Control Engineering

Yoong Hor Meng

2024-05-08
ii
Table of contents

Preface 1

Prerequisites 3

1 Modelling Dynamic Systems 5

1.1 Dynamic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 What Gives Rise to Dynamic Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Modelling Translational Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
WE1: A horizontal spring-damper system with one end fixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
WE2: A free-moving horizontal spring-damper system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PE1: A car suspension system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Springs in Parallel and in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Modelling Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
WE3: A series RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
WE4: A series-parallel RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
PE2: RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
WE5: A series RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
PE3: A series-parallel RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Laplace Transform Method 19

2.1 From Modelling to Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Why Transform Method in Mathematics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Laplace Transform and Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Algebraic Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Application of Laplace Transform Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

iii
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures

1.1 An example of a position control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2 Graphical representation of dynamic behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Horizontal mass-spring-damper system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Block diagram for WE1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 FBD for WE1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 A device with accelerometer and seismometer sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Block diagram for WE2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 FBD for WE2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 Car suspension system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10 A model of the car suspension system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11 FBD for PE1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.12 A series RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.13 Block diagram for WE3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.14 a series parallel RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.15 Block diagram for WE3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.16 A series RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.17 Block diagram for WE3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.18 A series RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.19 Block diagram for WE3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

v
vi LIST OF FIGURES
List of Tables

1.1 Variables and parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Analogy between springs and resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

vii
viii LIST OF TABLES
Preface

This book serves as an introduction to both the theory and practical aspects of control system engineering,
making it an ideal resource for students at both the diploma and undergraduate levels.
The comprehension of control systems engineering holds paramount importance for students embarking on
degrees in fields such as electrical, mechanical, aerospace, biomedical, and chemical engineering. Control systems
find extensive utilization across a diverse array of applications within these disciplines, encompassing domains
from aircraft and spacecraft to robots and process control systems.

1
2 Preface
Prerequisites

The book presupposes that students possess the following prerequisites:

1. Proficiency in electrical circuit analysis, encompassing both DC and AC circuits.
2. Familiarity with Newtonian modeling, including the application of free body diagrams.
3. A solid grasp of mathematical concepts, particularly in calculus and Laplace transforms.
4. Competence in utilizing Python and Jupyter notebook for practical applications.

3
4 Prerequisites
Chapter 1

Modelling Dynamic Systems

1.1 Dynamic Systems

Models
• Physical
• Mathematical
Typical mechatronics systems:
• Robots
• Pick-and-place for electronics assembly
• CNC (Computer Numerical Control)
Mechattronic systems are usually servo systems:
• Position control systems
• Velocity control systems
Mechatronic systems are also usually mixed systems ⇒ Mechanical systems + electrical/electronic/software
systems.
In this position control system, both force 𝐹 (𝑡) and displacement 𝑥(𝑡) are functions of time 𝑡, i.e., they change
with time. The system is said to be a dynamic system.

Table 1.1: Variables and parameters

Variables Parameters (Properties) - assumed constant

Force, 𝐹 (𝑡) Stiffness 𝑘
Displacement, 𝑥(𝑡) Inertia 𝑚
Velocity, 𝑣(𝑡) Viscous damping (friction) 𝑏
Acceleration, 𝑎(𝑡)

The objective of this chapter is to model systems’ dynamic behavior.

1.2 What Gives Rise to Dynamic Behavior?

Elements Properties
Spring → Stiffness Potential energy (PE): 12 𝑘𝑥2 } Energy-storage element
Mass → Inertia Kinetic energy (KE): 12 𝑚𝑣2 } Energy-storage element
Damper → Damping } Energy-dissipating element

5
6 CHAPTER 1. MODELLING DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 1.1: An example of a position control system

1.3. MODELLING TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 7

The interaction between the energy storage and energy dissipating elements gives rise to dynamic behavior.
Oscillations are due to the energy exchange between the energy storage elements:

𝐾𝐸 ↔ 𝑃 𝐸

Damping removes energy from the system for every cycle of oscillation, resulting in decreasing amplitude.

