PONAPEAN REFERENCE GRAMMAR Kenneth L. Rehg with the assistance of Damian G. Sohl j PALI Language Texts: Micronesia ViThe research reported herein supported Iaands. M he Test Terris Sohl’s assistan cranes : ce was made pose th recived from the Trt Teritory Feovapancst line Gober Leas loi ofthe East West Center at he Uninc of inary Copyright © 1981 by The University Pres of Haw All ights reserved Manufactured inthe United States of A Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Ree, Kenneth L 1939 Ponapean reference grammar (PALI language texts) Bibliography: p. Includes index 1 Ponape language au Grammar. 1. Soh, Damian 6. ssa Jia ator. Tie. Ses PLEWSRE 99's ISBN 0-8248-0718-9 Contents Preface xl 1 Introduction 1 LL Overview 1 12 The Island and The People 13 The Origins of Ponapean 14 About Ponapeic 7 15 Foreign Influences 12 16 Earlier Studies of Ponapean Grammar 2 The Sound System of Ponapean 21 Overview 20 22 The Relationship between Speech and Writing 23 The Human Speech Mechanism 24 The Phoneme 24 25 The Consonants of Ponapean 251 Stops 27 Bilabial Stop p Velarized Bilabial Stop pw Dental Stop d 28 Velar Stop 29 Released Stops 29 252 The Fricative s 29 253 The Affdeate 1 30 254 Nasals 31 Bilabial Nasal m 31 Velarized Bilabial Nasal me Dental Nasal n 32 Velar Nasal mg 33conrenrs 255 Liquids Dental 33, Alveolar r 34 25.6 Consonant Chart 34 257 Doubled Consonants 26 The Vowels of Ponapean 26.1 Vowel Chart 38 26.2 Front Vowels 40 The High Vowel / 40 The Mid Vowel /e/ and the Lower-mid Vowel /e) 40 26.3 Back Vowels 41 The High Vowel u 42 The Mid Vowel 0 42 The Lower-mid Vowel oa 42 26.4 The Central Vowel a 265 Long Vowels 264 Vowel Allophones 43 26.7 Dialect Variation in Vowels 46 27 The Giides of Ponapean 47 27.1 The Glide jw) 48 27.2 The Glide y/ 49 27.3 The Spelling of Glides 50 274 The Influence of Glides on Adjacent Vowels $1 28 The Syllable in Ponapean SI 29 Other Sound Rules $3 29.1 Glide Insertion $4 29.2 Prothetic Vowels $5 29.3 Nasal Assimilation 56 Partial Assimilation Complete Assimilation 294 Liquid Assimilation 357 295 Nasal Substitution 58 Nasal Substitution in Reduplication Nasal Substitution Affecting Blabial and Velar Consonants 61 29.6 Sound Rules in Subsequent Chapters 64 3 Words: Their Structure and Function 66 31 Overview 66 32 Morphemes 6 32.1 Definition of a Morpheme CONTENTS 2 Allomorphs 69 23 ‘Types of Morphemes Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes Afixation — 72 33.1 Roots and Afixes 332 Prefites 72 333 Suffixes 73, 334 Reduplication c 335 Fossilized Affxes 83 Fossilized Patterns of Reduplication Other Fossilized Affixes 85 34 Enclitcs 85 35 Base Vowels and Insert Vowels 35.1 Base Vowels 352 Insert Vowels 91 Copy Vowels Epenthetic Vowels 94 36 Words 95 36.1 Definition of a Word 95 36.2 Types of Words 96 36.3 Dividing Words into Classes 37 Major Word Classes 9) 371 Nouns 99 372 Verbs 100 373 Words Which Funetion Both as Nouns and Verbs 100 oe 3.7.4 Changing Major Word Classes ‘Nouns to Verbs 104 Verbs to Nouns 108 38 Minor Word Classes 11 38.1 Pronouns 111 382 Numerals 111 383 Demonsratives 384 Aspect Markers 38.5 Prepositions 386 Conjunctions 387 Interrogatives 388 Negutors 389 Adverbs 113, 39 Interjections 113 310 Words in Combination 114viii CONTENTS CONTENTS 4 Nouns and Noun Phrases 116 41 Overview 116 42 Nouns 116 42.1 Monosyllabie Noun Vowel Lengthening Rule 117 422 Dividing Nouns into Classes Proper Nouns 119 443 Ngoul Classifiers 133 “unve Numerals 134 ‘pong Numerals 134 wel Numerals 134 fis Numerals 134 444 The Use of Numeral Classifers 135 445 The ekd Counting System 137 Common Nouns 120 446 Higher Numerals 138 43 Noun Phrases 120 asia 43.1 Noun Phrases Consisting of « a ear alll Single Noun 121 449 Preposed Numerals 142 43.2 Noun Phrases Containing 44.10 Quantities 142 Modifiers 123 45 Demonstratives 143 hs rrerenceme “45.1 Demonstrative Modifiers 144 Sa eeea near ‘Non-Emphatic Forms 144 cena Emphatic Forms 149 452 Pointing Demonstratives 150 ‘mveut Numerals 128 ‘NomEmphatic Forms 150 Jep Numerals 128 pit Numerals 128, ‘el Numerals 128 sop Numerals 129 sou Numerals 129 ‘mwodol Numerals 129 ‘tumw Numerals 129) dip Numerals 130 “din Numerals 130 “i Numerals 130 44.2 Eh Classifiers 130 men Numerals 130 ‘pwoat Numerals 131 ‘pak Numerals 127 Emphatic Forms 150 45:3 Demonstrative Pronouns 152 ‘Non-Emphatic Forms 152 Emphatic Forms 153 45.4 A Chart of Ponapean Demonstratives 46 The Replacive Pronoun me 154 47 Personal Pronouns 137 {47:1 Independent Pronouns 15 472 Subject Pronouns 159 473 Object Pronouns 160 ‘474 Possesive Pronouns 161 48 Possesive Constructions 168 48.1 Direct and Indirect Possesion 165 ali Numerals 131 482 Direct Possession 166 fantasies Direct Possession with Pronouns 167 te Numerals 132 par Numerals 132 Irregular Paradigms 174 : Direct Possesion with Nouns 175 cap Numerals 132 Nouns Which Always Occur Possessed 176 ka Numerals 132 ‘Nouns with Partial Possessive Paradigms 177 ‘pa Numerals 133 48.3 Indirect Possession 178 ra Numerals 133 ossessve Classifiers 179 -peulol Numerals 133 Indirect Possession with Pronouns 185, ef Numerals 133 Indirect Possession with Nouns 1874 Verbal Suffixes 2 conrenrs 48.4 Nouns Possessed Both Directly and Indirectly 188 48.5 Multiple Possessive Constructions 189 49 The Use of the Construct Suffix in Referential Noun Phrases 191 5 Verbs and Verb Phrases 193 $1 Overview 193 Verbs 193 52.1 Intranstive Verbs 195 neral Intransitive Verbs 195 Adjectives 197 52.2 Transitive Verbs 202 52.3 Intransitive and Transitive Verbs Sharing Common Roots 202 VC Final Transitives 203 ih Final Transitives 204 Final Short Vowel Transitves, Ablauted Intransitives 206 Reduplicated Intransitives 206 ek Intransitives 207 p= Inteansitives 208 Other Types 209 524 Combining Forms of Verbs 209 3 Verbal Prefixes 214 53.1 The Causative Prefix ka- 215 53.2 The Negative Prefix se 219 53.3 The Negative Prefix sou. 220 534 The Prefix ak- 221 83.5 The prefix i) 2: S4.1 The Sufix ki 224 54.2 Object Pronoun Suffixes 543 Directional Sulfixes ‘The Suffix «da ‘The Suffix di The Sufix it The Suffix long The Sufix The Sufix do The Sullx -wei The Suffix -pene The Suffix -pesene CONTENTS dal St Deana Sues 28 $46 Alterations in Vowel Length inthe Verb ss The Vo Phrase SNe 28 573 Duras Aapet 6 Sentences 276 61 Overview 276 {62 The Basie Structure of Sentences {621 Basie Sentence Types Equational Sentences Verbal Sentences 2 62.2 The Basie Sentence Defined 280 63 Other Elements in the Basic Sentence 2 6311 Locative Phrases 283 TLocative Noun Phrases 284 LLocative Noun Phrases Introduced by Prepositions 290 Demonstrative Pronouns in TLocative Phrases 292 632 Temporal Phrases 293 Temporal Noun Phrases 293 ‘Temporal Noun Phases Introduced by Prepositions 29 Demonstrative Pronouns in "Temporal Phrases 298 633 Sentence Adverbs 298 F 634 An Expanded View ofthe Basie Sentence 302 635 Basie Sentence Intonation 302 {64 Modifications of the Basic Sentence 304 64.1 Imperative Sentences 304CONTENTS 64.2 Thematic Sentences 306 ecung 306 Topicaiaon 310 643 tmerrogtve Settnces 311 ‘YeuNo Questions 31 644 Negara Sdiences © 324 a Negative Equation Sentenes 325 ie Verbal Sentences 326 Neate Impertve Sentences 65 basic Sentences in Combination 330 6511 Conjoined Chey 3 Conjuncions 331 Conjunctive Adverbs 338, 65.2 Relative Clauses 343 65.3 Nominal Clauses 349 Gerundive Clauses Finite Clauses 352 Infinitive Clauses 7 Honorifc Speech _ 359 71 Overview 359 72 The Social Context of Honarific Speech 360, 73 Honorifie Vocabulary 361 73.1 Nouns and Verbs 362 73.2 The Verbs ker and pato 366 73.3 Honorific Pronouns 367 74 Honorife Possession 368 74.1 Humiliative Possessive Constructions _ 369 74.2 Honorfic Possessive Constructions 371 75 Other Features of Honorifie Specch 373 75.1 Sound System Correlates 374 752 Greetings 374 Appendix: Ponapean Orthography Bibliography 383, Index 387 Preface My purpose in writing ths book has been to provide a description of the major grammatical features of Ponapean for the reader Who has had little or no training in the analysis of language Although this work is intended primarily for native speakers of Ponapean who are bilingual in English, T hope it will also be tseful to others whose interests have brought them tothe study of this language. T have endeavored throughout this volume to keep its content as clear and as simple as possible. Experience in the ‘lassroom, however, has proven that certain sections of the book are more difficult than others, Particularly challenging for some feaders ae those sections in which I have introduced technical terms from the field of linguistics. Generally, I have tried to minimize the usage of such terms, but where they permitted a better or more efiient explanation of the data, I have not shied ‘away from them. | have taken care, though, to define each technical term as it is introduced and to illustrate it with num crous examples, The careful reader should thus not find un- familiar terminology to be a serious difficulty. The organization of this grammar is ultimately based upon the practical problem of providing a relatively nontechnical ‘description ofa language, rather than upon a particular theory of the organization of language itself. Consequently, | have drawn lupon a variety of grammatical traditions in discussing this Tanguage, and I have organized the material in this grammar in ‘csentally a cumulative way, so that understanding the material in one chapter will facilitate understanding that which follows. Chapter I presents some useful background information on Ponape and Ponapean, Chapter 2 examines the sound system of Ponapean, Chapter 3 explores the structure and function ofPREFACE words. Chapters 4 and S look at how words may be combined into noun phrases and verb phrases, while Chapter 6 examines hhow these phrases may be combined to form sentences, Chapter 7 presents a discussion of a particular speech style of Ponapean known as honorific speech, Following this chapters an appendix. that includes a summary of Ponapean spelling rules and bibliography of selected books and articles useful in the study of Ponapean, Tis important thatthe reader understand that this grammar of Ponapean is by no means complete. In fact, no one has ever written @ complete grammar of any language. Simply not enough is known about how language works to allow such a grammar Even 50, the limitations ofthis work cannot be overemphasized AA great deal of additional research on Ponapean remains to be done. Many aspects of this language have not yet been in vestigated, and, even among those dealt with inthis volume, some are almost certainly misunderstood, Sil the publication of this, grammar at this time is not without justifeation. First, the incorporation of new data in this work has made possible a ‘number of interpretations of Ponapean grammar not previously noted by earlier students of the language. Additionally, no other work on Ponapean has been written with a Ponapean audience in mind, nor has any earlier work been easily available to the Ponapean community. Further, the introduction of bilingual education in Ponape and the emerging role of Ponapean as a ‘medium of education necessitates a grammar such as this to serve as a springboard for the development of school grammars. Finally, the growing number of specialists in Micronesian studies insures the utility of this grammar as an aid to furth researc, The pleasurable task now remains for me to acknowledge my indebtedness to the many individuals who have made this gran ‘mar of Ponapean possible. I especially wish to express my sincere appreciation to Damian Soh, my friend and colleague, whose contributions to this work were so extensive that it could not have been written without him; to Marcelino Actouka and Ewalt Joseph, who never failed to offer their assistance and insights when the facts of Ponapean seemed hopelessly confusing: to Kim Bailey, Gideon David, Hanover Ehsa, Elaine Good, Frederick Jackson, Rodrigo Mauricio, Casiano Shonibei, Masaki Thom son, and Weldis Welley, who studied an earlier version of this grammar and suggested many improvements in its format and PREFACE content; to Alan Burdick, Harold Hanlin, William MeGarry, and Yasuo. Yamada, who on numerous occasions brought to my attention facts about Ponapean I had not previously considered: to Sheldon Harrison, John Jensen, Kee-Dong Lee, Peter Lincoln, land Hiroshi Sugita, fellow students of Pacific languages, with had countless hours of