeneration,
Appl. Catal. A Gen. 453 (2013) 181–187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apcata.2012.12.023.
[99] M. Aslam, I.M.I. Ismail, N. Salah, S. Chandrasekaran, M.T. Qamar, A. Hameed,
Evaluation of sunlight induced structural changes and their effect on the
photocatalytic activity of V2O5 for the degradation of phenols, J. Hazard Mater.
286 (2015) 127–135, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.022.
[100] S.B. Khan, M. Hou, S. Shuang, Z. Zhang, Morphological influence of TiO2
nanostructures (nanozigzag, nanohelics and nanorod) on photocatalytic
degradation of organic dyes, Appl. Surf. Sci. 400 (2017) 184–193, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.12.172.
[101] U.G. Akpan, B.H. Hameed, Parameters affecting the photocatalytic degradation of
dyes using TiO2-based photocatalysts: a review, J. Hazard Mater. 170 (2009)
520–529, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.039.
[102] A.Y. Shan, T.I.M. Ghazi, S.A. Rashid, Immobilisation of titanium dioxide onto
supporting materials in heterogeneous photocatalysis: a review, Appl. Catal. A
Gen. 389 (2010) 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2010.08.053.
[103] P. Jiang, D. Ren, D. He, W. Fu, J. Wang, M. Gu, An easily sedimentable and
effective TiO2 photocatalyst for removal of dyes in water, Separ. Purif. Technol.
122 (2014) 128–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2013.10.048.
[104] X. Zhang, J.H. Pan, A.J. Du, J. Ng, D.D. Sun, J.O. Leckie, Fabrication and
photocatalytic activity of porous TiO2 nanowire microspheres by surfactant-
mediated spray drying process, Mater. Res. Bull. 44 (2009) 1070–1076, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2008.10.017.
[105] Z. Liu, H. Bai, D. Sun, Facile fabrication of hierarchical porous TiO2 hollow
microspheres with high photocatalytic activity for water purification, Appl. Catal.
B Environ. 104 (2011) 234–238, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2011.03.027.
[106] Y. Ye, Y. Feng, H. Bruning, D. Yntema, H.H.M. Rijnaarts, Photocatalytic
degradation of metoprolol by TiO2 nanotube arrays and UV-LED: effects of
catalyst properties, operational parameters, commonly present water
constituents, and photo-induced reactive species, Appl. Catal. B Environ. 220
(2018) 171–181, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2017.08.040.
[107] M. Farzadkia, K. Rahmani, M. Gholami, A. Esrafili, A. Rahmani, H. Rahmani,
Investigation of photocatalytic degradation of clindamycin antibiotic by using
nano-ZnO catalysts, Kor. J. Chem. Eng. 31 (2014) 2014–2019, https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11814-014-0119-y.
[108] P. Ranjan, R.K. Singh, H. Suematsu, L. Phillip, R. Sarathi, Synthesis of nano-ZnO
by wire explosion process and its photocatalytic activity, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 5
(2017) 1676–1684, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.02.036.
[109] R. Velmurugan, K. Selvam, B. Krishnakumar, M. Swaminathan, An efficient
reusable and antiphotocorrosive nano ZnO for the mineralization of Reactive
Orange 4 under UV-A light, Separ. Purif. Technol. 80 (2011) 119–124, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2011.04.018.
[110] X. Chen, Z. Wu, D. Liu, Z. Gao, Preparation of ZnO photocatalyst for the efficient
and rapid photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes, Nanoscale Res. Lett. 12 (2017)
4–13, https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-017-1904-4.
[111] M. Muruganandham, R. Amutha, E. Repo, M. Sillanpää, Y. Kusumoto, M. Abdulla-
Al-Mamun, Controlled mesoporous self-assembly of ZnS microsphere for
photocatalytic degradation of Methyl Orange dye, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A
Chem. 216 (2010) 133–141, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2010.06.008.