Figure 1.2: Graphical representation of dynamic behavior

1.3 Modelling Translational Mechanical Systems

WE1: A horizontal spring-damper system with one end fixed
The dynamic system could be represented using a block diagram as shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.3
Show that the system could be modelled in displacemnt 𝑥 as a function of time 𝑡: mass-sprin
is assumed
the mass i

𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑚 2
+𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Solution
8 CHAPTER 1. MODELLING DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 1.3: Horizontal mass-spring-damper system

Figure 1.4: Block diagram for WE1

Draw a FBD (free body diagram) for the mass.

Legend:
• 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡) - Spring force
• 𝐹𝑏 (𝑡) - Damping force
• 𝐹 (𝑡) - Applied force

Figure 1.5: FBD for WE1

Using Newton 2𝑛𝑑 Law: ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝐹 (𝑡) − 𝐹𝑏 (𝑡) − 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎

⇒𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝐹𝑏 (𝑡) + 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡)

𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
⇒𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑚 +𝑏 (𝑡) + 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡

It is a 2𝑛𝑑 -order linear ordinary differential equation (ODE).

1.3. MODELLING TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 9

Ĺ Note

See https://www.myphysicslab.com/explain/classify-diff-eq-en.html for classification of differential equa-

tions.

WE2: A free-moving horizontal spring-damper system

Figure 1.6 depicts a device with mass with mass 𝑚, comprising an accelerometer sensor and a seismometer
sensor. A vibrational displacement (stimulus) 𝑢(𝑡) would trigger a displamcent (response) 𝑦(𝑡) in the same
direction. The displacement 𝑦(𝑡) is constrained by a spring and a damper.

Figure 1.6: A device with accelerometer and seismometer sensors

The dynamic system could be represented with a block diagram in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Block diagram for WE2

Show that the system could be modelled with 𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡):

𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑢(𝑡)

𝑚 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Solution

Draw a FBD for the mass.

Let’s denote:

• 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡) - Spring force

• 𝐹𝑏 (𝑡) - Damping force
• 𝐹 (𝑡) - Applied force
• 𝑢(𝑡) - Stimulus displacement
• 𝑦(𝑡) - Response displacement
10 CHAPTER 1. MODELLING DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Figure 1.8: FBD for WE2

Ĺ Note

For a spring whose end points undergo the displacements 𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡), the elastic force developed in
the spring is proportional to the spring deformation, which is the difference between the two end point
displacements as 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑘(𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡))

Using Newton 2𝑛𝑑 Law: ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝐹𝑏 (𝑡) + 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎

𝑑 𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡)
⇒𝑏 [𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡)] + 𝑘[𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡)] = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2

𝑑2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑢(𝑡)

⇒𝑚 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

It is a 2𝑛𝑑 -order linear ODE.

PE1: A car suspension system

Figure 1.9 shows a car suspension system. Show that the system could be modelled in its input position 𝑥𝑖 (𝑡)
and output 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) position as:

𝑑2 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)

𝑚 +𝑏 𝑜 + 𝑘𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑏 𝑖 + 𝑘𝑥𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Solution

Draw a FBD for the mass.

Using Newton 2𝑛𝑑 Law: ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

1.3. MODELLING TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 11

Figure 1.9: Car suspension system

Figure 1.10: A model of the car suspension system

Figure 1.11: FBD for PE1

12 CHAPTER 1. MODELLING DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

𝐹𝑏 (𝑡) + 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎

𝑑 𝑑2 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)
⇒𝑏 [𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)] + 𝑘[𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) − 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)] = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2

𝑑2 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)

⇒𝑚 +𝑏 𝑜 + 𝑘𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑏 𝑖 + 𝑘𝑥𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

1.3.1 Springs in Parallel and in Series

Table 1.3: Analogy between springs and resistors

2 Springs in Parallel Analogy: 2 Resistors in Series

𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

2 Springs in Series Analogy: 2 resistors in parallel

𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘1 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅1
1 2 1 2

1.4 Modelling Electrical Systems

WE3: A series RC circuit
Figure 1.12 depicts a series RC circuit.