invaluable discussion; to whom 1 Paul Gallen and the staff of the Department of Education in Ponape, whose cooperation and assistance during several visits to Ponape were highly valued; to Byron Bender, George Grace Irwin Howard, and Andrew Pawley, who contributed extensively to my understanding of language in general and Micronesian languages in particular; and finally, and especially, to Donald a eau and rout cu and cred ce eats coment about cotet, spl ad Orgs any mec hee ny acadoes oe ers ce cpa sod yeoman SS once tinidicay evans be gle out for specal mention in section 1. of Chapter Ecuions with fends and colleagues, cores and seminars ott ne lye al in prong wth ih Guny"For the Tall of this work, I alone accept full re sponsibility.Introduction OVERVIEW ll The first chapter of this grammar provides some general back- ground information on the context in which Ponapean is spoken. By context, I mean the physical, cultural, and historical circum- stances that surround this language. Understanding the structure of any language is at one point or another so inextricably bound up with these considerations that itis impossible to ignore them. Consequently, in this chapter I have briefly taken up such questions as where Ponapean is spoken, who speaks it, what other languages it is related to, and what non-related languages have contributed to its vocabulary. Additionally, I have included ashort review of some of the more important studies of Ponapean that preceded this one. Section 1.2, in which I discuss where Ponapean is spoken and who speaks it, is intended primarily for readers who are not Ponapean. The remaining sections are intended for all readers. THE ISLAND AND THE PEOPLE 12 ‘The island of Ponape, where the vast majority of Ponapean speakers reside, is located approximately half-way between Hawaii and Indonesia at 6°54 North latitude and 158°14' East longitude, within the geographic area known as Micronesia Ponape and its two satellite atolls, Pakin and Ant, are also known as the Senyavin Islands. On older maps, Ponape alone is some~ times called Ascension Island. With a land area of approximately 129 square miles, Ponape is the largest of the islands within the group known as the Eastern Carolines. Ponape isa high island as opposed to an atoll and, likeINTRODUCTION most islands in the Pacific is of voleanic origin. No active voleanoes are now present on the island, nor apparently have there been any for a long time, The island shows evidence of considerable geological age. Its mountain tops, wo of which exceed 2,500 fest, are smooth and rounded and are separated by Usshaped valleys containing numerous rivers and streams. The coastal area is flat and in most places is protected from the troding effects of the ocean by dense mangrove swamps and a barrier reef. Occasional breaks in the reef open into well protected harbors. Abundant rainfall, which in the interior may be as high as 400 inches per year, a topical climate with temperatures ranging between 80 and 90 degrees, and relatively fertile soil combine to make the island one ofthe lushest and most beautiful in the Pacific During the most recent census-taken in 197317,259 people claimed Ponape as their usual place of residence. Perhaps less than 15,000 of these people are native Ponapeans. Also present on the island are a large number of immigrants from ‘neighboring islands, and a comparatively small number of Amer fans or individuals of other nationalities, most of whom work for the government, Physically, the Ponapean inhabitants resemble Polynesians, though on the whole they are shorter in stature and more slender in build. These people primarily derive their living from subsistence agriculture, but employment with the govern ‘ment, commercial crops such as copra and pepper, and various private enterprises including small retail outlets, fishing, and Fecently tourism, provide important sources of cash. The tradi tional social structure ofthe island, and the way in which it relates, to the language, isthe basis for Chapter 7. The presence of the comparatively large number of non: Ponapeans on the island is a consequence of two factors. The first is that Ponape is the site ofthe administrative center of one of the four states that currently comprise the Federated States of Micronesia. Many people from other islands inthis state, which includes the atolls of Kapingamarangi, Nokuoro, Ngatik, Ant “Mokil, and Pingelap, have taken up residence on Ponape in order to obtain employment with the government. The second reason is that Ponape has sufficient land and resources to permit the inflow ‘of immigrants from these atolls. Since at least the turn of the ‘century, people from Kapingamarangi, Nukuoro, Ngatik, Pinge Tap, Moki and even rom the Mortlock inthe state of Truk have moved to Ponape because of population pressures or natural INTRODUCTION 3 disasters. Many different cultural groups thus reside on the island fof Ponape and so, in fact, are there many different speech Communities. Polynesian languages are spoken by the people from Kapingamarangi and Nukuoro; a related but distinet Mic ronesian language is spoken by the people from the Mortlocks fand varieties of speech more closely related to Ponapean are Spoken by the people from Ngatik, Mokil, and Pingelap. Pona oan, however, along with English, serves asthe lingua-franea for al these speech communities. THE ORIGINS OF PONAPEAN 13 ‘The origins of Ponapean, and consequently of the people who speak this language, are not known. The whole topic of how the iMlands of the Pacific were sctled, however, has been the subject Of considerable speculation. Where the original setles came from, what prompted them to move from their homeland, and ‘what migration patterns they followed are all questions of con Tiderable interest the answers to which will surely constitute an important chapter in the history of man. The fascination that the Western world has had with these {questions isin part no doubt due to the humbling realization that the peoples of this area were siling across vast expanses of ocean at the same time Europeans clung to their shorelines, Early European voyagers were fearful that venturing out too far tose tight result in ther falling off the edge of the world. The early oyagers of the Pacific, however, had no such fears. Many Jepends tell us that their conception of the world was quite different. They did not view the ocean as having an edge from ‘which one might fall. Rather, they believed that sailing too far ‘would simply result in reaching the place where the sky meets the Sea. If this were to happen, then they would need only to turn round and continue their search for the land that they believed ‘must inevitably be found. ‘Although the question of where the frst Ponapeans came from cannot be answered at this time, this does not mean the {question is unanswerable, The ora literature of Ponape which fells us how the early Ponapeans viewed the world also provides ‘Us with some interesting clues about their origins. Several stories tell ofthe earliest settlement of Ponape, the most widely known of ‘ehich typically begins with the line: Wahr oapwoat pwilisang sekereln wai keilahn aio."A canoe left a foreign shore long a£0.INTRODUCTION Where this sekerehn wai ‘foreign shore’ was located isnot known, bu the legend tells that it was some distance from Ponape on an, island called Sapwen Eir, which may be translated “Southern Land’. Another legend tll that the early settlers of Ponape came from Karau Peidak, Since peldak means ‘upwind’, and the basic wind patterns around Ponape are from east to west, this legend suggests an eastern origin for the early Ponapeans. Karau Peidak is commonly thought to be the island of Kusaie. Still other legends tll of later settlements of people from the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, oF from places whose identity is shrouded in Many aspects of these egends match what modern scholars believe to be true about the setlement of Micronesia. It seems highly unlikely that any part of this area was setled by a single migration of people. No doubt there were many movements of people who, by purpose or chance, came to live on these islands. ‘There are also reasons, that we will examine later inthis section, to believe that the major migration pattern in eastern Micronesia was in fact frst from the south, and then from east to west, as Ponapean legends sugges. Contemporary scholars base their hypotheses on how the Pacific was settled on a wide variety of facts, but basic to interpreting all of these facts isthe process of comparison. For example, by comparing the physical characteristics of people, their tools and ways of making things, their food crops, theit legends, ther social organizations, and their languages, one can find diferences, bu also a great many similarities. These similar- ities are of special interest because one explanation for their existence is that they have a common origin. Therefore, similar- ities among people living on different islands may be due to the fact that their ancestors all lived together as one people at some time in the past. Differences among these people would then be the consequence of the fact thatthe descendants of those ances- tral people scattered to other areas and through time, which brings change, lost or replaced some features of their common heritage. The degree to which people and their cultures are similar or diferent can thus tll us much about the pas. ince our concern in this book is with language, and since some of the bes evidence concerning the prehistory ofthe Pacific comes from comparing languages, we might briefy consider what can be learned from such studies. To begin, let us consider a few common words [rom several Micronesian languages. INTRODUCTION Ponapean Trukese Kusican Marshallese Gilbertere English recht mang mga T feng emg ting ny kang kang at ‘tw tte toh owe” ee) ches ara ‘blood ol entity) ‘ghost Sahm sam tha jem father in jin imac fe smother Notice that, from one language to another, many abviows sa seit among these words, In fac, brats thse word a wen nthe standard speling system o each ofthese languages (ota of which ae ado te same elie pen tearing these words pronounced woul ilustate th smiaries then more vil So many sinfiar wordy ca be fund mong tmore Htely explanation for thse snares that all ofthese TRnguages have a common ancestor. And, just as we speak of people who have a common ancestor as being relied end FEtonging to the same family, 30 may we speak of languages “Going beyond Micronesia, similares canbe found between onapean and many other languages. Infact, Ponape is 8 amber fone ofthe wor rgesngbg: an The name tf ths language family i Austronesian (ormery called Maayo- Polynesian Is made up of appronimatly 50 languages which are spoken in Micronesia, Polynesia, much of Melanesia, the Finis, Indonesia, mont of Malaya, Madagascar, and in part of Formosa, Visioam, and Cambodia ‘Austronesian languages are generally divided into two sroupe, an Ocean grup tat includes mor ofthe languages of Melanesia, Mctoncia, and Polynesia, and a Wester group, (© stich nearly all ober Austronesian languages are assigned Among the languages spoken within Micronesia, two belong the Wester group, Palauan appears tohave its closest elativesin Indonesia, and. Chamorro, in the Philipines. The status of apes, whe clearly an Austronesian language, i unclear. The Temsining languages ll belong to the Oceanic group, eile 1 8INTRODUCTION Polynesian subgroup, as in the case of Kapingamarangi and Nukuoro, or to a Micronesian subgroup. The languages that belong to the Micronesian subgroup are Gilbertese, Marshalles, Kusaiean, the so-alled Truk and Po napeic languages, and possibly Nauruan. Another Micronesian language, now extint, was spoken on the island of Mapia, The Trukic languages are divided by Hiroshi Sugita into three main groups—an Eastern group which includes Lagoon Trukese, Mortlockese, Namonuito, and the varieties of speech found inthe Hall Islands and in the Puluwat-Pulusuk-Pulap area; a Central up, which includes Satawalese and Saipan Carolinian; and a Western group, which includes the languages ofthe Ulithi-Wolesi and Sonsorol/Pulo Anna/Tobi areas. ust how many languages are included within Trukic, however, is dificult to sty, since within these groups it is impossible to establish meaningful language boundaries. The Ponapeic group, which consists of Ponapean, Ngatikese, Mokilese and Pingelapese, poses a similar problem in establishing language boundaries. A more detailed discussion of the nature ofthis problem and of Ponapeic is the topic of section 1.4 Information about how languages are elated does, of course, provide many important clues about the history of the people who speak the languages. Findings of this nature com bined with those of other fields of study, especially archeology Permit us to at least speculate about a question Tike where the Ponapeans came from, Such speculation is presented below. The reader is warned, though, tha this discussion omits many details and by no means would be accepted by all Pacific scholars. Some ‘of the studies listed in the bibliography, particularly those by Dyen, Grace, Howells, and Pawley. are recommended for the reader who wishes to pursue this topic in greater depth, In broad ‘outline, then, the following events may have lead tothe settlement ‘of Ponape. At some remote time in the past, possibly in the New Guinea/Indonesia area, a group of people lived together who spoke a language ancestral to all contemporary Austronesian languages. Linguists call this language Proto-Austronesian ‘proto’ meaning ‘the earliest form of Possibly as early as 4000 B.C. the people who spoke this language began to disperse to other areas in the Pacific. By approximately 3000 B.C. the ancestors of the people who speak Oceanic languages, had reached at least as far as southern Melanesia, and further dispersal was taking place. Possibly by 1000 B.C., the people who INTRODUCTION spoke Proto-Micronesian, the ancestral language of Gilbertese Marshallese, Kusaien, the Ponapeic and Trukic languages, and probably Nauruan, were beginning their settlement of Micro hesia. Where these first Micronesians came from is unclear, but Tinguistic evidence indicates earlier tis with the northern New Hebrides. Their homeland was probably in the eastern part of Micronesia. An eastern homeland, which matches what Pona- pean legends suggest, is based on the hypothesis that since anguages change through time at approximately the same rate. cariersetlement areas should show greater linguistic divers than later ones. If we consider Micronesia (remembering that Palauan, Yapese, and Chamorro are not Micronesian languages) then itis in the east that this diversity occurs. To the east of Ponape are such diverse languages as Kusaiean, Marshallese and Gillertese. To the west of Ponape are the closaly related Trukic languages. It is not known, however. which easter island was seitled first, Whether it was Kusaie, or whether Kusaie was settled after the Marshalls, the Gilberts, or Nauru, remains to be determined ‘Obviously, many details are missing concerning the origins ‘of the people and the language of Ponape. Even the very general sequence of events sketched above may have serious defects. Bu considerable progess is being made in studying the prehistory of the Pacific. More and more pioces ofthe puzzle are beginning to fall into place. Work now going on at the University of Hawait on Micronesian languages and Proto-Micronesian should prove particularly helpful. ABOUT PONAPEIC ‘Throughout this book, as well asin conventional usage, the term Ponapean is used as the name of the indigenous language of the island of Ponape. However, there is one sense in which this usage might be too restrictive. The varieties of specch spoken on the atolls of Ngatik, Mokil, and Pingelap, respectively called Ngati ese, Mokilese, and Pingelapese, are similar enough to Ponapean that they, too, perhaps should be identified as being Ponapean, Therefore itis posible that these three varieties of speech should be considered dialects of Ponapean. Whether Ngatikese, Mokilese, and Pingelapese are in fact dialects of Ponapean depends, of course, on how one defines the crm “dialect” and the related term “language.” StandardINTRODUCTION definitions of these terms rely on the criterion of mutual ine telligibity. Mutual intelligibility simply refers to whether or not people can understand each other. IT wo people speak different but can still understand each other, then we may say that they cach speak a different dialect ofthe same language. If two people Speak in very different ways, and they cannot understand each other, then we ean say’ that they each speak a different lang Unfortunately, the nature of language is such that the criterion of mutual intligibility does not always work very well If we take as an example the kind of interaction that might take place between a Ponapean and a Mokilese, then the defects ofthis, criterion become apparent. A Ponapean who knows no Mokilese trying to talk toa Mokilese who knows no Ponapean, willbe able tounderstand some part ofthe other's message, but there will be a great deal that he does not understand. In this case, do we want to say that Ponapean and Mokilese are different dialects or different languages The answer to that question isnot a all obvious. Although various solutions have been offered, none are entirely satislac: tory. For our purposes, let it sufi to recognize that within Ponape State there are a group of closely related varieties of speech that may collectively be labeled Panapee, a term already ‘employed in the preceding section, Ponapeic therefore includes Ponapean, Ngatikese, Mokilese, and Pingelapese, four varieties of speech which are all mutually ineligible to varying degrees. Unfortunately, not very much is known about Ngatikese ‘grammar. Based on a limited amount of data, however, it seems safe to say that Ngstikese is more similar to Ponapean than either Pingelapese or Mokilese. Two of its unique features are well known to Ponapeans. One is that Ngatikese men, when speaking to each other, may employ an alternate speech style that th consider to be a pidgin English. In this style, a very large number ‘of English words are employed. The existence of this pidgin is attributed to tragic event in Neatikese history when in 1837 the crew of the British cutter Lambrom invaded the sland, slaughtered the male population, and removed the surviving women and children to Ponape. Many of the Ngatikese women were sub sequently taken as concubines by the ship's crew. Another characteristic of Ngatikese is that in place of the r sound found elsewhere in Ponapec, it employs a sound technically described 4 a voiceless velar freative. Ths is sound made by raising the back ofthe tongue s0 close to the back ofthe roof of the mouth INTRODUCTION ’ that air passing through the resulting narrow opening makes @ hissing or ffietion-lke noise. Apart from these two striking dissimilarities, Ngatikese appears to be otherwise very much like Ponapean ‘A great deal more is known about Mokilese and Pingelapese {A grammar of Mokilese by Sheldon Harrison and Salich Albert is now available, and a grammar of Pingelapese by Elaine Good land Weldis Welley is currently in preparation. What is clear ‘about these two varieties of speech is that they are more similar to feach other than either is to Ponapean, though of the (wo Pingelapese is closer to Ponapean, One way to verify this aim is. by comparing the vocabulary ofall three of these speech com ‘munities. For this purpose, linguists commonly use a standard list fof 100 or 200 words that they would expect to find in any language. This list includes such common words as “father, “mother sun’, ‘person’, bird’, and so on, Based on the 100 word list, the percentages of words that are shared among Ponapean, Pingelapese, and Mokilese are as follows 1. Ponapean shares 73, with Mokilese PPonapean shares 79%, with Pingslaese Pingelapese shares 83°, with Mobiles There seem to be, however, a number of reasons to believe that Pingelapese and Mokilese are even more similar to each other and distinct from Ponapean than these percentages suggest. Four of these reasons will be considered here ‘One way in which both Mokilese and Pingelapese differ from Ponapean is that where Ponapean has a ¢ sound (the kind of sound ealed a voiceless revroflexed africat, discussed in section 2.5.3), Mokilese and Pingelapese have an s sound. This is illus: trated in the following examples. Ponapean Mokilese —Pingelpese English th soa * teat ti tee broken i za) pr shi kai ask ask sourINTRODUCTION A second point of comparison involves @ sound rule that occurs in Ponapean, but not in Mokilese or Pingelapese. This ‘ule, called the Monosyllabic Noun Vowel Lengthening Rule, is discussed in detail in section 4.2.1. In effect, this rule predicts that all single syllable nouns will have a long vowel. The following ‘examples, where h indicates the long vowel in Ponapean, illustrate th this rule does not operate in Pingelapese and Mokilese AA third way in which both Mokilese and Pingelapese differ from Ponapean is illustrated by the following examples, where some common nouns ate given as they occur with the third person singular possessive sutix meaning "his', “her, or “ts In these examples, this sux is translated “his” or “its as appro- priate Ponapean Pligelapise "Engh his ki its hor his fingernai his gal blade Notice that whereas the sufixed forms ofthese nouns all end with ‘vowel in Ponapean, the Mokilese and Pingelapese forms all end in the consonant n. There are also many Mokilese and Ping lapese nouns that, like Ponapean, end with & vowel when com- bined with tis suis, but there are no cases in Ponapean of final ever occurring in forms like these. Details about possessive Pronouns in Ponapean are presented in section 48 INTRODUCTION u Finally, we sight consider phenomenon that is ben dasa by Shelton Hartson aa paper cae Redupcaton Sac Language Protaly a Miernctin nguage Sry formas pros o ania posal reste Oe inves open alo par of word Tatts toe that Moke so cmpoys pesto in wich anc par ofa word repeated te, Page a sxe ans caploy pation bat Ponapean dest, The poet (nar ilststed inthe cxamples blow The English vrclons hose ar onl approunaton oh real mea ene tciapicaton ead ipicaion, Tae function of Is Stson in Ponapean further dacised in socton 3.34 For fone dria abet okies the ener ered the works by Harshon ited co ogre Ponapean Mobilse Pingelapcse EnglishINTRODUCTION claim has much validity, In subsequent pars ofthis book, we will thus est our concer with the notion of “let Yo the more subile variations in spesch that occur within Ponape isl While on the whole the language of Ponape is fairy Ponapean—there are some readily discernible diferences be tween the speech of the peopl ofthe northern and southern parts ofthe island Ponapean s thus generally described as having two major dialects. The southern dialect, of as iis more commonly Known, the Kil ile, is spoken primarily inthe municipality ‘that name. The northern or main dialect is spoken on 1 4 rest of the island. The basic differences between these two dialects ae examined in section 2.67. Another phenomenon of Ponapean be thought of in terms of dialect variation are the y determined or honorife patterns of speech tht are developed in Ponapean to an extent unparalleled in the rest of Micronesia. Honoric speech isthe exclusive topic of Chapter 7. FOREIGN INFLUENCES othe languages tht it conaie a considerable numberof words changes that take place in a society as a rel of foreign influences. 7 influenced the vocalary of Ponapean are thors tht have taken place with speakers of non-Austroncsian languages, These cor tacts began only about one hundred and iy years ago. Ponape fir confemed sighting of the and was in 159 by the Spaniard Pedro Femander de Qutos—but it wast wn! 1828 that 8 Wester voyager described the island in any detail, This de scription was provided by the Russian Captain Fredric Lathe of the ship Senpavin, who named Ponape alongwith Ant and Pakin the Senyvin Islands, Lutké and hs stew dd not actually pt INTRODUCTION a ashore, but itis approximately from this period that whalers, traders, and beachcombers began to vist the island. Another date ‘of significance in tis early period of foreign contact is 1882. This Ss the year that the American Congregationalist missionaries arrived in Ponape. In 1885, the Spanish began to exercise their political power in the Eastern Carolines, and for the first time Ponape came under the rule of a non-Pacfic nation. This period ‘which lasted until 1899, was marked by considerable friction and pen warfare. The Ponapeans also openly resisted the Germans, tnowe rule began in 1899 and continued until the end of World War I In 1918, the Japanese began their rule with the goal of making Micronesia a part of the Japanese empire. These plans srere shattered by World War If, and in 1945 the political control of Micronesia passed to the hands of the Americans. Under an ‘agreement with the United Nations, sill in elect, the United States now administers this area. Tes small wonder then that Ponapean vocabulary evidences considerable borrowing, for with each of these new foreign Contacts came new ideas, new trade goods, and new ways of ‘doing things. Some of these importations were adopted by the Pomapeans. Some were foreed upon them. But they all had an impact on the language. To talk about new things required tha ‘old words be used in new ways that new words be invented, of that words be borrowed, To some extent, Ponapean employed all ree of these strategies. For example, the old word ning “to attoo’ also came to mean “to write, and the phrase were hansapw, iterally “canoe-of on-land’, was coined to mean “auto tmobile” But perhaps most often words were simply borrowed. In this process of borrowing, however, words did not always end up ‘with the same pronunciation or meaning they had inthe source language. In becoming part of the Ponapean language, these ‘words were fitred through the Ponapean sound system, and Ineanings were assigned t0 them in terms of how they were lnderstood by the Ponapeans. The kinds of words that were borrowed, along with their sources, are examined below. Stan- ard spellings are employed and English translations are given for both the Ponapean borrowing and its source word in onder to ilustate instances of meaning differences. rom Spanish came a relatively small number of words Most of these were terms related to Catholicism, which was introduced to Ponape in 1886. Some examples followINTRODUCTION ‘andl wand ead nun mothe, esd Catholic isin mission priest father, p each urgator The influence ofthe German language was minimal. Among the very few German borrowings found in Ponapean are the following seu ube, plastic’ rubber pil record sscord ood cabinet locker, cupboard Next to English, the language that contributed the largest number of words to Ponapean is Japanese. The Panapean- English Dictionary by Reh and Sohl contains approximately four hun dred Japanese borrowings. Followin are some examples that ‘were prepared withthe assistance of Hiroshi Sugita. The spelling system employed is that adopted by Kenkyusha's New Japanese English Dictionary, except that long vowels are written doub INTRODUCTION Ponapean English wa, disput high jum bel fashight tomb, shall aw hin ‘automobile por ‘ikogo cores thongs 2 athletic mee ‘embroidery hoop In some eases, words borrowed into Pon: English flashlight oa, fog sickle kif “bandage ‘vom automobile atlevic met apean from Japanese had been earlier borrowed by the Japanese from English Examples ar Ponapean English Japanese English mekasi —“handkerchiet ha andkerchie ol dramINTRODUCTION ky caramel ‘mask = mask odepai “motorcycle, aba "matoreyck scooter {trom auto’ + "bicyle’) pies ear ire bee? Prroksdo “post ofc” poruto “mal bon (from “pos” The language from which Ponapean has borrowed the largest number of words is English, More than five hundred words from this source are currently included in the Ponapean English Dictionary. The considerable impact that English has had ‘on Ponapean vocabulary is primarily due to the fact that English isthe language with which Ponapean has longest been in contact, During the early contact period, from approximately 1828 to 1885, Ponapeans had considerable interaction with English speaking whalers, traders, and missionaries. The second contact period, which dates from 1945 to the present, has been one of American rule and the widespread usage of English as a second language. Borrowings took place during both of these periods, and in most cases, though not al, it is possible to determine from which period a particular borrowing dates. For example, the following words were quite likely borrowed during the frst, contact perio. Ponapean English ainpwoat “cooking pot (roe iron pot) amper umbrella ‘dampeulo “old ofa ship’ (fom “down below") din large can” (rom "in’) kediohs sword (from ‘cutlass eae etal, nail, badge” (rom “meta’) msi ‘mission’ (particularly a Protestant mission) mihkerchs “cigar (from "Negrohead tobacco") paipel ible peu ook in Tshi’ (from singe’) su schol ipaker tobacco! wpweilas “telescope, binoculars rom ‘spyas') INTRODUCTION "7 The following words were borrowed during the second contact period. Ponapean English 10 Re ‘eset ingpong vedi ‘radio ‘vahk sparkplug’ (rom “spark’) was ‘wristwatch’ (rom watch’) Many more examples, of course could be added. The influence of English on Ponapean is increasing, and younger speakers in particular are introducing additional borrowings at a rapid rate. EARLIER STUDIES OF PONAPEAN GRAMMAR 16 Until the recent endorsement of bilingual education for Micro nesia, the language policies ofthe nations that have ruled Ponape could all be characterized as representing, at least in practice, one form or another of linguistic imperialism. Ponapeans were expec ted to learn and to be educated in the language of their rulers, While at best Ponapean was the object of benign neglect. As « ‘consequence, the existing literature on orn Ponapean is not very txtensive. However, with each period of foreign contact, some Sulsiders came who did learn Ponapean, and there were a few Wwho shared what they learned with others in the form of word, Tists, dictionaries, and grammatical studies of the language. A ‘complete list of this literature is included in the bibliography “Among those individuals who wrote on Ponapean grammar there ae four who deserve special mention ether because of the historical importance of ther work or because ofthe contribution their studies made to the development ofthis grammar. AlthoughINTRODUCTION allof these writers published at leat several articles on Ponapean, ‘only the most comprehensive of their works ae singled out in the following brie discussions The fist study of Ponapean grammar was written by the Rev. Luther H. Gulick, a member of the original party of missionaries who went to Ponape in 1852. Entitled “Notes on the Grammar of the Ponape Dialect,” this work was fst distributed ina limited edition in Honolulu in 1858. In 1880, it was published in the American Oriental Society Journal as part of an article entitled "A Vocabulary of the Ponape Dialect, Ponape-English and English-Ponape: With a Grammatical Sketch,” Gulick’s grammatical comments are devoted almost entirely to a dis cussion of the role of the various parts of speech in Ponapean. Although his study is quite brief, and he fails to note or misunder: stands some of the more obvious features of the language, on the whole his comments are quite insightful A grammar of considerably more sophistication was pub: lished in 1906 by the German physician, Max Girschner. Entitled ‘Grammatik der Ponapesprache,” this work, like Gulick's, is primarily devoted to a discussion ofthe role ofthe various parts of speech in Ponapean. But these discussions are supported with numerous examples, and a great deal mote attention is paid to how words are organized to form phrases and sentences, Ad. ditionally. Girschner recognized the scope of what inthis gram: ‘mat is called “Ponapeic', as well as the major dialect differences that exist on the island of Ponape itself. Although his discussion of the sound system of Ponapean is of lesser quality, the grammar is basically well done. An English translation of this work is in preparation by Syl Tulle former Director of Public Works in Ponape The first scholar trained in linguistics to conduct study of Ponapean grammar was Paul L. Garvin, Garvin was a part cipant in the Coordinated Investigation of Micronesian Anthro- pology project which was carried out at the end of World War IL His first work, eniled a Linguistic Study of Ponapean, presented 1 detailed account of the sound system, the word structure, and he syntax of this language, and also included @ number of Ponapean texts along with English translations. Later, this study was expanded into a longer monograph called De Grammar of Ponapean. Garvin's fist grammar, along with those Portions ofthe second we have seen, have been invaluable in the Preparation of this work. Unfortunately, only excerpts. of INTRODUCTION Garvin's important studies of Ponapean have been published. ‘Another scholar who has made important contributions to the study of Ponapean grammar is John L, Fischer. Fischer's rst study, presented a his doctoral dissertation at Harvard Uni ‘etsity in 1954, was entitled "Language and Folklore in Truk and Ponape. A Study in Cultural Integration.” The purpose of this ‘work was to compare the extent to which the cultural pattems of ‘Truk and Ponape are reflected in the pattern of their lan and folktales. In this study, Fischer presents an excellent overview ofthe major structural features of Ponapean, and the inclusion of he Trukese data makes this work particularly useful to linguists interested in comparative Micronesian studies. Fischer remains an active investigator of Ponapean language and culture. Hopefully itcan be said ofthis present grammar that i offers some new insights into Ponapean not previously included in thes tare studies. I thisis true, however, iis only because this work ‘was built on the important contributions ofits predecessorsThe Sound System of Ponapean OVERVIEW 21 This chapter presents some fundamental observations about the sound stem of Ponape, Ifyou have never before studied modern grammar, te amount of dscusion devoted to ths subject may be unatipated. General when we bother to hink Or lk about language, ourconcern is wth the meaning of Word or &speial way of saying something. The sounds of language Partly thot of our ova language, ve usually lake more o¢ Is for ranted. As the following ages wl temp oltre toner th odin of yc send ves Some ae complex process. Further, in Ponapean ain cer) language there are us hat govern ow these sounds interact to form a essenal system of the language If we are to understand Po ‘apean grammar, ii important that we understand Ponapean HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPEECH AND WRITING As me aproch hi stay of onapcan peck oud he ae several important points about the reatonhip between speech aig tht ema hep i mind. The fit ie at language is primarily ora Literate speakers ofa language some times think ofthe writen langage as being primar. buts not Every known language exists, or has exsed, as 2 spoken lam uae, The vant majority ofthe language Bowee eet have then, dearly doesnot depend upon writing for its exsenee. ‘Second, even the best writing sytem is impefct as & represetation of the spoken language, Englsh provides many amples of the arbitrary nature of spline. The eters 2h THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN variously represent the fsound in a word like tough’, the x sound ina word lke ‘ghost, the p sound in a word like “hiceous/’, and ‘no sound at all in a word like ‘though’. In this respect, Ponapean isless confusing than English, but even in Ponapean a single letter may represent more than one sound. The letter , for example, Tometimes stands for a vowel sound, as in the word sis ‘to shiver and sometimes for a y sound, as in the word peo float’. Also, a5 English gh illustrates, two or more symbols are sometimes com- bined in spelling to stand for one sound. In Ponapean. thsi also true. The single consonant sound atthe beginning of a word like mngehi‘T is spelled with the two letters ng, and the single vowel Sound ina word lke doar ‘sicker’ spelled with the two eters oa Third, no conventional writing system ever attempts 10 ‘mirror all the sounds of a language. Many features of intonation Tor example, are not reflected in writing and, as we shall seein this chapter, minor variations in sounds that speakers are not aware Of, but nevertheless produce, are also disregarded. The goal of a Standard writing system, wherein all speakers of @ language write their language the same way, also means that some individual and Gialecal differences in pronunciation must be ignored. In the ‘standard writing system recommended by the Ponapean Orthos Taphy Committee (see the Appendix) spellings are basically fesigned to refet the pronunciation patterns characteristic of speakers of the northern dialect area, But this does not mean that the speech of that area is superior, nor does it mean that other Speakers should try to change their pronunciation to match the ‘way words are spelled. Rather, this is just one more illustration of the ultimately arbitrary nature of spelling "As these three points illustrate, when we study language through the means of writin, as we will inthis book, it will be Jmportant not to confuse the spoken language with the way it is ‘written. To avoid possible confusion, it will sometimes be nec ‘sary to supplement the normal writing system of Ponapean with Special symbols that permit a more accurate representation of the Sounds of the spoken language. These symbols will be used only when necessary, however, and they will be explained as they are introduced ‘THE HUMAN SPEECH MECHANISM ‘Obviously not all sounds that human beings can make are used in speech. No language, for example, exploys whistling, coughing,THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN for hand clapping as its primary medium of communication Instead, the sounds of language are ofa very special kind. They are the sounds that are made by the human speech mechanism, term that refers o the various organs ofthe body that are used in the production of speech. To understand the sounds of Po- napean, then, it will be useful to understand this mechanism and the processes it employs “There are four basic processes involved inthe production of speech sounds. These are the alistream process, the voicing process, the oral-nasal process, and the articulatory process. Ref rece fo the flowing diagram wl be wel a understanding these processes and the discussion ofthe sounds of Ponapean I thee ds of Ponapea Tonga — Speech Mechanisms Figure 1 SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN The airstream process involves the action ofthe I exhale or breathe out, our lungs contract and a stre forced out of our bodies. This airstream is essential to the production of most speech sounds. By interrupting it or redirect- Ine it through the action of the following three processes, it is possible o produce a very wide variety of sounds. The voicing process involves the action of the vocal cords The vocal cords are basically two short bands of flesh that stretch from the front to the ear of the larymx or ast is more commonly Called the Adam's apple. As the airstream produced by the lungs feaves the body, it passes between these two vocal cords. Because there cords are moveable, they may be held partially closed, as they are for voiced sounds, of they may beheld apart, as they are for voleeles sounds. To discover for yourself the difference between these two kinds of sounds, place your fingertips azainst Jour larynx and say the vowel sound 2. You should be able to fee! ome vibration. This vibration is the result of air passing between the closely held together vocal cords. This vibration produces the Sound that you hear. The vowel ais thus a voiced sound. Now. if you again place your fingertips in this position and say a protonged s,you wll feel no vibration and hear no voice; si thus 2 voiceless sound, The distinction between voiced and voiceless Sounds wil be important 10 us as we further study the sound system of Ponapean. The oral-nasal process simply refers to whether the ar stream from the lungs exis the body through the mouth (the oral eavity) fF the nose (the nasal eavity. The direction of the airstream is ‘Controlled by the velum, or soft palate, which isthe soft back part of the roof of the mouth, The velum is moveable and may be Towered to allow ar to ext through the nasal passage, o it may be raised to close off this passage so that the airstream exits through the mouth, Sounds made by shutting off the oral cavity at some point and directing the airstream out through the nose arc called nasal sounds. Examples are m,n, and ng. If while saying these sounds you pinch your nose shut, you will ntice that the Sound is stopped. Sounds made by directing the airstream out through the mouth are called orl sounds. Examples areas, and Pinching your nose shut while making these sounds does not interfere with their production The articulatory process refers to the action of the tongue ‘andthe lips during the production of speech sounds. The stream, Of air coming from the lungs may be interrupted in a variety ofTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN ways by the tongue and lips to produce diferent positions and ‘manners of articulation, The tem postion of articulation refers to Where in tbe mouth a sound is made. The term manner of ticulatin refers to how a sound is made. A simple example will ilustrate these two terms, To make the Ponapean sound d the tip of the tongue is placed against the back of the upper teth, The Position of articulation of the sound d is thus described as ipdental, tip indicating that the tip of the tongue is used, dem indicating thatthe tongue is placed against the upper teth. Now, if you say a Ponapean n, you will discover that the position of articulation is the same, but the manner of articulation is diferent. dis a stop sound. In making a d sound, the airstream coming from the lungs is completely stopped, s0 that it tem: porary eis ete om the mouth othe nose. on he th and, isa nasal sound. In making ann sound, the ari stopped in the mouth at the same position as it is for d, but the velum is lowered and airs allowed to escape out through the nose. There are, of course, many diferent possible postions and manners of articulation in addition to these we have just discussed, Those which ee sigicant to Ponapean wil be examined ltr i his chapter In summary, then, there are four basic procestes involved in the production of speech sounds. The airstream process initiates the stream of air in which the sounds are made, The voicing process determines whether the sound is voiced or voiceless. The orabnasal process directs the airstream out either through the mouth or nose, and the articulatory process determines the Position and manner of articulation ofa sound. Certainly, there is much more that could be said about any one ofthese processes, but for our purposes, the preceding discussion is adequate to provide a basis for understanding the material that follows THE PHONEME 24 ‘The human sperch mechanism, by employing the four process prevounly described, scapabe of producing a wide vanety of sounds. Yet, speaker of language we only relatively sal umber of these posible sound ina dsuntve way. Hawai, ISrexamle, wes hisn icine sends ich on the smallest number of such sounds in any language The upper limit ofthe numberof diinctve sound in anyone languape's probably ls than oe hundred. Also intresting the fact that THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN no two languages use exactly the same set of sounds. Thus, one of the tasks of linguist is to determine what the distinctive sounds of a language are Linguists use the term phoneme to talk about a distinctive sound of a language. A phoneme is simply a speech sound that Signals a difference in meaning. For example, consider the two fwords mad ‘dry’ and mat ripe’. Except for the fina sounds d and P these two words sound alike, but they difer in meaning. It must therefore be the final sounds that signal this difference. Thus, we Say that d and fare diferent phonemes. Similarly, the two words dak tosulfer and lukto be invite’ are identical in pronunciation cexcept for the sounds oandw, It must be o and, then that signal the diffrence in meaning. Accordingly, they may be considered Separate phonemes. Testing which sounds cause a difference in Meaning i one of the important ways in which a linguist may determine what the distinctive sounds, or phonemes, of lan age are, Another important thing to understand is that a phoneme may be pronounced in different ways, depending upon where it ‘ecu in speech, and sill remain the same phoneme. Ifyou listen Very carefully to words like ran day" and wahr ‘canoe’ you may be able to notice that there ia difference between the r sounds of these two words, The rin rah is voiced, but the r in wahr is ‘oiceless, Probably this diflerence is very difficult forthe native Speaker of Ponapean to detect, because void and voiceless rare slmply two predictable varieties of the same phoneme. Voicelessr always occurs atthe end of a word; voiced ris found in all other ponitions Thus, voiced and voiceless rare non-distinctive or non- Contrasve sounds, Such non-contrastive sounds are called al Tophones The phoneme r thus has two allophones, a voiced one and a voiceless one, A single phoneme, then, may be pronounced in diferent ways, depending upon where it occurs in the fow of speech Tn the following discussion of the sound system of Ponapean ‘we wll examine the phonemes of Ponapean as well as some of the Inajorallophones of these sounds. We will begin by ooking a the ‘THE CONSONANTS OF PONAPEAN ‘The term consonant is commonly used to talk about certain letters of the alphabet. Thus, we call leters like p, f, andTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN ele pilus oe cee Wen celereae ictere represent and wo he tes Uses sproprine Let nay thn, wor special tuta cnn! ound tha Cbatucton is accompled wil te the subject of ach othe intel that (owe Ista delta cen) ter ee tee eter hes consoatee Mestad Chet, Apyrosims Engi cuvuoas wre hy ext, av sn tc Chart 1 apcan W English Equivalent ‘ke ek fi veabp cache thats snot included. This boats by ou definition, nota Tangs. (We wl ak about w asa lide in ection 2.71.) The other alphabetical order. Instead, they are presented inthe order in which they are dcussed inthe flowing c ne following pags. (Se the Appen dix for the Ponapean alphabet.) a napean are made. We wl tart withthe Kind of consonants called ope THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN A stop involves & manner of articulation in which the outward flow of air from the lungs is completely stopped or blocked, 30 that it exits nether through the mouth nor the nose until a following sound or the end of the word is reached. In Ponapean there are four stops—p. pw, d. and Kall of which are voiceless fand unaspirated. That is, they are produced with the vocal cords apart and without the pu of air that is characteristic of English Stops in some postions Bilabial Stop p Te consonant represented by the letter pis called a bilabial stop tenamse the outward flow of air is stopped by the two (bi-) ips (labial) The bilabial stop p occurs in words like these Velarized Bilabial Stop p* Previously it was noted that sometimes two letters are used in Ponapean to representa single sound. The consonant represented by the eters pw is one such case. pw isa velarized tlabial stop. Like p. pw is made by stopping the flow of air from the lungs with the two ips. But pw, unlike p, is also velaraed, Therefore, while making thi sound, the back of the tongue is raised close to the back part ofthe roof ofthe mouth, called the velum. In addition the lips are slightly rounded and protruded. pw occurs at the beginning and in the middle of words like these pein “group ore ite peond “ie ~ 40 rol nv also occurs atthe end of words, but in this position, except in ery careful speech, pw is made without the lip rounding that ‘ecurs when pw isat the beginning orn the middle of words. The faising of the back of the tongue, however, sill takes place. p ‘curs at the end of words ike theseTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN vik Fungus amadipw “feast pewpe ofall sah and We may thus say that the phoneme pw has an unrounded velarized allophone at the end of words, and a rounded velarized allophone in all other positions To illustrate that p and pw are different phonemes, and thus capable of producing a diffetence in meaning, the following pairs ‘of words are presented. oo beat ‘pin “to wash one's face ap “bund Dental Stop d Like 7 and pw. dis a stop, because it is produced by completely stopping the outward air low. d differs from p and py. though, in that this stoppage takes place inthe dental are rather than atthe lips. The sound d, as we previously noted in section 2.3, is thus made by placing the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth so that no air can escape. d occurs in words like these. id to build wall” ki or dete ‘sland prod spouse fot toa kid thousand We might note at this point that d, and indeed all dental sounds, are not always necessarily produced at precisely a dental postion of articulation. Particularly when followed by vowels which are made in the back of the mouth, the position of articulation of dental sounds may be just bit further back inthe mouth, slightly behind where the upper teth enter the gums. To a very minor ‘degree, the positions ofall consonants produced withthe tongue are influenced by neighboring vowels, but about this we wil say ‘no more. What is of considerably more importance in Ponapean is the reverse situation, the influence neighboring consonants have on the position of vowels. We will discuss this in section 266. THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Velar Stop k The stop sound represented by the letter kis made by placing the back ofthe tongue firmly against the velum so thatthe outward air flow is completely blocked. & occurs in words like these kang toeat sakow ava lakape “tomorrow lima to bai Released Stops ‘One further generalization may be made about the stop sounds of| Ponapean, At the end of words, in careful spesch, all stops in Ponapean are released. This means that the organs of speech involved in the production of the stop sound move from a position of articulation to position of rest in such a manner that the air stopped up in the mouth exits with a very slight hissing noise. Released stops may be heard at the end of words like the following when they are carefully pronounced. Tike Freshwater shrimp! ni to suck Except at the end of words in careful speech, stops are otherwise ‘non-released. This means that the organs of specch involved inthe production of the stop sound move apart without any resulting hissing noise ‘Tue Frucarive 5 232 The term ficatve describes a manner af articulation in whic the ‘uream eng fom th uns i obsrcted enough to produce 2ncion ike noe. Ther ny one eae sound no apean Tes the sound represented by the letter In making his {und the Bide of the tongue (the part jus Behind the tp) is finced closet, but not rly ses. the aeolar ge. The Ehrola dg the bony protrusion in he rom part of the rot Ste mouth. As aris fored out between the tongue and thisTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN ridge, a fetion-like noise, which isthe consonants, results. ssa a voiceless sound that occurs in words like the following = 5 in Ponapean also undergoes varying degrees of palatalization ‘This means that while si being made, the middle of the tongue i raised towatd the roof of the mouth. The result is thats usual sounds as if t were somewhere between English 5 (as in sip) and 3h (as in ship). The degree 1o which sis palaalized, however, varies Somewhat from speaker to speaker Since it makes a difference in meaning whether we say d oF fit useful to indicate this difference inthe alphabe wird flow of sr rom the langs is directed through the nos. ae All nasals in Ponapean are voiced. 253 An affeicate is a combination of «stop and a fricative. There is ‘only one africate in Ponapean. It is represented by the letter 1s ube Nal os made by slightly retrflexig or curling the tip ofthe tongue back so that it touches jst behind the alveolar ridge. At the same time the sides of the tongue are raised so that they touch against the inner gumline of the upper teth. As this sound is produced, the ar i first completely stopped and then, because the tongue is moved slightly away from where it contacts the roof of the mouth, the air escapes with the Fiction-like noise characteristic of A frcative. 1is also voiceless, It may thus be described as a icelessretroflexedaffrieate. 1 occurs in words like these, a The bilabial nasal mis made simply by holding the ip closed and allowing the air to escape through the nose. Like p,m is called bilabial because the two lips are used to make the closure. Examples of m are to sey emit “parrot i to dink e ca = ‘Velarized Bilabial Nasal me The single consonant represented by the two leters mw icalled a elarized bilabial nasal Like pw, mo is produced with simul: {ancous lip closure, raising ofthe back of the tongve towards the should be noted that for some speakers, the frcative part ofthe occurs [Pronuncation of is very slight, so that 1 sounds more like a stop. Like the patalization of s, though, this variation in pronunciation atthe beginnin does not seem to be restricted to @ particular dialect or a particular position in a word, ‘elum, and some rounding and protrusion ofthe lips. m and in the middle of words lke the In some earlier Ponapean spelling systems, no distinction immenge “toeat nme was made between the sound now represented by the letter d and theend the sound represented by 1. These two sounds, though, are “ H thus make the generalization that both separate phonemes, as illustrated by the Following pairs of words of words. We mayTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN velarized consonants (pw and ms) have unrounded velarized allophones in this position, mw occurs word-fnally in these examples. The following pairs of words illustrate that m and. mw separate phonemes. Dental Nasal n ‘nis a dental nasal. It i produced by placing the tip of the tongue ‘agnnst the back ofthe upper teth and allowing the ar to escape through the nose. Examples of » are ent “eho ‘opwon eautlul all of something” Before s, nis also palatalized. Therefor, its pronounced with the additional rasing of the middle of the tongue toward the center of the roof of the mouth. Examples of before sare The reason for this palaalization is that since s is normally Palataized to some degree, m before « copies some of the aniculatory properties ofthe following sound and it too becomes Palatalized to the same extent that «is. This phenomenon of one sound becoming more like a neighboring one is a very common Process in language. Linguists call it assimilation. THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN 3 Another example of assimilation in Ponapean involves the positon of articulation of m when it precedes 1. isa retroflexed ound. It is pronounced withthe tongue tip curled back slightly tnd touching just behind the alveola ridge. When n precedes #38 it does in the following examples, it too is pronounced in this, retroflexed position Thus, we may say that the phoneme m has three allophones, a palatalized one before sa retroflexed one before, and a plain tip ental one in all other postions Velar Nasal ne Liguios 255 The sound represented by the two letters ng is made by placing the back ofthe tongue against the velum, and allowing arto exit through the nose. Examples of ng are fingan “beaut laine sty Liguid i term sometimes used to desribe various kinds of and sounds. These two kinds of sounds are alike in that they are both oral sounds that involve partial closure in the mouth Ponapean J and r are discussed in more detail below The consonant is made by placing the tip ofthe tongue against the back of the upper teeth with the blade of the tongue also touching against the alveolar ridge. The sides of the tongue, however, ae lowered so that air may escape out over them, /s voiced and is also slightly palatalized. This consonant occurs in words like these. laid “toshM THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Alveolar ¢ The consonant r is an alveolar sound because it is made by placing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. In Ponapean, the r sound is tilled. This tiling is achieved by hholding the tongue tip against the ridge with just the right tension so that the aisream esting the mouth ses the ip into rapid vibration. r, as we have already discussed in section 24, has two allophones, a voiceless one atthe end of words, and a voiced one clsewhere. Following are some words containing Consonant CHART 256 We have now discussed how all of the twelve consonants of Ponapean are produced. For the purpose of easy reference, this information is concisely summarized in Chart 2. Notice tha positions of articulation ate listed horizontally across the top, while information abo ut Voicing and manners of articulation ae listed vertically along the left side Chart 2. Ponapean Consonants Poston of Ariculation Aricsaton | bal | Dental |‘lor” | fen” | Vetr Wworce: | stops less | plain Aftcate worceD | Naas Liquids THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Cur discussion of the consonants of Ponapean is nearly con- ‘luded; however, before we turn our attention to vowels, there ‘one additional property of consonants we need to look at. Its that they sometimes occur doubled Dousten Consonants We have observed that consonants in Ponapean may be either woiced oF voiceless. AS Chart 2 illustrates, there are six voiceless ‘omonants pp. d,s, and sx voiced consonants (mm ma. 1). This distinction betwoen voiced and voiceless consonants jh useful in understanding a number of important facts about the Ponapean sound system, one of which is the occurrence of ‘doubled consonants The term doubled consonant is used to describe two identical sonsonants that occur next to each other. Whether consonants are single or doubled can make a difference in meaning in Ponapean, as this example illustrates. Single mw Kum 1a ork Doubled en kart to cause to vomit (Note that in Ponapean orthography doubled mw (om) is THe sequence mn differs from mu in that it is held about twice as long as the single consonant. The distinction between voiced and voroeess consonants now becomes important to us because we may make the generalization that all voiced con Sonants in Ponapean occur doubled. Voiocless consonants on the ‘ther hand, except under special conditions, never occur doubled. ‘Examples of doubled voiced consonants in the middle of esonned rule ‘ema Jobster reongngong “tobe barkingTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN arevalla to return tothe wil, of animals 1 speak incessantly ora to be making a saticike noise’ rerer wo be At least two of these voiced consonants also occur doubled at the ends of words in Ponapean. These are J and mw, as illustrated by the following examples. wel pecis of shellfish all roach’ lemme afraid of ghost al Final doubled consonants in Ponapean, however, ae somewhat Also uncommon are doubled consonants at the beginning of words. Only m, mo, and ng are found doubled in this position, and examples are rae ™ mmed ‘ult 8 anger to pant In standard Ponapean orthography, these doubled consonants fare not usually written, and, in fact, probably most speakers of Ponapean do not pronounce these consonants doubled when they are at the beginning of a word. But, if we put the prefix ka meaning ‘to cause’ before these words, the doubled consonants, may be more easily heard, a illustrated below ammed “to cause tobe fll kangnget “to cause to pant All voiced consonants thus occur doubled in the middle of words, and some voiced consonants also occur doubled at the ‘beginning and atthe end of words. Voiceless consonants though, as we have noted, do not occur doubled except under special THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN 3” conditions. We might examine now what thes special conditions es ‘One is that voiceless consonants may occur doubled in words that have bern borrowed into Ponapean fom oter nguags Examples are pp nappa ‘Chine cabbage’ from Japanese ‘nappa ase “catcher from English “atcher ‘via Japanese kyaich bk ako ‘ptting on airs’ from Japanese “kakkoo Another is that voiceless consonants sometimes occur dou bile in exclamations. Two examples are: esse ‘an exclamation of pin ek —okka “an exclamation of surprise Finally, the voiceless consonants d, f, and s may occur doubled when a word ending in one of these consonants is followed by a sufi that begins with the same consonant. Exam. ples are: weid ‘to walle weld 10 walk downwards se“ sure jut thy fas “to jump hhssang “to ump from Under conditions deseribed in section 3.5, however, a vowel may ‘cur between these doubled consonants, as in the following examples vidi “20 walk dowowar sawete ‘us fly Ihaisong “to jump from’ Except in the three circumstances named above, voiceless consonants never occur doubled. n section 2.95, we will examine why this i 50 THE VOWELS OF PONAPEAN wc 0, 0a, and The speech sounds represented by the letters ¢, i are called vowels. Vowels are distinguished from consonantsTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN principally by the fact that they are sounds which allow a Featively re outward flow of ar fom the lngs- Consonants on the other hand, ar characterized by an obtrcton of this a fow. About Ponapean vowel seitcaly, two fcr genera izations may be made. Firs, ll Ponapean vowels are ora they are produced withthe veum asd to shut ofthe nasal passage Scconlyall Ponapean vowels are void they ae produced with vibrating vocal cords Other distinguishing etures of vowels ae Jeterined by the shape of the oa avi. Tiss accomplished by changing the position of the tongue, the ips and the jw, We shall examine these features more deta ae, Its important ist to point out that, in two respects, vowels possible confusion ere, we wil ein by examining the vols of the northern daest which, at we have noted. serves a5 the standard for Ponapean spelin Then, in setion 267, we wil discus the Kit dilet and other sublet varation in Nowels. A second problem i that it wl be necesary nour bos This is because we shall want to talk about sound distne tons that arent represented nthe speling system, With thes towel ofthe northern dle Vows Cuanr 26.1 ‘The vowels ofthe northern dialect are illustrated in the following chart along with their approximate English equivalents. Standard alphabetic symbols are used except for the two vowels within Parallel diagonal lines, fe/ and /e Both of these are written ¢ in the Ponapean spelling system. Ponapean As inthe Approximate Vowel Ponapean Word Enpinh Equivalent ame pet & wet lk THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN » The positions of articulation of Ponapean vowels are summarized in Chart 3. Chart 3 Tongue Advancement Tongue Hag | From [Central High Mid Lower Mid Low Notice that along the side of this chart four levels of tongos high are inated. Tongue height, ais pict nthe the word I) andthe the low vowel (asin the word pa) and wrch what happens to your jw. Notice that during the pro inthe mouth, When you sta, however, the aw is fowered in the High owe! (sin the word ou followed bya ima son ths ieee in ong ih disingush all Ponapean vowels from one anther. I'you ook a {he churt you wil tote that we also esrb vowel according 1 tongue advancement. Tongue advancement simpy refers (0 ‘Ththe th ongor bin te on, central of back portion ofthe Trouth, A vowel ke for examples produced with the tongue Savanced towards the front of the mouth. A vowel ike w i produced with the tongue reracted towards the back of the Frou Ifyou st - then and repeat these vowels in succession Festion fom he fron ofthe moath foro the bak ofthe Tout for Win these terms, we will now examine in more del the vowel presen Chart. However, inthe following discussionTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN we will refer only to the basic position of articulation of these vowels and postpone our examination of vowel allophones until Section 26.6. This is because itis possible to summarize the major vowel allophones in afew simple generalizations. Froxr Vows 262 There are thee front vowels the northern dialect of Ponapean These are i, fe/, and je ; — The High Vowel The high vowel /is pronounced with the tongue high and front in the mouth. Examples of are ie The Mid Vowel je/ and the Lower-Mid Vowel jc ‘Two contrasting vowels of the northern dialet of Ponapean are spling. To dining even thee two vowel sound ne wl te the symbols and enclosing these als or words wich contin them betwesn paral gona ses) to remind you that we at ling about sound aiken hat he Ponapeanspling stem ignores, xan of words in whch ipa) “to seer ipl) “tobe ina taboo relationship fer} “hey you al fet} “to ran aground! fel) 10 be wounded! le) “to reach or arrive at The vowel fe difles from // mainly in that itis pronounced a bit THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN 4 higher in the mouth is « mid vowel: itis pronounced with the tongue at a height approximately mid-way between a high and a Tow vowel. /c/ i a lower-mid vowel; itis pronounced with the tongue a bit lower in the mouth than for je, but not solow as for alow vowel like « im addition to occurring in the middle of words, a8 the preceding examples illustrate, the vowel /e is also found at the beginning of words “The vowel /e/ does not occur at the end of words however. Infact itis the only phoneme in Ponapean that does not occur in all positions within a word. All other phonemes occur atthe begin fing, in the middle, and at the end of words, but | occurs only initially and medially then, occurs not only medially as the previous examples itastrate, but also initially and finally. Examples are: feni) “ghost or de) “to sharpen you Inthe Kit dialect of Ponapean, as we shal discuss further in section 26.7, fe) and (1) do not contrast. Even within the northern dialect, there is some reason to believe that the contrast between Je) and /e) is predictable (see Rehg, 1973), but the arguments for this are still tentative. For our purposes, we will recognize the existence of e/ and je) as contrasting vowels. You Should be aware, though, that because ofthe dialect variations Within these vowels, and because of their possible ultimate predictability, itis a strength rather than a weakness of the Ponapean orthography that it represents both these vowels with the singe letter ¢ Back Vowsis. 263 “There are thre back vowels in Ponapean. These are u, 0, and o2 A unique characteristic of back vowels is that they are all rounded. That is, they are produced with some rounding and protrusion of the lips. Other distinguishing features of back Vowels are presented belowTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Like, wis a high vowel but, where e igh vowel; but, whereas fis produced in the front of the mouth, w is made with the tongue retracted and raised words such as: nee nae The Mid Vowel o Thevowsa ke eae rom mid height in the back part of the mouth. Examples of pare out of breath” ak The Lower-Mid Vowel oa In Ponapean spelling, the two leters oa are used to represent the lower-mid back vowel which occurs in words lke thes. eto wave’ roan “barns arene “ait daa 0 This vowel is made with the tongue retracted he tongue retracted towards the back of the mouth and held lower than itis foro, but not so Tow as its for 4. The two letters oa are thus combined to represent le «The present this single Tue CexteaL. Vowst. a 264 The only central vowel in Ponapean is a. It is also the only low vowel. In producing a, the tongue is held in the central part of the mouth, and the jaw is dropped abit in order to get the tongue into low postion. (It should be pointed out that ain Ponapean is not Auite as low as ain English.) Examples are THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Loxe Vownts 265 All vowels in Ponapean may occur long as well as short. This Giference in vowel length is phonemic; it signals a diflerence in meaning. For the Ponapean spelling system, the German con ‘emtion of writing after a vowel to indicate length was adopted. Examples of short vs. long vowels are presented below. The vowel tring contrasted for length is listed to the left and Ponapean txamples are presented as they are conventionally spelled to the to be distributed seg signed wounded It should be noted tha long vowels might also be interpreted as @ sequence of two identical vowels, or as double vowels. Thus, we ‘might make the generalization that vowels as well as voiced consonants may occur doubled. Vowel ALLOPHONS 266 —‘Toaccount for the major allophones of the vowel phonemes we have thus far discussed, only a few simple generalizations are recited. Before we may make these generalizations, though. it hil be nocessary fo return to our discussion of consonants. ‘One way to classify consonants is according to their postion of articulation, whether they are bilabial, dental, alveolar, et For the purpose of discussing vowel allophones, we may simplify this clasfication somewhat and merely tlk about front and back consonants. These are listed belowTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Back Notice that all of the consonants labeled front involve artic lation inthe front ofthe mouth. Either they are produced ator in front of a dental position of articulation, or they involve palatal ization. Al of the consonants labeled back involve articulation in the back of the mouth. They are produced at or behind an alveolar position of articulation, of they involve velarization Using this front/back distinction in consonants, we may now ‘make these statements about vowel allophones. 1. The short front vowels J, e/, and je) are backed to a central position in the environment of back consonants. ‘The short back vowels 0, and oa are fronted to a central postion inthe environment of front consonants, The short central vowel is fronted toa fron positon More generally, we may observe that the degree of tong. advancement of vowels influenced by neighboring consonants Examples where vowels arein “pure” environment thats where the neighboring consonants are ether both front or both back are best 0 intial illustrate this Such examples are provided below following restatement of the poin the) exempt 1. The short front vowels i e, and ‘central position in the environment of back ‘oan Front Vowels Between Front Cs Between Back Cs i pil alo tipw “tobe broke! Nel) Yo be wounded” net “to pant fs mem) “cet a) tight The italicized vowels inthe above examples are the ones pro- THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN 4s nounced in a central position. Thus, a vowel like /é/ is pro nounced as front vowel between front consonants (phonetically {cl asin the English word "bet, but asa central vowel between tuck consonants (phonetically {2} a8 in the English word “but 2, "The short back vowels u, 0, and oa are fronted 10 8 central position inthe environment of front consonants Back Vowels Between Front C's Between Back C's ud ‘toftame ——_pwupw “tobe droppe pos ‘toexplods’ —ngong ‘to bark Waal ep roang “burned As in the previous examples, the italicized vowels are the central ‘once, Thus, a vowel ike ris pronounced asa back vowel between back consonants (phonetically [ul), but as a central vowel be tween front consonants (phonetically [). 3. The short central vowel ais fronted toa front position in the environment of front consonants. Cental Vowel Between Froat C's Betwsen Back C's . pop. to swim kak “tobe able Thus, the vowel ais pronounced asa central vowel between back consonants (phonetically [oh approximately 3s the vowel in the English word “top), but as a front vowel between front com: Ssonants (phonetically [2], as inthe English word “ap') “These examples illustrate short vowels in pure environments \When short vowels occur in mixed environments, thats between a Tront consonant and a back consonant or aback consonant and & front consonant, the quality ofthe vowel is influenced by both Consonants, generally withthe following consonant dominating. ‘An example isthe word /mek/ “dented. In this word, the vowel / ja preceded by a front consonant and followed by a back Consonant In response to these consonants the vowel begins ina front postion, but because of the following back consonant, the ‘owe! glides to a central positon. “The previous statements concerning vowel allophones deal with short vowels. Long vowels, however, are not noticeably affected by adjacent consonants. Ifyou liste carefully, you might notice some slight effect of adjacent consonants on long vowels, Gither at the very beginning or end of their articulation, butTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN basically the primary fron, central, or back quality of these Before we conclude this dcusion of vowel allophonc, there are wo additional points that should be noted. One that Blds Gounds like ad) abo intuees the pronunciation Of vowels. We wll examine ths in secon 274 front and back sere of consonants Ponapen, Noten Chart that exept for sand, font and back consonants ae stad in pairs. The importance ofthis i that front and back consonants he sme morpeme. (Se section 22.1 fora definition of mor heme.) Thus wile words ike dd and or ae permite words members ofthe sume pair d beng te fon consonant ofthe pat and ‘i the back consonant 26.7 ‘Thus far in our discussion of Ponapean, we have made reference najor dialects, which we have called the northern dialect and the Kiti dialect, The consonant system ofthese dialects, we hhave noted, i the same. Iti on the bass of differences in theit vowel systems that we distinguish between these two dialects ‘One important way in which the Kit dialect differs from the northern dialect i that in the Kit dialect the vowels Je/ and e/ do not contrast. Notice these pairs of words inthe two dialects Northern Dialect Kii Disket English loss el rel om raaionship Ny you alt tran aground THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN 4 pair of words where the results ina diflerence in Inthe Kiti dialect itis impossible to find diference between the vowels / and /c As the previous examples illustrate, some inthe northern dialect are pronounced with oa in the words which Kiti dialect. Further examples are Kit Dini English Gloss ep i” ‘yam nwekid 11 is this characteristic distribution of vowels, and the lack of and jc), which most speakers of Ponapean contrast between /¢ recognize as being the distinguishing features ofthe Kiti dialect. In other respects the Kti vowel system i like the northern one. It has contrastive vowel length, and consonants affect vowel qual There are, of course, many sub-dalets within each of these two major dialect areas. Within the northern dalet, for example there are noticeable diferences between the speech of someone from the Kolonia area and someone from Awak. Within the Kit dialect, there ae als differences, for example, between the speech of someone from Wene and someone from Pehleng. These Giferences, though, are probably duc to vowel distribution intonation, and word choice, rather than to the actual number of contrasting vowels. There is much m dialects and sub-dialcts. But, unfortunately. feally known about this subject. Hopefully, future investigators till add to this area of our knowledge of Ponapean. re that might be said about Ponapean not very much is GLIDES OF PONAPEAN Thus far we have discussed the consonants and the vowels ofTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Ponapean. There still remain two sounds that oocur in all dialects ‘of Ponapean that we have not yet examined. These are the glides ww) andy ‘Glides are sounds that have properties of both consonants and vowels. Indeed, some linguists call glides semi-consonants: ‘others call them semi-vowels. Fr the purposes of our discussion we wll use the term glide, thus emphasizing that sounds ofthis {ype involve a moving or gliding, rather than a stationary manner of articulation, Tue Gave (w Since the glide /w) is sometimes written in Ponapean as w and Sometimes as u, we will employ the usual convention of writing jw/ between diagonal lines to remind you that we are talking about the sound and not the letter To produce the glide jw), as in the following words, the tongue starts from a positon high and back inthe mouth, as for the vowel u, and then glides to the position of the folowing vowel Like, wala involves some rounding and protrusion of he lip. Examples of words containing. fllow Notice that in these words, where /w/ occurs atthe beginning of a word, iis spelled When /w/ occurs in the middle of words between vowels, essentially wo gliding movements are involved. The isis from the position ofthe preceding vowel towards the high, back part of the mouth (towards 1); the second is from this position towards the position of the following vowel This happens, ofcourse, very rapidly. Examples of words in which /w/ occurs between vowels Here, also, /w is spelled w When jw/ occurs after vowels ether atthe end of a word, oF before a consonant or glide, itis produced by gliding the tongue from the position ofthe preceding vowel towards the position of THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN *° the vowel u. In this ease, /w/ is written in standard Ponapean Spelling as u. Notice these examples which are spelled with w/in the frst column, and then conventionally with u in the second. eve proud spouse We may summarize our observations about the spelling of this glide as follows. wis written as we when it occurs before towels; elsewhere, atthe end of words and before consonants itis Tue Gus (9 reign in Ponape sping as Te ltr hos epee Peal sound uaa slide sound, Avan cumple of dee mee ato eter compar the nia sounds of words ke we ald he Tes word gis with vowel wale wend bein with age, These two sounds, while Te aise coough ta i ou absttte oe for te sunt epee by teeter we wl wate these 9 hes is a high front glide. When it occurs before vowels, the rare ean then Eves the pout a the folowing vowel fc noel the process revered Te tongue ps rom the asec ie frecing Vowel to the high font postion Bee wet oth the ie sway from he psig vovel tet ava owing vowel te, oe emit weap that 9 na igh one ands weasel ale 6 a gh buck gid an rounded. Speed with y/ Conventionally Spelled English Glow yak ‘ant rayTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Tu SreLuiNo oF Gunes In the preceding sections, two rules were given are to be written, paieoee age tothe spoken The nature of the problem is essentially this. When does written w represent (u/ and when does similarly, when does written 1 represent represent | rae A ne i ma oer Saceiehesen a, engrave rath pcos eh So eset tons mand word and is preceded by a vowel (asin aio, ap. ot iouou). At the tnds of words howevet, whether the et thes or vowchs is ambiguous. This ambiguity isillsrate y the following pairs of words, Conventionally Spelled Phonemicaly Spelled English Pe toa foe cooled Notice in the conventional speling that final ; represents both /y and (and final w both jw and ul, Pe of of this that these fin sounds are pronounced differently though this may be dfcult THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN st Tw It 274 detect). Also, as we shall sein section 3.3.4, pairs of words like these behave differently when they reduplicate, The Ponapean spelling system thus fits to distinguish between final glides and cE OF Guiots on ApiaceNt Vows In section 266 we noted that on the basis of a distinction between front and back consonants, it was posible to predict the major vowel allophones of Ponapean. At this point, we may extend our generalizations about the infuence of front and back ‘onsonants on vowels to include lide, The observation we may ‘make i thatthe glide /y/, which sa high, foot slide, behaves like 1 front consonant; therefor, it has a fronting effect on vowels Te glide jw), which i a high, back glide behaves like a back consonant it has a backing effect on vowels LLABLE IN PONAPEAN ‘Our procedure thus far has been to look at the individual sounds of Ponapean. We have examined one by one the consonants, ‘ovels, and glides ofthe language. Now we wish to turn to the ‘pllable. Because its easier to illustrate what a syllable i than to ‘define it let us begin this discussion by looking at some Ponapean words divided into syllables. A period is used in the Following ‘examples to mark sjlable division 1 syllable far 2 Sylkbles ood! 5 Sllabes ——pevipesiht “tobe afta of These words illustrate Ponapean words of up to ive syllables in length. Some Ponapean words consist of even more than fv syllables, One example is prcdh.pwu.daukereker “sweating which consists of seven syllables, ‘Now et us attempt a definition of a syllable. Basically a syllable is a unit of specch production. It isthe smallest sequence Of phonemes normally uttered in slowed down speech Ifyou examine the preceding examples of syllables, you will notice that one of the characteristics of a syllable is that itTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN contains one and only one peak sound, Usually this isin the form ofa vowel, but under special circumstances we wll discuss below itmay also bea nasal consonant. Employing this observation, itis possible to establish thre rules which wil correctly mark syllable fivision in Ponapean, First, though, « word of caution; these rules apply to sounds ad not eters. You must keep this in mind ifthe rues are to work 1. Except atthe end of a word, place a syllable boundary etme vo ace! consonant, eee two aja for between an adjacent consonant and a glide. Examples are te make vomit’ toan.oa hatha cade heat Notice that this rule does not put a syllable boundary between final consonants or a final glide and consonant. These words, therefore, are only one slab long This rule does corretly place a syllable boundary between an initial nasal anda following consonant. The intial vowels that are sometimes heard before words fi ihe (or example, mpeie sometimes pronounced frp) willbe discussed in section 29.2 eee THE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN Place syllable boundary before consonants or glides which occur between vowels Because slides sound doubled between vowels in Ponapean, iti aa eet in these examples tobe sure where to mark sylable rao ars ye lide acems to belong to both sylabes. For our irpowes, however, we wil mark sylale division before the 3. Place a syllable boundary between two vows. i spaces iy pac our singe When the two words in the frst column are pronounced, there is Hera gde imerted between the vowels. Wia for example crear in careful speech, is pronounced jwiyay. The insertion of ares is predictable as a natural transition from (i t0 the Riitwing vowel. This phenomenon will be examined in further detail in section 29.1 OTHER SOUND RULES 29 “The sound rles we have examined ths far ae those that describe Toghoncs of phonemes or predict syllable strctre, There 2, allonhone jl ber sound rules we have not yet considered. Rules sow yeG phonemes or delete phonemes, rus that change one Mhoneme to another and rls fr szess and intonation pattems cone mportant in describing Ponapean. Not all ofthese rules ar ae embed here however, In order to understand how some ca arcs work, a more sophisticated knowledge of the str¥c- ar ae Je and phrases i necessary. Consequently the rules tar ot ai the following sections ae limited to those fr which Present background has already been established. In sections aot 2.2 me will examine wo rules which add phoneme. InTHE SOUND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN sections 29.3, 29.4, and 29.5 we will examine ive rules which change one phoneme to another. Finally, in section 29.6, ref ‘erences will be provided fr the location of those sound rules that fare examined in subsequent chapter, Guive Issexnow In spoken Ponapean, a glide insertion rules requir ide insertion rule is required to account for the presence ofthe gid that occurs between a high vowel and any ace nowhigh owe Examples involving he high vowel “The glide y/ that is inserted in these examples is part of the natural transition that oscurs between the 9 tween the pronunciation off and an adjacent non-high vowel. The Ponapean Orthography Committee's recommendation is that this glide should not be ‘When /u, & high back vowel, i adjacent to a non-high vowel, the glide /w/ is inserted. When /u precedes the non-high vowel, this glide is written, asin these examples These words could be spelled sued, hak, or due (as they ined by many Ponapeans), but the recommendation of the ort raphy committee is that these inserted glides be written. If follows a non-high vowel, however, the inserted glide isnot to be written, as in these examples THE SOU Promenc ND SYSTEM OF PONAPEAN |We may summarize our observations about glide insertion in the following rule «In specch, when a high vowel is adjacent to a non-high vowel. insert between these vowels a glide that agrees in tong fadvancement with the high vowel Ifthe inserted gle is afer u, but not before w itis not writen Its /w/ itis written Vownts Consider words in Ponapean like rmpe 0 imp esi it da nia inde os a a a ood ako fnghoal! “to make seni neko tngkopm/ “species of era Notice that words like these, which begin with a nasal consonant followed by another consonant, may be pronounced in two Ways. ihe they may begin with the nasal consonant, o they may have 1 vowel before them, ‘A number of important observations may be made about these additonal intial vowels, Fist, their presence is optional they do not change the meaning of the word, Second, only one of two vowels may be added-—eithe jl, as in the first group of Monde or [ul asin the second group, Third, whether ior // will ocur before particular word is fully predictable. /u) which is pronounced with rounded lips, eccurs only before words begin ving with rounded consonants (/mv) or before words in which the Rest vowel is round (/a/, 0, oF /). [i occurs elsewhere Predictable inital vowels like these are called. prothetic vowels (vowels which are added to the front of words). The Drothetic vowel rule may be stated as follows.