[112] K. Natarajan, H.C. Bajaj, R.J. Tayade, Synthesis route impact on BiVO4
nanoparticles and their visible light photocatalytic activity under green LED
irradiation, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 19 (2019) 5100–5115, https://doi.org/
10.1166/jnn.2019.16833.
[113] F. Teng, Z. Liu, A. Zhang, M. Li, Photocatalytic performances of Ag3PO4 polypods
for degradation of dye pollutant under natural indoor weak light irradiation,
Environ. Sci. Technol. 49 (2015) 9489–9494, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
est.5b00735.
[114] G. Dai, J. Yu, G. Liu, A new approach for photocorrosion inhibition of Ag2CO3
photocatalyst with highly visible-light-responsive reactivity, J. Phys. Chem. C 116
(2012) 15519–15524, https://doi.org/10.1021/jp305669f.
12
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
[115] X. Zhao, T. Xu, W. Yao, Y. Zhu, Photodegradation of dye pollutants catalyzed by
γ-Bi2 MoO6 nanoplate under visible light irradiation, Appl. Surf. Sci. 255 (2009)
8036–8040, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2009.05.010.
[116] U. Alam, T.A. Shah, A. Khan, M. Muneer, One-pot ultrasonic assisted sol-gel
synthesis of spindle-like Nd and V codoped ZnO for efficient photocatalytic
degradation of organic pollutants, Separ. Purif. Technol. 212 (2019) 427–437,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.11.048.
[117] A.B. Lavand, Y.S. Malghe, Nano sized C-doped TiO2 as a visible-light
photocatalyst for the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, Adv. Mater. Lett. 6
(2015) 695–700, https://doi.org/10.5185/amlett.2015.5800.
[118] K.S. Varma, A.D. Shukla, R.J. Tayade, P.A. Joshi, A.K. Das, K.B. Modi, V.
G. Gandhi, Photocatalytic performance and interaction mechanism of reverse
micelle synthesized Cu-TiO2 nanomaterials towards levofloxacin under visible
LED light, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 21 (2022) 77–89, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s43630-021-00141-8.
[119] H. Dong, G. Zeng, L. Tang, C. Fan, C. Zhang, X. He, Y. He, An overview on
limitations of TiO2-based particles for photocatalytic degradation of organic
pollutants and the corresponding countermeasures, Water Res. 79 (2015)
128–146, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.04.038.
[120] T.S. Natarajan, V. Mozhiarasi, R.J. Tayade, Nitrogen doped titanium dioxide (N-
TiO2): synopsis of synthesis methodologies, doping mechanisms, property
evaluation and visible light photocatalytic applications, Photochemistry 1 (2021)
371–410, https://doi.org/10.3390/photochem1030024.
[121] J. Huang, L. Dou, J. Li, J. Zhong, M. Li, T. Wang, Excellent visible light responsive
photocatalytic behavior of N-doped TiO2 toward decontamination of organic
pollutants, J. Hazard Mater. 403 (2021), 123857, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhazmat.2020.123857.
[122] G. Yang, Z. Yan, T. Xiao, B. Yang, Lowerature synthesis of alkalis doped TiO2
photocatalysts and their photocatalytic performance for degradation of methyl
orange, J. Alloys Compd. 580 (2013) 15–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2013.05.074.
[123] A. Neogy, S. Rani, A. Garg, T. Singhania, V.K. Sangal, S.R. Yadav, A. Singh,
S. Sharma, N. Garg, Photocatalytic degradation of bisphenol-A using N, Co
codoped TiO2 catalyst under solar light, Sci. Rep. 9 (2019) 1–13, https://doi.org/
10.1038/s41598-018-38358-w.
[124] H. Li, Y. Hao, H. Lu, L. Liang, Y. Wang, J. Qiu, X. Shi, Y. Wang, J. Yao,
A systematic study on visible-light N-doped TiO2 photocatalyst obtained from
ethylenediamine by sol-gel method, Appl. Surf. Sci. 344 (2015) 112–118, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.03.071.
[125] K. Kalantari, M. Kalbasi, M. Sohrabi, S.J. Royaee, Synthesis and characterization
of N-doped TiO2 nanoparticles and their application in photocatalytic oxidation of
dibenzothiophene under visible light, Ceram. Int. 42 (2016) 14834–14842,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.06.117.
[126] B. Zhou, X. Zhao, H. Liu, J. Qu, C.P. Huang, Visible-light sensitive cobalt-doped
BiVO4 (Co-BiVO4) photocatalytic composites for the degradation of methylene
blue dye in dilute aqueous solutions, Appl. Catal. B Environ. 99 (2010) 214–221,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.06.022.
[127] X. Zeng, X. Sun, Y. Yu, H. Wang, Y. Wang, Photocatalytic degradation of
flumequine with B/N codoped TiO2 catalyst: kinetics, main active species,
intermediates and pathways, Chem. Eng. J. 378 (2019), 122226, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cej.2019.122226.
[128] C. He, W. Xia, C. Zhou, D. Huang, C. Zhang, B. Song, Y. Yang, J. Li, X. Xu,
Y. Shang, L. Du, Rational design to manganese and oxygen co-doped polymeric
carbon nitride for efficient nonradical activation of peroxymonosulfate and the
mechanism insight, Chem. Eng. J. 430 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cej.2021.132751.
[129] Z. Zhao, A.A. Omer, Z. Qin, S. Osman, L. Xia, R.P. Singh, Cu/N-codoped TiO2
prepared by the sol-gel method for phenanthrene removal under visible light
irradiation, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27 (2020) 17530–17540, https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11356-019-05787-7.
[130] W. Andargie, D. Worku, Journal of Science : advanced Materials and Devices Dye-
sensitized solar cells using natural dye as light-harvesting materials extracted
from Acanthus sennii chiovenda flower and Euphorbia cotinifolia leaf, J. Sci. Adv.
Mater. Devices. 1 (2016) 488–494, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jsamd.2016.10.003.
[131] M. Joshi, S.P. Kamble, N.K. Labhsetwar, D.V. Parwate, S.S. Rayalu, Chlorophyll-
based photocatalysts and their evaluations for methyl orange photoreduction,
J. Photochem. Photobiol. Achemistry. 204 (2009) 83–89, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jphotochem.2009.01.016.
[132] C. Worathitanon, K. Jangyubol, P. Ruengrung, W. Donphai, W. Klysubun,
N. Chanlek, P. Prasitchoke, M. Chareonpanich, High performance visible-light
responsive Chl-Cu/ZnO catalysts for photodegradation of rhodamine B, Appl.
Catal. B Environ. 241 (2019) 359–366, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apcatb.2018.09.048.
[133] T. Phongamwong, W. Donphai, P. Prasitchoke, C. Rameshan, N. Barrabe,
N. Barrabés, W. Klysubun, G. Rupprechter, M. Chareonpanich, Novel visible-light-
sensitized Chl-Mg/P25 catalysts for photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B,
Appl. Catal. B Environ. 207 (2017) 326–334, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apcatb.2017.02.042.
[134] S. Patnaik, K.K. Das, A. Mohanty, K. Parida, Enhanced photo catalytic reduction
of Cr (VI) over polymer-sensitized g-C3N4/ZnFe2O4 and its synergism with phenol
oxidation under visible light irradiation, Catal. Today 315 (2018) 52–66, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2018.04.008.
[135] K. Kumar Das, D.P. Sahoo, S. Mansingh, K. Parida, ZnFe2O4@WO3-X/Polypyrrole:
an efficient ternary photocatalytic system for energy and environmental
A.V. Karim et al.
application, ACS Omega 6 (2021) 30401–30418, https://doi.org/10.1021/
acsomega.1c03705.
[136] K.K. Das, L. Paramanik, K. Parida, An insight to band-bending mechanism of
polypyrrole sensitized B-rGO/ZnFe2O4 p-n heterostructure with dynamic charge
transfer for photocatalytic applications, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46 (2021)
24484–24500, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.05.019.
[137] X. Li, Y. Cheng, S. Kang, J. Mu, Preparation and enhanced visible light-driven
catalytic activity of ZnO microrods sensitized by porphyrin heteroaggregate,
Appl. Surf. Sci. 256 (2010) 6705–6709, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apsusc.2010.04.074.
[138] M. Watanabe, Dye-sensitized photocatalyst for effective water splitting catalyst,
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 705–723, https://doi.org/10.1080/
14686996.2017.1375376.
[139] Z. Youssef, L. Colombeau, N. Yesmurzayeva, F. Baros, Dye-sensitized
nanoparticles for heterogeneous photocatalysis : cases studies with TiO2, ZnO,
fullerene and graphene for water puri fi cation, Dyes Pigments 159 (2018) 49–71,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2018.06.002.
[140] A. Zyoud, N. Zaatar, I. Saadeddin, M.H. Helal, G. Campet, M. Hakim, D. Park, H.
S. Hilal, Alternative natural dyes in water purification: anthocyanin as TiO2-
sensitizer in methyl orange photo-degradation, Solid State Sci. 13 (2011)
1268–1275, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2011.03.020.
[141] S. Buddee, S. Wongnawa, P. Sriprang, C. Sriwong, Curcumin-sensitized TiO2 for
enhanced photodegradation of dyes under visible light, J. Nanoparticle Res. 16
(2014) 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-014-2336-z.
[142] K. Vignesh, M. Rajarajan, A. Suganthi, Photocatalytic degradation of
erythromycin under visible light by zinc phthalocyanine-modified titania
nanoparticles, Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 23 (2014) 98–103, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.mssp.2014.02.050.
[143] B.P. Mishra, K. Parida, Orienting Z scheme charge transfer in graphitic carbon
nitride-based systems for photocatalytic energy and environmental applications,
J. Mater. Chem. A. 9 (2021) 10039–10080, https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ta00704a.
[144] Q. Xu, L. Zhang, J. Yu, S. Wageh, A.A. Al-Ghamdi, M. Jaroniec, Direct Z-scheme
photocatalysts: principles, synthesis, and applications, Mater. Today 21 (2018)
1042–1063, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2018.04.008.
[145] A. Kumar, P. Raizada, P. Singh, R.V. Saini, A.K. Saini, A. Hosseini-Bandegharaei,
Perspective and Status of Polymeric Graphitic Carbon Nitride Based Z-Scheme
Photocatalytic Systems for Sustainable Photocatalytic Water Purification,
Elsevier, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.123496.
[146] A. Hassani, S. Krishnan, J. Scaria, P. Eghbali, P.V. Nidheesh, Z-scheme
photocatalysts for visible-light-driven pollutants degradation: a review on recent
advancements, Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 25 (2021), 100941, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cossms.2021.100941.
[147] J. Low, B. Dai, T. Tong, C. Jiang, J. Yu, In situ irradiated X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy investigation on a direct Z-scheme TiO2/CdS composite film
photocatalyst, Adv. Mater. 31 (2019) 1–5, https://doi.org/10.1002/
adma.201802981.
[148] B. Zhu, P. Xia, Y. Li, W. Ho, J. Yu, Fabrication and photocatalytic activity
enhanced mechanism of direct Z-scheme g-C3N4/Ag2WO4 photocatalyst, Appl.
Surf. Sci. 391 (2017) 175–183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.07.104.
[149] W. Shi, M. Li, X. Huang, H. Ren, F. Guo, C. Yan, Three-dimensional Z-Scheme
Ag3PO4/Co3(PO4)2@Ag heterojunction for improved visible-light photocatalytic
degradation activity of tetracycline, J. Alloys Compd. 818 (2020), 152883,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.152883.
[150] C.S.N. Selvam, Y.G. Kim, D.J. Kim, W.H. Hong, W. Kim, S.H. Park, W.K. Jo,
Reduced graphene oxide-mediated Z-scheme BiVO4/CdS nanocomposites for
boosted photocatalytic decomposition of harmful organic pollutants, Sci. Total
Environ. 635 (2018) 741–749, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.169.
[151] J. Zhuang, J. Liu, Z. Wu, Z. Li, K. Zhu, K. Yan, Y. Xu, Y. Huang, Z. Lin, Formation
of Ag3PO4/AgBr composites with Z-scheme configuration by an in situ strategy
and their superior photocatalytic activity with excellent anti-photocorrosion
performance, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 30 (2019) 11368–11377, https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10854-019-01485-9.
[152] X.J. Wen, C.G. Niu, L. Zhang, C. Liang, H. Guo, G.M. Zeng, Photocatalytic
degradation of ciprofloxacin by a novel Z-scheme CeO2–Ag/AgBr photocatalyst:
influencing factors, possible degradation pathways, and mechanism insight,
J. Catal. 358 (2018) 141–154, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcat.2017.11.029.
[153] D. Gupta, R. Chauhan, N. Kumar, V. Singh, V.C. Srivastava, P. Mohanty, T.
K. Mandal, Enhancing photocatalytic degradation of quinoline by ZnO:TiO2
mixed oxide: optimization of operating parameters and mechanistic study,
J. Environ. Manag. 258 (2020), 110032, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jenvman.2019.110032.
[154] R.B.P. Marcelino, C.C. Amorim, Towards visible-light photocatalysis for
environmental applications: band-gap engineering versus photons absorption—a
review, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 26 (2019) 4155–4170, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11356-018-3117-5.
[155] N.G. Menon, S.S.V. Tatiparti, S. Mukherji, Effect of calcination temperature on the
microstructure and electronic properties of TiO2–ZnO nanocomposites and
implications on photocatalytic activity, Appl. Nanosci. 8 (2018) 915–930,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-018-0783-z.
[156] A. Behera, S. Mansingh, K.K. Das, K. Parida, Synergistic ZnFe2O4-carbon
allotropes nanocomposite photocatalyst for norfloxacin degradation and Cr (VI)
reduction, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 544 (2019) 96–111, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jcis.2019.02.056.
[157] S. Samanta, S. Martha, K. Parida, Facile synthesis of Au/g-C3N4 nanocomposites:
an inorganic/organic hybrid plasmonic photocatalyst with enhanced hydrogen
13
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
gas evolution under visible-light irradiation, ChemCatChem 6 (2014) 1453–1462,
https://doi.org/10.1002/cctc.201300949.
[158] P. Hu, C. Chen, J. Song, Z. Tang, Efficient visible-light photocatalysis of ZIF-
derived mesoporous ZnFe2O4/ZnO nanocomposite prepared by a two-step
calcination method, Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 77 (2018) 40–49, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.mssp.2018.01.012.
[159] L. Zhang, H. Zhang, H. Huang, Y. Liu, Z. Kang, Ag3PO4/SnO2 semiconductor
nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic activity and stability, New J.
Chem. 36 (2012) 1541–1544, https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nj40206h.
[160] L. Zhang, X. Yue, J. Liu, J. Feng, X. Zhang, C. Zhang, R. Li, C. Fan, Facile synthesis
of Bi5O7Br/BiOBr 2D/3D heterojunction as efficient visible-light-driven
photocatalyst for pharmaceutical organic degradation, Separ. Purif. Technol. 231
(2020), 115917, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.115917.
[161] C. Lai, M. Zhang, B. Li, D. Huang, G. Zeng, L. Qin, X. Liu, H. Yi, M. Cheng, L. Li,
Z. Chen, L. Chen, Fabrication of CuS/BiVO4 (0 4 0) binary heterojunction
photocatalysts with enhanced photocatalytic activity for Ciprofloxacin
degradation and mechanism insight, Chem. Eng. J. 358 (2019) 891–902, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.10.072.
[162] S. Kapatel, C.K. Sumesh, Two-step facile preparation of MoS2/ZnO nanocomposite
as efficient photocatalyst for methylene blue (dye) degradation, Electron. Mater.
Lett. 15 (2019) 119–132, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13391-018-00101-y.
[163] B. Cui, W. An, L. Liu, J. Hu, Y. Liang, Synthesis of CdS/BiOBr composite and its
enhanced photocatalyticdegradation for Rhodamine, Appl. Surf. Sci. 319 (2014)
298–305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.05.179.
[164] M. Sun, Y. Wang, Y. Fang, S. Sun, Z. Yu, Construction of MoS2/CdS/TiO2 ternary
composites with enhanced photocatalytic activity and stability, J. Alloys Compd.
684 (2016) 335–341, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.05.189.
[165] M. Maleki, M. Haghighi, Sono-dispersion of CuS-CdS over TiO2 in one-pot
hydrothermal reactor as visible-light-driven nanostructured photocatalyst, J. Mol.
Catal. A Chem. 424 (2016) 283–296, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
molcata.2016.08.036.
[166] T. Simon, N. Bouchonville, M.J. Berr, A. Vaneski, A. Adrovic, D. Volbers,
R. Wyrwich, M. Döblinger, A.S. Susha, A.L. Rogach, F. Jäckel, J.K. Stolarczyk,
J. Feldmann, Redox shuttle mechanism enhances photocatalytic H2 generation on
ni-decorated CdS nanorods, Nat. Mater. 13 (2014) 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1038/
NMAT4049.
[167] K. Huang, Y. Lv, W. Zhang, S. Sun, B. Yang, F. Chi, S. Ran, X. Liu, One-step
synthesis of Ag3PO4/Ag photocatalyst with visible-light photocatalytic activity,
Mater. Res. 18 (2015) 939–945.
[168] Y. Peng, J. Ji, D. Chen, Ultrasound assisted synthesis of ZnO/reduced graphene
oxide composites with enhanced photocatalytic activity and anti-photocorrosion,
Appl. Surf. Sci. 356 (2015) 762–768, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apsusc.2015.08.070.
[169] J. Yan, K. Wang, H. Xu, J. Qian, W. Liu, X. Yang, H. Li, Visible-light photocatalytic
efficiencies and anti-photocorrosion behavior of CdS/graphene nanocomposites:
evaluation using methylene blue degradation, Chin. J. Catal. 34 (2013)
1876–1882, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1872-2067(12)60677-9.
[170] R. Shi, J. Lin, Y. Wang, J. Xu, Y. Zhu, Visible-light photocatalytic degradation of
BiTaO4 photocatalyst and mechanism of photocorrosion suppression, J. Phys.
Chem. C 114 (2010) 6472–6477, https://doi.org/10.1021/jp9101866.
[171] P. Xiong, J. Zhu, X. Wang, Cadmium sulfide-ferrite nanocomposite as a
magnetically recyclable photocatalyst with enhanced visible-light-driven
photocatalytic activity and photostability, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 52 (2013)
17126–17133, https://doi.org/10.1021/ie402437k.
[172] S. Muthulingam, K. Bin Bae, R. Khan, I.H. Lee, P. Uthirakumar, Improved
daylight-induced photocatalytic performance and suppressed photocorrosion of
N-doped ZnO decorated with carbon quantum dots, RSC Adv. 5 (2015)
46247–46251, https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra07811c.
[173] N. Miranda-García, S. Suárez, M.I. Maldonado, S. Malato, B. Sánchez,
Regeneration approaches for TiO2 immobilized photocatalyst used in the
elimination of emerging contaminants in water, Catal. Today 230 (2014) 27–34,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2013.12.048.
[174] J.T. Carneiro, J.A. Moulijn, G. Mul, Photocatalytic oxidation of cyclohexane by
titanium dioxide: catalyst deactivation and regeneration, J. Catal. 273 (2010)
199–210, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcat.2010.05.015.
[175] J. Liqiang, X. Baifu, Y. Fulong, W. Baiqi, S. Keying, C. Weimin, F. Honggang,
Deactivation and regeneration of ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles in the gas phase
photocatalytic oxidation of n-C7H16 or SO2, Appl. Catal. A Gen. 275 (2004)
49–54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2004.07.019.
[176] H. Wang, Q. Liu, C. You, Regeneration of sulfur-deactivated TiO2 photocatalysts,
Appl. Catal. A Gen. 572 (2019) 15–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apcata.2018.12.031.
[177] S. Sarkar, C. Bhattacharjee, S. Sarkar, Studies on the performance of annular
photo reactor (APR) for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment, J. Water Proc.
Eng. 19 (2017) 26–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2017.07.006.
[178] A.M. Abdel-Wahab, A.S. Al-Shirbini, O. Mohamed, O. Nasr, Photocatalytic
Degradation of Paracetamol over Magnetic Flower-like TiO2/Fe2O3 Core-Shell
Nanostructures, Elsevier B.V., 2017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotochem.2017.07.030.
[179] S. Liu, M. Lim, R. Amal, TiO2-coated natural zeolite: rapid humic acid adsorption
and effective photocatalytic regeneration, Chem. Eng. Sci. 105 (2014) 46–52,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2013.10.041.
[180] V.G. Gandhi, M.K. Mishra, P.A. Joshi, A study on deactivation and regeneration of
titanium dioxide during photocatalytic degradation of phthalic acid, J. Ind. Eng.
Chem. 18 (2012) 1902–1907, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2012.05.001.
A.V. Karim et al.
[181] S. Wu, J. Xiong, J. Sun, Z.D. Hood, W. Zeng, Z. Yang, L. Gu, X. Zhang, S.Z. Yang,
Hydroxyl-dependent evolution of oxygen vacancies enables the regeneration of
BiOCl photocatalyst, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) 16620–16626, https://
doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b01701.
[182] Q. Zhang, Y. Wu, T. Zuo, Green recovery of titanium and effective regeneration of
TiO2 photocatalysts from spent selective catalytic reduction catalysts, ACS
Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6 (2018) 3091–3101, https://doi.org/10.1021/
acssuschemeng.7b03038.
[183] Y. Chou, C. Shao, X. Li, C. Su, H. Xu, M. Zhang, P. Zhang, X. Zhang, Y. Liu, BiOCl
nanosheets immobilized on electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofibers with high
photocatalytic activity and reusable property, Appl. Surf. Sci. 285 (2013)
509–516, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.08.085.
[184] K.S. Ranjith, R.T. Rajendra Kumar, Regeneration of an efficient, solar active
hierarchical ZnO flower photocatalyst for repeatable usage: controlled desorption
of poisoned species from active catalytic sites, RSC Adv. 7 (2017) 4983–4992,
https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra27380g.
[185] Y. Li, Z. Jiao, N. Yang, H. Gao, Regeneration of nano-ZnO photocatalyst by the
means of soft-mechanochemical ion exchange method, J. Environ. Sci. 21 (2009)
S69–S72, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(09)60040-1.
[186] B. Dong, Z. Li, Z. Li, X. Xu, M. Song, W. Zheng, C. Wang, S.S. Al-Deyab, M. El-
Newehy, Highly efficient LaCoO3 nanofibers catalysts for photocatalytic
degradation of rhodamine B, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 93 (2010) 3587–3590, https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-2916.2010.04124.x.
[187] J. Rashid, M.A. Barakat, R.M. Mohamed, I.A. Ibrahim, Enhancement of
photocatalytic activity of zinc/cobalt spinel oxides by doping with ZrO2 for visible
light photocatalytic degradation of 2-chlorophenol in wastewater, J. Photochem.
Photobiol. A Chem. 284 (2014) 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphotochem.2014.03.017.
[188] S.N. Basahel, T.T. Ali, M. Mokhtar, K. Narasimharao, Influence of crystal structure
of nanosized ZrO2 on photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange, Nanoscale
Res. Lett. 10 (2015), https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-015-0780-z.
[189] R. Malik, V.K. Tomer, P.S. Rana, S.P. Nehra, S. Duhan, Surfactant assisted
hydrothermal synthesis of porous 3-D hierarchical SnO2 nanoflowers for
photocatalytic degradation of Rose Bengal, Mater. Lett. 154 (2015) 124–127,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2015.04.056.
[190] P. Deka, R.C. Deka, P. Bharali, Porous CuO nanostructure as a reusable catalyst
for oxidative degradation of organic water pollutants, New J. Chem. 40 (2016)
348–357, https://doi.org/10.1039/c5nj02515j.
14
Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 99 (2022) 100480
[191] X. Chen, D. Chu, L. Wang, W. Hu, H. Yang, J. Sun, S. Zhu, G. Wang, J. Tao,
S. Zhang, One-step synthesis of novel hierarchical flower-like SnO2
nanostructures with enhanced photocatalytic activity, J. Alloys Compd. 729
(2017) 710–715, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.08.094.
[192] S. Adhikari, K. Sarath Chandra, D.H. Kim, G. Madras, D. Sarkar, Understanding
the morphological effects of WO3 photocatalysts for the degradation of organic
pollutants, Adv. Powder Technol. 29 (2018) 1591–1600, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.apt.2018.03.024.
[193] S. Huang, C. Chen, H. Tsai, J. Shaya, C. Lu, Photocatalytic degradation of
thiobencarb by a visible light-driven MoS2 photocatalyst, Separ. Purif. Technol.
197 (2018) 147–155, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.01.009.
[194] Y. Gong, Y. Wu, Y. Xu, L. Li, C. Li, X. Liu, L. Niu, All-solid-state Z-scheme CdTe/
TiO2 heterostructure photocatalysts with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic
degradation of antibiotic waste water, Chem. Eng. J. 350 (2018) 257–267,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.05.186.
[195] J. Hu, X. Jing, L. Zhai, J. Guo, K. Lu, L. Mao, BiOCl facilitated photocatalytic
degradation of atenolol from water: reaction kinetics, pathways and products,
Chemosphere 220 (2019) 77–85, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chemosphere.2018.12.085.
[196] B. Shao, X. Liu, Z. Liu, G. Zeng, Q. Liang, C. Liang, Y. Cheng, W. Zhang, Y. Liu,
S. Gong, A novel double Z-scheme photocatalyst Ag3PO4/Bi2S3/Bi2O3 with
enhanced visible-light photocatalytic performance for antibiotic degradation,
Chem. Eng. J. 368 (2019) 730–745, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.03.013.
[197] T. Chankhanittha, V. Somaudon, J. Watcharakitti, V. Piyavarakorn, S. Nanan,
Performance of solvothermally grown Bi2MoO6 photocatalyst toward degradation
of organic azo dyes and fluoroquinolone antibiotics, Mater. Lett. 258 (2020),
126764, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.126764.
[198] D. Majhi, K. Das, A. Mishra, R. Dhiman, B.G. Mishra, One pot synthesis of CdS/
BiOBr/Bi2O2CO3: a novel ternary double Z-scheme heterostructure photocatalyst
for efficient degradation of atrazine, Appl. Catal. B Environ. 260 (2020), 118222,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2019.118222.
[199] A. Dehdar, G. Asgari, M. Leili, T. Madrakian, A. Seid-mohammadi, Step-scheme
BiVO4/WO3 heterojunction photocatalyst under visible LED light irradiation
removing 4-chlorophenol in aqueous solutions, J. Environ. Manag. 297 (2021)
113338, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113338.
[200] T. Senasu, T. Chankhanittha, K. Hemavibool, S. Nanan, Solvothermal synthesis of
BiOBr photocatalyst with an assistant of PVP for visible-light-driven
photocatalytic degradation of fluoroquinolone antibiotics, Catal. Today 384–386
(2022) 209–227, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2021.04.008.