THE PHASES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (19th century concept of human historical development) Three Age System, by Danish archaeologist C. J. Thomson, based on finds from prehistoric graves, subdivided prehistory into three ages based on technological achievement: by the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. The three ages are subdivided further.THE PHASES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT The Stone Age is divided into three periods: 1.the Palaeolithic, (Old Stone Age, or Ice Age) (Greek: from palaios, old; and from lithos, stone), | I which applies to societies who used chipped-stone technology (hunter and gatherer) 2.the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), which is a transitional period; 3. the Neolithic (New Stone Age), when people used polished stone artifacts and were farmers.PREHISTORIC PERIOD 500,000 - 2,000 BCE Paleolithic Age ( Old Stone Age ) 500,000 - 11,000 BCE Mesolithic Age ( Middle Stone Age ) 11,000 - 7,000 BCE Neolithic Age ( New Stone Age ) 7,250 - 5,400 BCE Chalcolithic Age ( Copper stone Age ) 5,400 - 3,250 BCE Bronze Age 3,250 - 1,200 BCE BCE stands for “Before the Common Era." It is eventually expected to replace BC, which means “Before Christ." BC and BCE are also identical in value. CE stands for "Common Era." It is a relatively new term and is eventually expected to replace AD. AD is an abbreviation for “Anno Domini" in Latin or "the year of the Lord" in English. The latter refers to the approximate birth year of Jesus Christ. CE and AD have the same and value. 2004 CE = 2004 ADThe Stone Age, The Bronze Age, And The Iron Age (The Three-age 19th Century Concept by J.C. Thomson) The Bronze Age: starting between 3500 and 3000 BC and lasting for 2000 years The “first urban civilizations” were established; 1. in southern Mesopotamia (the cradle of Diasec: crescent) 2. in Egypt 3. in the Indus Valley (India)Human historical development a three-age, 19th century concept a four-stage system by G, Childe y J.C. z byt£. Thomson 1, Paleolithic Age 2. Neolithic Age 1.Stone Age 2.Bronze Age 3, Urban Age 4. Industrial Age 3.lron Age which are punctuated by three revolutions: 1. Paleolithic Neolithic Revolution 2. Neolithic Urban Revolution 3, Urban Industrial Revolution 4. Industrial Neolithic (agricultural) Revolution (transformation from old stone age hunter-gatherer cultures to settled agriculture). Urban Revolution (the movement from neolithic agriculture to complex hierarchical systems of manufacturing and trade that began during the fourth and third millenia BCE) Industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries.PALAEOLITHIC AGE 600,000/500,000 -10,000/8,000 B.C. *Homosapiens (early in the last period of the Ice Age) *the longest of pre-historic ages *humankind attained a level of development called savagery — a food gathering and hunting economy. *Tt was an age of hunters and gatherers, totally absorbed in the quest for food (lasted into neolithic age) and entirely dependent on the environment and climate. * Lack of permanent settlements .The earliest of folk societies roamed around in small groups searching for food; they did not know any form of permanent refuge (home), Lived in caves or rock/wood shelters. wall-paintings showing their everyday lives (hunting scenes, wild animals, etc.) * Low Densities. existence was precarious (uncertain)and the average human life-span was short.,NEOLITHIC AGE = 10,000/8,000 B.C. - 3,500/3,300 B.C. major changes in human evolution: people used stone tools, domesticated plants and animals, and lived in villages. the Neolithic Revolution, between 8000 and 6000 B.C. was the transition from a food gathering society to a food producing society, when humans settled down to cultivate their food (agricultural production), instead of following their food. Humans began to exercise some measure of control over the supply of food by the systematic cultivation of certain forms of wild plants (ancestral to our wheat), and by the domestication of animals. Humans left the caves and rock shelters that he previously lived § in and built homes to stay withi close distance from his farm to protect their crop from animals and enemies‘The Neolithic Village = sss—s—Ss The neolithic agricultural revolution transformed the economy into one with an increasingly food producing basis enabling the social unit to expand to that of the clan, with the physical unit being the village. Such early villages would have to be shifted every 20 years unless crops were watered by irrigation. Favourable conditions for the agricultural revolution first occurred 5,000 to 4,500 B.C. south and east of the Mediterranean in the river valleys and on the broad alluvial plains and watersheds of the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus and Ganges in India, and, somewhat later, in the Yellow River (Hwang Ho) basin of China. The earliest, permanently inhabited village settlements of the food producers, then, appeared around 5000 B.C. in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia and Iran. Transformation of Neolithic villages into the early cities occurred between 3500-3000 BC. (Catalhoyuk and Hacilar predates Mesopotamian cities.)Neolithic houses were built adjacent to each other so forming sort of a defense system in place of massive fortification walls. single-storied houses in rectangular shape, supported by wooden beams and buttresses. a flat roof that provided working space to prepare winter food. houses were entered through openings in the roofs that they reached using wooden ladders. After entering their houses, they pulled the ladder down into their houses to keep them safe from possible enemies and other people in the village. Inside the houses: the raised platforms & benches around the room to sleep& sit. Underneath the benches were buried the dead.Major Prehistoric sites in Anatolia Important Neolithic sites in Asia Minor included settlements at Cayonu, Catalhoyuk, Hacilar, Norsuntepe and Kosk, typical Neolithic towns. Although Catalhoyuk in Central Turkey was the most advanced among all, Cayonu in the Eastern Turkey goes back to around 7,250-6,750 BC. This makes it the«Sumerian city-states: Sumer was organized on the basis of 15-20 small city-states, each centered on a city ruled by priest-kings. These cities were fortified and surrounded by agricultural land which supported the urban population. The city-states, while politically independent, were economically interdependent. SUMERIAN CITIES (3500-1950BC): The typical Sumerian city consisted of three parts: the city proper: the walled area which contains the temple(s), the palace with the residence of royal officials, and the houses of the citizens. outer town: agglomeration of houses, farms, cattle-folds, fields and gardens, all of which provide the city with food and raw materials. functioned beyond its actual use as an harbour, as the center of commercial activity. % rae ZIGGURAT: Sumerian temple a staged/terraced tower. It is pyramid-shaped.TELL REFERS TO THOSE CLEARLY DEFINED MAN-MADE SETTLEMENT MOUNDS. © A TELL WAS CREATED FROM A CITY’S NEW BUILDINGS BEING CONSTRUCTED ON THE RUINS OF OLD ONES.Predominance of the ‘courtyard’ buildin: palace construction. 2. Ziggurat (Terraced Tower): Sumerian temple (only dominant feature) symbolic representation of traditional hilltop or mountain. An Assyrian Used for worship (proximity to the heavens, light). Ziggurat e in houses, temple and 3. Principal Axis of Cities : NW to SE Cross Axis (Temple Axis) = SW to NE 4, Oval/Elliptical plan but rectangular Temple District (Temenos: religious precint) 5. Temple District (Temenos) located either in (a) the centre of city, or, (b) north-west half of city along main axis 6. Irregular residential streetsUr is the most revealing example of a Sumerian city both on account of its importance as the capital of one of the dynasties and the greater extend of excavations there. There are three basic parts of third dynasty Ur: 1. the walled city, 2. the temenos or religious precint, 3. and, the outer town. The walled city was an irregular oval shape. Temenos was enclosed by massive walls, contained the ziggurat and the only open spaces in the city, their use was reserved for the priests and members of the royal household. Organic growth: the kind of urban form which has evolved without preconceived planned intervention.Cities of Ur, Uruk, and Eridu declined as Euphrates changed its course over the centuries and the desert sands moved in (urban dwellers tend to emigrate as cities cut off from river).Egypt & the Nile Valley Aah: 1s Med rm LES] es :Paleolithic Mesolithic Era/ Middle Stone Age 40,000 B.C. 8,000 B.C. Neolithic/ New StoneNEOLITHIC CULTURE It was characterized by * This is the final stage of cultural stone tools shaped by evolution or technological development polishing or grinding, among prehistoric humans. dependence on domesticated plants or animals, settlement in permanent villages, and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving.GATALHOYUK Catalhoyuk and Hacilar predate the earliest cities in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India. (Thus calls the entire Childe theory into question) Catal Hoyuk dates around 7000 or 6500 BC to apr. 5500 B.C. Jaro Itis a ‘huge’ site - Discovered in the 1950's; some 32 acres of which only about 1 acre had been excavated by James Mellaart from 1961 - 1963. Population of 3,000-8,000 people, the length of its occupation over 2,000 years. Hacilar has built a well-advancec civilization following the above town Cayonu. dated back to 7,040 BCE. This town had produced agricultural produce such as wheat, barley and lentils Catalhoydk: Is ‘THE OLDEST CITY’ TO BE UNEARTHED — 1000's of yrs. older than Sumer or anything in Egypt.The report on which the committee decision is based said that Catalhéylik, whose history dates back to 7400 B.C., constituted a unique witness to a certain period of the Neolithic era and boasted an urban plan based on social understanding and the ideal of equality, representing an important stage in human history with its settlement mode. Located in the Cumra district of the Central Anatolian city of Konya, GatalhéyUik is one of the most important archaeological centers in the world. The wall paintings in the ancient city are regarded as some of humanity's earliest artworks. It was first discovered in the late 1950s and excavated by James Mellaart between 1961 and 1965. The site rapidly became famous internationally due to the large size and dense occupation of the settlement. Since 1993 an international team of archaeologists has been carrying out new excavations and research.Southern Anatolian Plateau. The taller eastern mound contains 18 levels of Neolithic occupation between 7400 bc and 6200 be, including wall paintings, reliefs (carvings), sculptures and other symbolic and artistic features. Together \ | they testify to the evolution of social organization and cultural practices as , humans adapted to a sedentary | (permanent) life. The western mound \\\ shows the evolution of cultural practices |)! in the Chalcolithic period, from 6200 bc to ! 5900.8; the exceptional of CatalhéyUk occupies the largest alluvial fan in the Konya plain, its well-watered surroundings contrasting with the general aridity of the plateau of south-central Turkey.major fan-complex, partly constrained Rivers flowing from the by sand-bars around the shore of the former lake, whose mari-covered basin is dry and infertile away from the well watered fan. Small fans from streams entering the lowlands from the Taurus mountains to the south sustained smaller sites during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. The terraces were more extensively occupied in the Bronze Age, when a major route way ran around the southern edge of the basin. The volcanic mountain of Kara Dag rises as a cone, between Catal _and Can HasanCatalhoyuk provides important evidence of the transition from settled villages to urban agglomeration, which was maintained in the same location for over 2,000 years. It features a unique streetless settlement of houses clustered back to back with roof access into the buildings.\bb. 2 Rekonstruktion eines Wohnquartiers in Gatal Hityiik, Siidanatolien, Schicht VI B, um 6000- 5900 v.Chr. Reconstruction of housing section of Catal Hiiyiik, south Anatolia, Turkey, level VI B6,000-5,900 B. Arrangement of houses characteristically entered by ladder from the roof, and gathered around an open space. The need for defense may be the reason for -P/an of excavations of agglomeration houses constructing houses without doorways. ee anaPerit ‘ x ort Building 5 comprises a main room, hich was entered from a ladder on its South Wall, and several smaller spaces which can be reached from the main room. Of particular interest is the group of storage bins in the South West space. You can also see the remains of an oven The large holes are where the occupants of the house pulled up the main wooden posts before abandoning the house and filling it in.CATALHOYUK- VILLAGE OR CITY ? Central administration and temples: yénetim islevi /merkezi yénetim- iktidarlarin dinsel nitelikte oldugu tapinak yapilar- bu yapilara Catalhéylik’te bugiine dek rastlanmamistir. Social hierarchy (sosyal tabakalasma). Gatalhéylk mimari olarak homojen, fonksiyonlara ayrilmamis bir yerlesim diizenine sahiptir. Mekansal yapida yerlegme igi stati alaniari ve yap! dokusunda sakinlerinin statilerinde hiyerarsiye isaret eden izler bulunmaz. Yapilar arasinda higbiri digerinden daha blk veya daha zengin degildir. Konutlardaki bu tekdiizelik toplumsal yapida bir katmanlasmanin olmadig} izlenimi verir. Toplumsal statilye isaret eden tek yer mezarlar olup, evlerin altinda bulunan gémiilerdeki armaganlar bir dereceye kadar sosyal farkliligi géstermektedir.Long distance trade (uzak mesafel ‘icaret). Catalhéyiik’'te uzak mesafeli ticaret artmistir. Orta Anadolu obsidyen kaynaklarini kontrol eden ve bu ticareti 6rgitleyen bir merkez olan Suriye, Levant ve Kibris’a kadar uzanan genis bir cografyaya sadece hammadde olarak de@il, ayn! amanda bitmis alet olarak da obsidyen ihrag etmekteydi. Yerlesmenin refahi da genig dlgekte yiiriittlen obsidyen ticaretinden kaynaklanmaktaydi. Yerlesmede bulunan Ergani kékenli bakir, Toroslar kékenli cakmaktasi, Dogu Akdeniz kékenli turkuaz, Giilek Bogazi’ndan gelen kursun ve Kizildeniz ve Akdeniz kékenli deniz kabuklari, var olan geligmis hammadde ithalatinin kanitlaridir.CATALHOYUK- VILLAGE OR CITY? Catalhéyiik, aragtirmacilar tarafindan ileri striilen kent siniflama kriterlerinden sadece uzmanlagma ve ticaret dlgitiine sahiptir. Hodder Catalhéyiik’tin olduk¢a genis etki alanina sahip biydk capli bir ticaret aginin icinde yer aldigini ve teknik yeterlilik ve geligkin uzmanlagma diizeyine sahip olmakla birlikte yerlegmenin sosyal dokusunun hiyerarsik dizenden gok, birbirlerine az cok benzeyen aile ocaklarinin yan yana gelmesinden ibaret oldugunu belirterek, bu tir SrgitlU, hiyerarsik bir siyasal ve sosyal yapinin Catalhé) te hig olmadigini ve sinirli derecede bir sosyal karmasikligin oldugunu séyler. Yerlesmenin sasirtici nifus yogunlugu ile ilgili olarak da, “kéy kavramini mantiksal boyutlarin 6tesine tagiyan yerlegme” tabirini kullanir.Catalhéyiik sakinleri farkli bir sosyo-politik ve ekonomik yaptya sahip. Kaynaklar toplanarak yerlesmeye getiriliyor ve ev igi iretim cergevesinde degerlendiriliyor. Kaynaklarin depolanma islemi de ev ici tinitelerde gergeklestiriliyor. Her ev, Uretim ve zanaat agisindan kendine yeterli gériinuyor. Yani her aile ézerk bir sekilde kendi Uretiminden sorumlu. Kimse bir digeri Uzerinde s6z sahibi degil, merkezi idare ve sosyal role sahip bir elit sinif yok. Bu haliyle Catalhéyik sosyal, ideolojik ve mekansal anlamda farklilagmamis bir toplumsal yap! sunuyor. Kaynaklarin tim topluma esit dagitildig!, her ailenin bu kaynaga ulagmada esit oldugu, kendi ihtiyacini Urettigi ve yoneticisi olmayan bu esitlikci (egalitarian) sosyal yapt bugiinkU herhangi bir toplum tipinden oldukga farklidir. Tum bunlar, Gatalhéyik’G ginimiz terminolojisi ile Koy, Kasaba veya kent diye siniflandirma cabasinin yanlig oldugunu ve onu kendi icinde tanimlamak gerekliligini ortaya koyarak, bu haliyle 6zel 6neme sahip, tumuyle 6zgin bir yerlesme birimi oldugunu gésteriyor.Th 1 of the w the ese conjunction with other technological advances that gave rise to the early Bronze Age. Note that this implies the passage of several wheeHess millennia even after the invention of agriculture and of pottery. A potter's wheel was used in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) in 3500 BC.The Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age (three-age 19th century concept by J.C. Thomson) the Bronze Age: (starting between 3500 and 3000 BC and lasting for 2000 years) the “first/earliest urban ci ations” were established; 1. in southern Mesopotamia (the cradle of civilzations/ertle crescent) 2. in Egypt 3. in the Indus Valley (India) diterranean THE FERTILE CRESCENT —_ —ttoplayici insanlar yagamasi gerekirken, (ity - yer enin biti1.Lower Savagery from the emergence of humans to the invention of fire 2.Middle Savagery from the invention of fire to the invention of bow and arrow 3.Upper Savagery from the invention of bow and arrow to the invention of pottery 4.Lower Barbarism begins with the invention of pottery and ends with the domestication of animals 5.Middle Barbarism from the domestication of animals to the smelting of iron ore 6.Upper Barbarism from the discovery of iron to the invention of the phonetic alphabet*Sumerian city-states: Sumer was organized on the basis of 15-20 small city-states, each centered on a city ruled by priest-kings. These cities were fortified and surrounded by agricultural land which supported the urban population. The city-states, while politically independent, were economically interdependent. SUMERIAN CITIES (3500-1950BC): The typical Sumerian city consisted of three parts: the city proper: the walled area which contains the temple(s), the palace with the residence of royal officials, and the houses of the citizens. outer town: agglomeration of houses, farms, cattle-folds, fields and gardens, all of which provide the city with food and raw materials. -harbour section: functioned beyond its actual use as an harbour, as the center of commercial act ZIGGURAT: Sumerian temple a staged/terraced tower. It is pyramid-shaped.a unified kingdom, An internal peac Thus, no defensive city walls. The Nile was very important as a communication and trade route across a vast and harsh land. Also, its annual flooding renewed farmlands that would otherwise be arid desert. Alluvial soil is rich earth deposited by floods, usually over riverbanks. The Nile flooded annually in summer this way, renewing the fertility of the soil and the Egyptians’ ability to grow crops and feed themselves over and over again. Their gratitude for this is reflected in their religion. Akhetaten DendaraIn its lower (northern) Part, the Nile River splits itself many times and spills into the Mediterranean Sea across a huge plain. To the east another ay natural boundary, The. ‘Gize Red Sea, extends roughly parallel to the Nile. Because of these two seas, the Egyptiansestern Desert were the only people of the ancient world to be able to control both western and eastern foreign trade. reaisd a centralized government controlled by a line of hereditary rulers. These kings, called pharaohs, kept a royal court of advisors and nobility, and oversaw the governors of the provinces of the kingdom. They were also commanders of the Egyptian army. /) | The pharaohs were considered as the representatives of the gods on earth and even as gods themselves. Kings were not only males, and unlike in modern monarchies, the ruler of ancient Egypt, whether male or female, was always called a king. In fact, Egypt had some very noteworthy female rulers such as Hatshepsut and others. Religion was the most important determinant of urban life in Ancient Egypt; most remaining architectural monuments are religious or funerary and characterised by: +the best locations -the largest scale +the most durable materials ‘Eternal afterlife’ and underground tomb construction were major preoccupations.The ancient Egyptians believed in many gods, each with a different responsibility. They also believed in a life after death, or afterlife. The Egyptians believed that their religion was important to their survival in the Nile Valley. The ancient Egyptians believed the sun was a god who was born each day and died each night. Therefore, the sun became a symbol of the life cycle.Ra was the sun god. + He was the most important god of the ancient Egyptians. + The ancient Egyptians believed that Ra was swallowed every night by the sky ‘goddess Nut, and was reborn every morning. he travelled through the underworld at night. In the underworld, Ra appeared as N @ man with the head of a ram. + The ancient Egyptians also believed that oO The sun god, Re/Ra, was among the most important of the Egyptian gods. In Egyptian wall paintings, Re is often pictured as a falcon, soaring in the sky. At other times he is shown as the sun, riding in a a ‘special kind of boat called a solar bark. The ancient Egyptians believedHapi was the god of the Nile River, often shown as a man with a papyrus plant sprouting from the top of his head. The ancient Egyptians believed that the Nile floods were controlled by their gods. Many celebrations in honor of Hapi usually took place during flooding. ; Pp H’apy (Hapi) God of the Nile Rive + H’apy — The god of the Ni River, H'apy was responsi for the yearly flooding of precious river. Because of the importance of the Nile River to Egypt, H’apy is also believed to have helpe create the world. He is usually shown as a long haired man with Papyrus and lotus flowers (two Nil plants) ysrowan out oF his head. He lives in a cave at e source of the Nile River.The ancient Egyptian temple/pyramid was either a new foundation on a non urban site and where it was the principal, even the sole reason for a settlement’s existence (Kahun), or , where the temple was one part of a community which had other independentKahun — meaning ‘The Town’ (The worker's village) Hatep-senusret, built by pharoah S Senwosret Il (12 dynasty) to house «= workers engaged in construction of _ his tomb (the pyramid of el-lahun) Phoiograph of what remains of the pyramid (its mudbrick interior) and an overall plan West Ridge %. Kahun was constructed about 1835 BC in i eli three parts. Comprising the large mortuary y Pyrami temple and pyramid of King Senwosret II, and the planned gridiron town which initially accommodated the construction workers, before being taken over by the priests and officials responsible for administration.The earliest known example of the gridiron system of town planning Excavated remains of northern section of Kahun (the workers village) Town’s general outline was in a square, walled on the east, north, andAttempt to represent the proportions (1:3) on which the plan of Kahun is based.T el A (modern name) AKHETATEN or ‘Horizon of the Sun Disc’ Situated about halfway between Cairo and Luxor (Thebes). Built by Amenophis IV (1375-1358 B.C.) at the end of 18th Dynasty also known as AKHENATEN, son of Thebes' great pharaoh Amenophis III. Unable to institute religious reforms, the young pharaoh left Thebes and founded a new royal capital some miles north on the eastern bank of the Nile in Middle Egypt. (between Cairo and Luxor). Akhetaten was created for his revolutionary religion that worshiped Aten during the Amarna Period. The move was due to the influence of his wife Nefertiti. Plan, AmarnaIt was said that one ea eR en eT disc between two mountains. He felt that God was guiding him to make change. He was shown the God, Aten, as the Sun Disk - the Light. He felt guided by Aten to build a city between the two mountains. In the sixth year of his reign Akhenaten rejected the Gods of Thebes. Akhenaten had declared for the first time in recorded history that there was only one God - the concept of monotheism. Overnight he turned 2,000 years of Egyptian religious upside down. THE AMARNA PERIOD To make a complete break, the king and his queen Nefertiti left Thebes behind and moved to a new e capital in Middle Egypt, 180 miles north of Thebes half way between Memphis and Thebes. ps . It was a virgin site, not previously dedicated to any AKHTATON A i other god or goddess, and he named it Akhetaten — (rere ee The Horizon of the Aten. oF Today the site is known as ElAmarna. Amare Akhenaten established his new religion by building an entire city dedicated to Aten complete with a necropolis and royal tomb. tThe area is divided into suburbs, with the so-called "central city" housing the Royal Palace and The Great Temple (The Per-Aten), as well as various buildings archaeologists have labeled official (police, taxes...). It is here in one such building, the 'records office’, that the Amarna Letters were found by a peasant woman. This area of Amarna was completely excavated in the 1930s. The other residential areas consist of the North City or Suburb, the Main or South City, and the worker's village. The central City was apparently carefully planned, while the other residential zones where not. In these other areas, the spaces between the earliest large houses was gradually clusters of1.lt was in the form of a narrow strip running along-side the east bank of the Nile, 4 km long and 1.4 km wide. 2.Quite different from any previous Egyptian plan: no regularity or pattern of any kind no deliberate, controlled planning, no zoning 3.characterized by naturalness. Layout is flowing, organic; it may have been a protest against the geometric, orderly and firmly delineated plans of the times. 4.street system followed topography i.e. nature closely - indicative of the naturalism of the period 5.city is formed of several independent parts: South City : contained homes of leading officials and courtiers, a few humbler homes and an industrial centre. North Suburb: few good houses, middle class business area, location of merchants, traders; may have included port. North City: official quarters (rather than homes) Central section: carefully and deliberately planned as a unit, contained principal palaces aes and res | immense. buildings) with pouraids adorned with. Houses and Palaces oriented toward the North . Most temples faced the East . Outline plans varied from rectangle to square (except for E-Amarna). The oldest settlements were oval or round. .. Dimensions of city plans were always related to intentional proportion: 1101:2 125 13 © 23035 |. Water played an important role in the city image. The importance of water and the Nile were represented formally and spatially in Egyptian cities e.g. Holy lakes, canals, the banks of the Nile. . Construction of a temple/pyramid and a gridiron town which initially accommodated construction workers then taken over by the priest and officials responsible for their administration. (except ELAmarna) . Urban areas were built of mud-brick (as in Mesopotamia) but failing the creation of a recognizable tell, resulting from long-term site occupation.Giza, Saqqara, the form of orthogonal layouts Usually built in a desert location west of Ni centered on tombs (royal pyramids). The entire burial complexes of dead kings of Egypt (Royal tombs, funerary chapels, etc.) play a major role in the religion of the land and its urban activity. These burial places were of tremendous dimensions, more like small towns in area than like cemeteries. To the individual as well as the Pharaoh the most important achievement during a lifetime was to build a tomb for the eternal afterlife. The Great Sphinx & Pyramids of Giza Pyramid Complex of Cheops (Khufu) Pyramid Complex of Chephren (Khafre) Pyramid Complex of MenkaureThe Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300-1300 BCE; mature period 2600-1900 BCE) extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. bAN ma ane. Geography 9 q\ The Indus Valley resembled Mesopotamia ; and Egypt: salluvial plain watered by Indus River region enjoyed heavier rainfall than at present; vegetation was plentiful *total area of civilization more extensive than those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. ArRICA: ed Sea Petey Economy +based on fertile valleys of major rivers: easy means of transportation and communication agriculture was central to culture: farmers depended on annual rain and floods for irrigation scities did profitable trade locally as well as with foreign lands.Cities of Indus Valley Harappan cities are considered to be the earliest known planned towns in history. All the Harappan cities must have been laid out according to same Seley “system of town planning”, a conclusion reinforced by similarities in the layout of their lower cities on a rectilinear basis of main east-west routes directed to the citadels, and north-south cross routes. MOHENJO-DARO (Mound/Hill of the Dead) 140 miles north-east of Karachi, in Pakistan. Aerial view of the remains of Mohenjo-Daro3300 BC Building of a penned city is gun at ‘Mohenjo-Daro. Mohenjo-Daro falls into decline and is later abandoned. —— inst attempts Daro. Plans are ‘approved to preserve Mohenjo- 1980 AD to conserve Mohenjo-Daro are made. Mohenjo-Daro becomes a World Heritage Site.140 miles north-east of Karachi, in Pakistan. Pian rectangular shape (gridiron) «city well-planned with about 9 meter wide main streets: 2 running East-West and 3 running North - South «divided into 12 major districts; these in turn were served by a more irregular network of smaller access streets 2-3 meter wide. upper part in the WEST, including the Citadel, probably fortified, Great Bath, Pillared Hall and the College of priests. Houses: architecture of period is plain and utilitarian (no imposing temples as in Mesopotamia or royal tombs of Egypt) aim was comfort rather than luxury dwelling houses of well-to-do people consisted of: courtyard with access through a side alley instead of main street a watchman's room living room of different sizes including kitchen a well-paved bathroom most average courtyard houses excavated contain 9- 18 rooms, typical site areas varyThe settlement was thought to house roughly 5,000 people. The city was divided into two parts: 1.The lower town was the main residential area, with houses of various sizes divided into nine blocks by regularly laid-out streets. 2.The citadel was a religious, ceremonial and administrative center.pattern p! Each city had broad parallel streets which crossed each other to divide the city into compact rectangular blocks, and had an advanced and extensive drainage system. lan. In addition to it's numerous other achievements Mohenjo-daro and other Indus sites made extensive use of baked brick (unlike the sun-dried brick typical of Mesopotamian civilization), which gave greater durability to all of its buildings.The city was divided into two parts, 1.the Citadel included an elaborate tank or bath created with fine quality brickwork and drains; this was surrounded by a verandah. Also located here was a giant granary, a large residential structure, and at least two aisled assembly halls. To the east of the citadel was 2.the lower city, laid out in a grid pattern. The streets were straight, and were drained to keep the area sanitary. Very little stone was used in construction. They used two types of bricks- mud bricks, and wood bricks, which were created by burning wood They used timber to create the flat roofs of their buildings; there are brick stairways leading to the roofs of many houses. Some houses were small, and others were larger with interior courtyards. Most had small bathrooms. The people were good at irrigation and flood control. However, when the Indus.Though it did not have city walls it did have towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. These fortifications taken into consideration, as well as a comparison to the Harappa ruins to the northeast, lead to the question of whether Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout (Harappa is less well preserved), and were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from the identical city layouts of all Indus sites, that there was some kind of political or administrative centrality, however the extent and functioning (and even the placement and type) of an administrative center remains relatively.All the cities were well planned and were built with baked bricks of the same size; the streets were laid at right angles with an elaborate system of covered drains. The house was planned as a series of rooms opening on to a central courtyard (served the multiple functions of lighting the rooms, acting as a heat absorber in summer and radiator in winter, and providing an open space inside for community activities). There were no openings toward the main street, thus ensuring privacy for the residents. There were also public buildings, the most famous being the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro and the vast granaries Plan of Excavated Housing Area Of Lower City, Mohenjo-DaroCitadel’s great bath j@daro is considered by many scflblars as oné Sissies water tanks that was used for special religious functions. The water was used to ary and renew the well being of the bathers. This is still practiced in India, as many Hindus believe that a dip in the Ganges River will wash away their sins and purify them.Looking south down the main street near the bath. This street has roc! covering the drains, an unusual feature to the extensive drain system.Almost every house unit at Mohenjo-daro was equipped with a private bathing area with drains to take the dirty water out into a larger drain that emptied into a sewage drain. Many of these bathing areas had water tight floors to keep moisture from seeping into the other rooms nearby or below.The city's drainage constitutes certainly the most elaborate ancient system known or as yet discovered. Houses had bricklined drains which opened into the streets as well (it appears) as chutes for the disposal of rubbish which had also been provided through the walls and which opened into rectangular bins outside (regularly cleared). Street drains were covered with burnt bricks or stone slabs (for inspection and reducing smell) smaller street drains would join main drains in larger streets forming a city-wide network connected to the Indus river by gravity. At Mohenjodaro, the streets were paved with bricks. The windows of the houses faced interior courtyards not the street. The site of Mohenjodaro was occupied for 200 years.Granary at Mohenjo-daro The great granary at Mohenjo-daro is designed with bays to receive carts delivering crops from the countryside, and there are ducts for air to circulate beneath the stored grain to dry it. The granary at Harappa has a series of working platforms close to barrack-like dwellings, suggesting that workers live here (very possibly government slaves) and that they grind corn on the platforms for the city's supply of bread.ee management which eloquently speak of tremendous engineering skills of the builders. Equally important is the fact that all those features were integrated as part of city planning and were surely for beauty aids too. ‘The Harappans created about sixteen or more reservairs of varying sizes and designs and arranged them in a series practically on all four sides. The 13 meter of gradient between high and low areas from east to west within the walls was ideally suited for creating cascading reservoirs, which were separated from each other by enormous and broad bunds and yet connected through feeding drains.” Primary sources for water for Dholavire were 2 monsoon fed seasonal water channels, one flowing in from east and running down to south of the city has been named as ‘Manhar' by ASI and the other flowing along north of the city, again named as 'Mansar’ byASl In addition to this, all the rain water that fell on the citadel was collected through a complex drain network. Some of the larger drains were large enough to allow a person to walk through and all the water collected was stored into a tank carved out in the western part of the citadel and were furnished with slopes, steps, cascades, manholes (air ducts / water relief ducts).agriculture or horticulture they had? The total area of Dholavira, inside of fortifications was about 47.57 hectares or 117.49 Acres. According to Archaeological survey of India, Dholavira's planners had allocated out of this, as much as 10 hectares or 24.7 acres of land for creation of water reservoirs. According to conservative estimates, these tanks could hold 300,000 cubic meters ( 79,250,000 gallons) of water. Not satisfied with this storage, additional water storage was created outside the fortifications and floors of many reservoirs were provided with deep depressions or troughs, where water could remain in exceptionally dry years. simple calculation shows that for 15000 inhabitants, more than 54 liters of water per day was provided by the city planners. Even today, not many places in india can match this figure. It is very interesting to find out, how Dholavira managed to provide such adequate quantity of water to its residents in an arid area?Gordon Childe replaced a three-age 19" century concept of human historical development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age) with a four-stage system (Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Urban, Industrial) punctuated by three revolutions that are Neolithic (agricultural) Revolution (transformation from old stone age hunter-gatherer cultures to settled agriculture). Urban Revolution (the movement from neolithic agriculture to complex hierarchical systems of manufacturing and trade that began during the fourth and third millenia BCE.) Urban revolution is a shift from simple tribal communities and village-based agricultural production to the complex social, economic, and political systems that characterized the earliest cities of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. Industrial revolution of the 18" and 19" centuries. Gordon Childe felt that major factors motivating the transformation were rooted in the material base of the society (its means of production and its available physical and technological resources). Raw material essential in terms of building material.The constituent elements of the urban revolution: major factors motivated the transformation were rooted in: *the material base of the society (raw material)» meaning its means of production and its available physical and technological resources (essential in terms of building material). *the economic division of labor *sociopolitical hierarchies *basic religious and intellectual patterns of thought ‘increased food production (to have more agricultural food surplus- arti tirtin) through massive irrigation systems and to protect the communities by walls and fortifications.Gordon Childe's theory suggests that post-Pleistocene (period of repeated glaciations) dehydration (drying up) led to the concentration of humans, plants, and animals at oasis. This concentration may have promoted experiments with cultivation and the sort of symbiosis between humans and animals implied in the word domestication. Gordon Childe's model hinges on evidence of a drastic dehydration at the time agriculture began. There is now serious doubt about it while some critics (Bender 1975) do not accept that such environmental determinism could ever be a sufficient explanation.Jane Jacobs' (1969) theory of agricultural origins is significant in that it is quite the opposite to that of Childe. Jacobs (book: Economy of Cities) believes not only that cities preceded the development of agriculture, but that agriculture was developed in cities and from there it slowly spread to rural areas. According to Jacobs surges in agricultural production have always followed the growth of cities in history, not preceded it (Jacobs, Economy of Cities). Jacobs' theory depends very much upon the notion that cities were possible before the development of agriculture (for which Childe sees no evidence) and also that agriculture was a major technological breakthrough.conditions 1 the earliest cities to emerge: 1.Technological advances beyond the folk-society level (agriculture etc.) 2. Social Organisation Aspecial type of social organisation by means of which the agricultural surplus produced by technological advance could be collected, stored and distributed. The same tool could also organise the labour force needed for large-scale construction such as public buildings, city walls, and irrigation systems. A social organisation of this kind requires a variety of full-time specialists directed by a ruling elite. Such an elite is few in numbers but must command sufficient political power - reinforced by an ideology usually religious in character - to ensure that the peasantry (village people) periodically releases a substantial part of the agricultural produce in3. The existence of a form of writing Without it one cannot keep permanent records nor develop natural sciences. 4, A favourable environment An environment which provides not only fertile soil but also a water supply adequate for agriculture and urban consumption, is an essential precondition for the emergence of cities.variety of non-agricultural specialists, including a literate elite. According to this definition, two requirements for the urban revolution are as follows: 1, the production of a surplus of storable food and other primary materials by a section of the society to support the activities of the specialists 2.existence of a form of writing and also social organizationThe role of literacy cannot be overemphasized as an ingredient of urban life. Even though writing systems took centuries to evolve, their presence or absence serves as a convenient means for distinguishing between genuinely urban communities, and others that in spite of their large size and dense population must be considered quasi- urban or non-urban. Once a community acquires the technological advance we call writing, a major transformation occurs in its social order: a written tradition as opposed to an oral one allows the creation of more complex administrative and legal systems and a more vigorous (strong) system of thought. Its existence thus implies the emergence of a number of significant specialisation within the social order.Egyptian Hieroglyphs #R1.water&food supply 2.defensive potential primary locational determinants 3.economic function B. Planned Urban Settlements 1 locational criteria (same as those of organic growth) 2.social,political,economic reasons for their regional or national siting Urban Form Determinants: 1, geographical natural world attributes 2. man-made eensSome of the main sites of the Harappan civilization. Note the concentration along the dry bed of the Sarasvati. [> Fopar _:Thncpan | Lota gorse1.water&food supply 2.defensive potential primary locational determinants 3.economic function B. Planned Urban Settlements 1.locational criteria (same as those of organic growth) 2.social,political,economic reasons for their regional or national siting Urban Form Deter ints: 1. geographical natural world attributes 2. man-made determinantsPeriod * The period of ancient Greek history can be divided into four as follows: + 1100 B. C.~750 B. C. Greek Dark Ages + 750 B. C.- 500 B. C. Archaic Period + 5000 B. C.~323 B. C. Classical Period + 323 B. C.-147B. C. Hellenistic Period * The classical and archaic period are sometimes collectively referred to as/elienic period. * Archaic Period (750 - 500 BC) * Greek societies that were engaged in trade became rich and by joining with other their neighbors, sometimes forcefully, formed large states + The polis or city-state emerged as the natural and desirable political entity + Early examples of these city-states include Athens, Corinth, Argos, and Sparta on the mainland, and in the Eastern Aegean, Samos, Chios, Smyrna, Ephesus and Miletus.Period * Classical period (500 - 323 BC) + Athens reached its greatest political and cultural heights during the classical period * The full development of the democratic system of government occurred * Philosophical schools such as those of Socrates and Plato were founded * The Death of Alexander marked the end of the classical period of Greece civilization * Hellenistic period (323 - 147 BC) * The Hellenistic period of ancient Greek civilization started with the death of Alexander in 323 BC + The Greek empire split into smaller states with Alexander’s generals as their rulers * The period also saw a marked increase in interest in civic buildings + The Hellenistic period ended in 147 BC, when the Roman Empire conquered Greece and incorporated the city states into itSocial Characteristics & Beliefs * Societal Organization- The city state + The ancient Greeks lived in self governing city-states called "polis." + The city-states were small, independent communities which were male-dominated and bound together by race. + The polis started as a defensible area to which farmers of an area could retreat in the event of an attack as in the Mycenaean citadels. + Over time, towns grew around these defensible areas. + Itwas a major center for learning and the arts, * When city-states were first formed, they were ruled by a few wealthy men (Aristocrates). However, they gradually moved towards democracy. + Athens developed an early form of democracy * Only men who were born in Athens were allowed to vote.Social Characteristics & Beliefs * Social Organization And Responsi * The scale of the polis was small. * The philosophers Aristotle and Plato believed that the polis should be of a small size, so that members know each other personally (The ideal size of a city state was fixed at 5040 males by Plato). . Memberste of the polis was hereditary and could not be passed to persons outside the family + The society of the polis had a social hierarchy with citizens at the top, followed by people who are not citizens and finally slaves * Public life was for male citizens while women were secluded in the house * Greek citizens did not have rights but duties: All citizens were directly involved in politics, justice, military service, religious ceremonies, intellectual discussion, athletics and artistic pursuits.Social Characteristics & Beliefs * Architecture in service of religion Architecture in Greece started in the Service of Religions + Temples were the houses of gods * The Greeks regarded beauty as an attribute of the gods and the conscious pursuit of beauty as a religious exercise. + The most important task for architects was how to make the temple beautiful * The search for ways to express architectural beauty made the Greek civilization among the first to have established ideals of beauty + The Greeks convinced themselves that the secrets of beauty lie in proportions + Man(human) was viewed by the Greeks as having the most ideal proportions and is the measure ofall things * Greek developed a system of building proportion that reflected those of the human body * With time, they refined their system of building proportion, and developed the classical Greek ordersLocation * Greek civilization occurred in the area around the Greek mainland, on a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea * It started in cities on the Greek mainland and on islands in the Aegean Sea + Towards the later or Hellenistic period, Greek civilization spread to other far away places including Asia Minor and Northern Africa Map of Greece showing the City StatesISLAND OF CRETE-Minoans MAINLAND GREECE-Myceneans. In middle of the sable sea there lies Anisle call’d Crete, a ravisher of eyes, Fruitful, and mann’d with many an infinite store; Where ninety cities erown the famous shore, Mix'd with all-languag'd men. —Homer, Odyssey(Civilizations in Mesopotamia & Egypt eg. Houses w/ courtyards, winding alleys f ‘Neolithic village culture 2000-1580 Middle Minoan: Cities form around palaces 1200 Late Minoan: KNOSSOS, GOURNIA (in today’s Greece) ‘Atypical Minoan elty— ‘concentrated around a center formed by the palace and a kind of agora, 8. City of Knossos.Civilizations in Asia Minor (Anatolia): > Catalhéik DHittites: after 3.000BC -Hattusas (Bogazkéy), capital -w/ defenses, paved streets, monumental public buildings, drainage channels, a network of roads w/ neighboring states. rade w/ Assyria and Egypt.Cretan-Mycenaean towns in Anatolia: Beycesultan and Troy (now, Hisarltk) with no religious buildings of public scale; mostly residential and administrative buildings Dmegaron as the central feature of ‘Mycenaean citadels~ the basis of the later Greek temple Troy 1, 3.00086 Troy Il, 2.500-2.200 BC Troy VI, 1800-1300BCof Daidalos and Iearos.By the Minoan civiliza had yielded to the Myceneans. The cities of the Myceneans were heavy fortresses with extremely thick perimeter walls. Mycenaeans produced fortresses, called citadels, on the tops of high cliffs for protection. Each fortress called an acropolis, had a temple for the gods and a palace for the king within its walls. the palace-fortress would've looked. This is how it is believedAll three lived in Athens. Plato was a student of Socrates and Aristotle was a student of Plato. Aristotle's interests covered a wide scope: ethics, metaphysics, physics, biology, mathematics, meteorology, astronomy, psychology, politics and rhetoric, among other topics. Aristotle was the first thinker who systematically developed the study of logic.POLIS: independent. Not much like a city and very much more than a state Polis meant first the acropolis, the center of the city’s public life: very soon meant either the citadel or the whole people who used the citadel: then it meant state (natural form of polity, political unit); later the polis took its origin in the desire for justice; it also meant whole people in the city. Greeks thought of the polis as an active, formative thing, training the minds and characters of the iizens; for production of safety and convenience.POLIS then, originally citadel, may mean as much as the whole communal life of the people; political, cultural, moral, even economic. Aristotle: the polis is the only framework within which man can fully realize his spiritual, moral and intellectual capacities. Aristotle: each citizen should be able to know all the others by sight. Plato: 5,000 people, a normal Hellenic scale.principles of any society: mutual needs and differences in aptitude (ability) (In The Republic). Starting from these two principles, Socrates deals with the economic structure of an ideal polis. Plato addresses the makeup of an ideal polis: Plato is the one that leads to the common good. The philosopher king is the best ruler because, as a philosopher, he is acquainted with the Form of the Good. (Books I!-IV of The Republic)producers, merchants, sailors/shipowners, retail traders, and wage earners. Along with the two principles and five economic classes, there are four virtues. The four virtues of a "just city" include: wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice. With all of these principles, classes, and virtues, it was believed that a "just city" (polis) would exist.living the good life after the manner of a pol community,GREEK CITIES The political, economic, social and religious functions of the city are reflected in its public buildings and their location within the urban environment. 1 Agora as political, commercial and intellectual center of the city (an open space) 2.Religious centers: temples, shrines, acropolis 3. Arrangement of Cities gridiron plan/orthogonal planning 4.Economic activity- trade Old cities have organic growth pattern: Athens, ‘Newly found/established colonial cities have orthogonal planning. Miletus and Priene are the two most important planned Greek cities. Priene- 4,000 people, Miletus- 80,000-100,000 people.ee Greek City Planning and Design Planning and Design Principles * Towns had fixed boundaries and some were protected by fortifications * Much of the town was devoted to public use * The Greek City was usually divided into three parts; the acropolis, the agora and the town. * Site planning and design was centered on the appreciation of buildings from the outside. * The location of buildings was therefore such that it could command a good view to it. |Greek City Planning and Design The Acropolis * The Acropolis was the city of temples * It is the location where all the major temples of a city are located * It was built to glorify the gods * Greeks considered high places to be important & sacred * The Acropolis were usually located on the highest ground * Other public buildings such as gymnasia, stadia, and theaters were generally regarded as part of religious rituals * They are normally found attached on lower ground to the hills of the AcropolisGreek City Planning and Design The Agora + The Agora was the most important gathering place in a Greek city + It started as an open area where the council of the city met to take decisions * With time buildings were constructed to define and enclose the space * Italso transformed into a place for combined social, commercial and political activities * It emerged as the heart of Greek intellectual life and discourse. + It was usually located on a flat ground for ease of communication * It was placed to be easily accessible from all directions + In many cities, itis also located close to the AcropolisThe multipurpose assembly. The daily scene of social life, business and politics. Ina planned city, it was as near the center as possible with the major east- west and north-south streets leading to it; or in the harbour cities, alongside the port. in an unplanned city, a natural place for the agora was between the maingate and the entrance to the acropolis.e.g. Athens. The plan of the agora was geometrical in form. The agora was defined by stoas, at least along two sides. The stoa was one of the area for democraticGreek City Planning and Design The Town * The town was where the people lived * This was the domain of women, who did not have any public role * Early Greek towns had an irregular street pattern, resulting from its organic growth * Later Hellenistic towns such as Prienne had a formal rectilinear pattern * The town was made up of only residential housesDT Greek City Planning and Design The Town * Houses were usually constructed of mud bricks * Houses were of the courtyard type, with rooms arranged around a courtyard * Houses vary according to standing in the society * Houses of poor people were very simple compared to the house of the rich, which had more rooms and better finishingACROPOLIS: general term for the original defensive hilltop nucleus of the older Greek cities and the fortified citadel of many of the colonial foundations. AGORA: The living heart of the city. The multipurpose area. LEISURE AND CULTURAL AREAS: theatre, gymnasium, stadium (Slave labor gave the citizens leisure time to be employed for either intellectual discussions or community activities. For such communal activities, specialized buildings such theatre, gymnasium and stadium were developed and became part of every Greek city). RESIDENTIAL DISTRICTS: drainage and refuse disposal did not exist. CITY WALL: was more of an afterthought, From about 6 and 7 centuries investment outside the acropolis required protection, and democratic Greek society also required security for the whole community. ARELIGIOUS PRECINCT (if different from the acropolis) HARBOR AND PORT (possibly) INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTThe courtyard house was the rule. | Slave labor gave the citizens leisure time to be employed for either intellectual discussions or community activities. For such communal activities, specialized buildings such theatre, gymnasium and stadium were developed and became part of every Greek city. ‘Various types of Athenian housesmany others. Itis the place that humanism and democracy were born.‘Athens: never planned as a whole. The acropolis was site of the Neolithic village nucleus of the city North-south, east-west oriented agora space, traversed diagonally by the ceremonial route called Panathenaic Way. The first agora buildings were largely destroyed by the Persians.Map of the Acropolis of Athens in Socrates and Plato's timeCoThe origin of Greek orthogonal planning tradition was based on the established civilizations of the Near East (e.g. Kahun and El- Amarna in ancient Egypt) and Indus Valley. Revolutionary additions: Neither the Agora and nor the leisure center were found in the Mesopotamian city. Hippodamus applied the gridiron pattern to obtain a rational arrangement of buildings and circulation. He also saw gridiron plan as the bearer of democracy. Hippodamus divided the land into three zones: sacred, public and private. Hippodamus divided the total of 10, 000 citizens into three parts; artisans (craftsmen and trademen), farmers,ee Planned Miletus. Laid out the new harbour town of Piraeus of Athens. Planned colonization of Thuri in Southern Italy.The Greek contribution to urban history: Oe Colonizing movement. Cities remained of limited size and urban growth pressures were contained by sending out immigrant parties to found new cities in other parts of the Mediterranean. (Parent cities were organic, colonies were planned) Ce The evolution of the two foci of Greek cities. The acropolis (religious center) and the agora (multipurpose open space) Ce Use of gridiron as the basic of a systematic approach to the organization of cities."Everything has a Des i cs BU en eae ue) BO aos aAnaxagoras ANGXAQGOTAS (/,znxk'szgaras/; Greek: AVAERYEPAG, Anaxagoras, “lord of the assembly’; c. SIO ~ 428 BC) was o Pre- ‘Socratic Greek philosopher. Bor in Clazomence in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the fist to bring philosophy to Athens. According to Diogenes Loertus and Plutarch in later life he was charged with impiety and went into exle in Lompsocus; the charges may have ‘been politcal, owing to his atzociaton with Pericles, F they were not fabricated by later ancient biographers. Anaxogoros of Clozomense wat on important Presocratic natural philosopher and scientist who lived ond taught in Athens for ‘opproximotely thirty years. He gained notoriety for his materialistic views, particularly hs contention thatthe sun was a fery rock