Figure 1.12: A series RC circuit

The dynamic system could be represented with a block diagram in Figure 1.13.
Show that the system could be modelled with 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡):

𝑑𝑣𝑡 (𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
1.4. MODELLING ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 13

Figure 1.13: Block diagram for WE3

Solution

Ĺ Note

An AC current 𝑖(𝑡) passes through a capacitor 𝐶 with voltage 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) is related by 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

⇒𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
⇒𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

It is a 1𝑠𝑡 -order linear ODE.

WE4: A series-parallel RLC circuit

Figure 1.14 depicts a series-parallel RLC circuit.

Figure 1.14: a series parallel RLC circuit

The dynamic system could be represented with a block diagram in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Block diagram for WE3

14 CHAPTER 1. MODELLING DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Show that the system could be modelled with 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡):

𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑅

= 𝑅𝐶 + + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝐿

Solution

𝑖1 (𝑡) = 𝑖2 (𝑡) + 𝑖3 (𝑡)

Expressing all instantenous currents to voltage, resistance and capacitance:

𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) 1 𝑑𝑣 (𝑡)
⇒ = ∫ 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 𝐶
𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡

𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 1 𝑑𝑣 (𝑡)

⇒ = ∫ 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 𝐶
𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡

𝑅 𝑑𝑣 (𝑡)
⇒𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝐿 𝑑𝑡

Differentiating with respect of 𝑡 on both side:

𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

= 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) + 𝑅𝐶 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡

Rearranging the terms:

𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

= 𝑅𝐶 + + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡

It is a 2𝑛𝑑 -order linear ODE.

Ĺ Note

PE2: RLC circuit

This question is omitted.
1.4. MODELLING ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 15

Figure 1.16: A series RLC circuit

WE5: A series RLC circuit

Figure 1.16 depicts a series RLC circuit.
The dynamic system could be represented with a block diagram in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17: Block diagram for WE3

Show that the system could be modelled with 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡):

𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿𝐶 2
+ 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Solution

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
⇒𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) + 𝐿 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) (1.1)
𝑑𝑡
From the capacitor:

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 (1.2)
𝑑𝑡
Put Equation 1.2 into Equation 1.1:

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2

Rearranging the terms:

𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡
16 CHAPTER 1. MODELLING DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

PE3: A series-parallel RLC circuit

Figure 1.18 depicts a series-parallel RLC circuit.

Figure 1.18: A series RLC circuit

The dynamic system could be represented with a block diagram in Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19: Block diagram for WE3

Show that the system could be modelled with 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡):

𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝐿 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿𝐶 + + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡

Solution
Kirchhoff’s current Law:

𝑖1 (𝑡) = 𝑖2 (𝑡) + 𝑖3 (𝑡)

(1.3)
𝑑𝑉 (𝑡) 1
⇒𝑖1 (𝑡) = 𝐶 𝐶 + 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Kirchhoff’s voltage Law:

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑑𝑖1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) (1.4)
𝑑𝑡
Put Equation 1.3 into Equation 1.4:

𝑑 𝑑𝑉 (𝑡) 1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 [𝐶 𝐶 + 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)] + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅

𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝐿 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)

⇒𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿𝐶 + + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
1.5. SUMMARY 17

1.5 Summary

Electrical Translational Mechanical Rotational Mechanical

Systems System System
Energy-storage Inductor Spring Rotary spring
elements

- Energy is stored … … in magnetic field … as potential energy … as potential energy

- Formula 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) 𝑇 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝜃(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐿1 ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
- Energy 𝐸 = 21 𝐿𝑖2 𝑊 = 12 𝑘𝑥2 𝑊 = 21 𝑘𝜃2
Energy-storage Capacitor Mass Moment of inertia
elements

Energy-storage Resistor Damper Rotary damper

elements

Continuity equations At node In equilibrium In equilibrium

(junction)

Compatibility Around the loop In equilibrium In equilibrium

equations
18 CHAPTER 1. MODELLING DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
Chapter 2

Laplace Transform Method

2.1 From Modelling to Analysis

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2.2 Why Transform Method in Mathematics?

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2.3 Laplace Transform and Inverse

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2.4 Algebraic Manipulation

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2.5 Application of Laplace Transform Method

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19
20 CHAPTER 2. LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD