TABLE OF CONTENT THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH... Evidence of the shape of the earth. ROTATION AND REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH.. Effects of the earth’s rotation. Effects of the earth’s revolution. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 12 The crust. The mantl The core. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS. Igneous rocks. Sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks... MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY.. Calculating distance using lines of latitude. Calculating local time using lines of longitude. Calculating longitude using local time. Calculating angles of elevation... Volcanic Activities. MAJOR LAND FORMS. Mountains. Physical weathering. Chemical weathering Mass Movement. RIVER PROCESSES.... Long profile of a river.... ANSWERS TO EXERCISES... 2020 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Geography is the study of the earth as the home of man/woman. ‘The final examination paper 1 (one) consists of; (a) Section A: Map work and basic techniques buat fen cory (b) Section B: Elements of physical geography Rewait K20 (c) Section C: Elements of world human geography —_[yhoresae 12 simpy Cait SECTION B: Elements of Physical Geography 0976285096 THE UNIVERSE The universe is made up of all celestial bodies in space. Now, celestial bodies are sometimes called heavenly bodies. These heavenly bodies include stars, galaxies, solar system, satellites and constellation. Note: 1.A group of stars is called galaxy or nebula. 2.Each galaxy contains more than 100 Billion stars. The stars we see on earth belong to the galaxy called the Milky Way galaxy. 3.The next galaxy from the Milky Way galaxy is known as Andromeda spiral. THE SOLAR SYSTEM >The solar system comprises the sun and the planets. >All planets revolve round the Sun in orbits. > An orbit is the path where the planet moves. The earth OOC)O0 CO $ 6 Figure 1. (The Solar System) THE SUN > Itis the center of energy for all planets. > Ithas a surface temperature of around 6000°C increasing to 20 million °C. > Its size is about 300,000 times as big as the earth. 2020 Page 1 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)The eight planets and their characteristics 1. MERCURY 2. VEI Itis the smallest planet. Itis the nearest planet to the sun (57, 600, 000 km from the sun) ‘A year on mercury is 88 days. There is no life on planet mercury because of high temperatures. Mercury has no atmosphere. US It is the second closest planet to the sun (107, 200, 000 km). It is referred to as earth’s twin planet because of their resemblance in size, weight and density. It has an atmosphere composed mainly of carbon dioxide. It is very hot with temperature of 527°c. It has no moon. A year in Venus is 225days. It is known as the Morning Star or the Evening Star. It spins backwards compared to other planets. VVVVVV VVER VVVVV 3. EARTH Vv It has life with a lot of living things. It is a home of man/woman. > Ithasa natural satellite, the moon. > The moon revolves round the earth in 27 days eastward. > It rotates on its axis once in every 24 hours; it also revolves round the sun in every 365% days. Buy a HARD copy 4. MARS — Of this book ae > — Itis the next planet after earth. Revait K20 > Itis believed to have a possibility of life. Mhoesae Ki2 > A year on mars is 687days. sinew Catt 0976285096 > — Ithas dark patches on its surface. 5. JUPITER 2020 > It takes 11.9 years to complete its orbit around the sun. > Itis the largest planet in the solar system. > Its surface is made up of gases like hydrogen, helium and methane. > Ithas circular light and dark bands. > It has 12 moons that circle around it. > Its surface is very cold with temperature of 128°c. Page 2 of 24 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)6. SATURN > Ithas three rings and nine moons around it. > It is the second largest after Jupiter. > It takes 29% years to complete its orbit. 7. URANUS > It was first seen as a faint bluish-green disc in 18" century. > It is 50 times larger than the earth and 15 times heavy. > It orbits around the sun in a clockwise direction from east to west with five moons revolving around it. > It takes 84years to complete its orbit around the sun. 8. NEPTUNE Buy a HARD Cony > Closely resembles Uranus. ot ne > It has 2 moons. iyhotesate Ki2 > Rotates on its axis once every 10 hours. (Sitopty Cat > It takes 165years to complete its orbit around the sun. 976289096 INNER PLANETS > Inner planets refer to those planets that are near the sun. > These planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. OUTER PLANETS > Outer planets refer to those planets that are far away from the sun. > These planets include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Note: Pluto is not considered to be among the planets because it is known to be a dwarf planet. THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH > From years of accumulated knowledge, experience and observations in different parts of the world, it is known that the earth is spherical in shape and, not flat. It is slightly flattened at the pole; hence the earth is not perfectly spherical. The shape of the earth is more accurately referred to as a geoid. ‘The fact that the earth is a sphere has been proved and has to be accepted by all. VVV 2020 Page 3 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A-ED, MBA-UNZA)Evidence of the earth’s sphericity ‘There are many ways to prove, the earth is spherical in shape, these are; 1. Aerial photographs > These are pictures taken from high attitudes by rockets and satellites. > These show clearly that the earth is spherical. > This is the most convincing and most up to date proof. Buy a HARD copy Of this book at, Rewait K20 Whotesate K12 Sttopyy Catt 0976287096 Figure 1.2 (Aerial photographs) 2. Circumnavigation of the earth > The first voyage around the world under taken by Ferdinand and his crew from 1519-1522 proved beyond doubt that the earth is spherical. > No traveler going round the world by and or sca has ever encountered an abrupt edge, over which he/she would fall. Figure 1.3 (Circumnavigation) 3. The circular horizon > The distant horizon viewed from the deck of a ship at sea or from a cliff on land is always and everywhere spherical in shape. 2020 Page 4 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A-ED, MBA-UNZA)Buy a HARD Copy OF this Look at, Rerail K20 Whojesae Ki2 ‘Sitapw Cait 0976205096 Figure 1.4 (The Circular horizon) 4. Ship’s visibility > When a ship appears over a distant horizon, the top of the mast is seen first before the hull. > In the same way when it leaves the harbour, its disappearance over the curved surface is usually gradual. Figure 1.5 (Ship's visibility) 5. Sunrise and Sunset > Pick a nice spot from which you can watch a sunset (we'll call this point A). Ideally, you'd have a clear horizon in front of you, and behind you would be some sort of elevated point that you can quickly access (a hill, a building like FINDECO HOUSE; we'll call this point B). > Watch the sunset from point A, and once the sun is out of sight, hurry on over to point B. With the added elevation provided by point B, you should be able to see the sun above the horizon. If Earth were flat, the sun would not be visible at any elevation once it had set. Because Earth is round, the sun will come back into your line of sight. 2020 Page 5 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Figure 1.6 (Sunrise and sunset) 6. The lunar eclipse > The shadow cast by the earth on the moon during a Lunar Eclipse is always spherical. > This occurs when the earth is between the sun and the moon. Buy a HARD copy OF this book at, Recait K20 Whotesae Ki2 Sitopy Cat > Redigh passes 0976285096 ‘ona theblooe anti mosphere ‘scatter blue ht ‘Figure 1.7 (The Lunar Eclipse) 7. Allplanetary bodies are spherical > All observations from telescopes reveal that planetary bodies i.e. the sun, moon and stars have spherical outlines from any angle you see them. > This is proof enough that they are all spheres. 2020 Page & of 94 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)THE SUN AND EIGHT PLANETS, Buy a HARD Copy OF this Dok at, Rewait K20 Whotesaie Ki2 ‘Simpy cat Figure 1.8 (Planetary bodies) 8 Surveying with poles on level ground > Poles of equal length when driven into level ground, at equal intervals do not give a straight level. > The center always projects above the level of the poles at either end. > This is caused by the curvature of the earth. > If the earth was flat, the tops of all the poles would lie on the line of sight. Figure 1.9 (Surveying poles) 2020 Page 7 of 944 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)EXERCISE 1 1, The sun, the moon and all those objects shining in the night sky are called...? A. Astrological Satellites B. Celestial Bodies C. Shining Earth D. Shining Satellites Bra alee 2. Which of the following is considered as a Star...? Recalt Ko A. Earth C. Moon Whotesate K12 B. Galaxy D.Sun (Sitapiy Catt 3. The earth has .... «+ Lypes of motions. O9762ESO96 Al C3 B.2 D.5 4, The movement of the earth on its axis is called ...? A. Cycle C. Revolution B. Resolution D. Rotation 5. The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is called...? A. Circular Cycle C. Revolution B. Resolution D. Rotation 6. The axis of the earth which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of ... with its orbital plane. A. 45 Degree C. 66 Degree B. 60 Degree D.90 Degree 7. Earth is slightly flattened at the. ..? A. Middle C. North Pole B. North and the South D. South Pole Poles 8. Earth is slightly bulge in the ...? A. Middle C. North Pole B. North and South Pole D. South Pole 9. The following is (are) true about the Sun. A. It has its own heat and light C. Sun is a star B. It is made up of gases D. All of these 10. The following planet(s) has (have) ring around it (them). A. Jupiter C. Uranus B. Saturn D. All of these 11. The sunis...million km away from the earth. A. 100 B. 150 2020 Page 8 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)C. 200 D. 250 12. Which of the following correctly describes the movement of Earth, Moon and sun? A. Moon revolves around Earth; Earth revolves around sun. B. Moon revolves around sun; Earth revolves around Moon C. Sun and Moon revolve around Earth D. Sun revolves around Moon; Moon revolves around Earth. 13. The following planet is considered as ‘earth’s-twin’ planet. A. Mars cC. Saturn B. Merci D. Venus 14. The following planet is nearest to the Sun. Buy aHARD copy oF this book ae A. Mars C. Venus RecaitKz0 B. Mercury D. Saturn Whoesae Ki2 15. The following planet is known as blue planet. ‘Sian can A. Earth C. Mercury OPEB B. Mars D. Venus 16. The moon moves around the earth in about ... days. A.25 C27 B. 26 D.28 17. The following planet has maximum number of moons. A. Jupiter . Saturn B. Neptune D. Uranus 18. The following planet takes maximum time for one orbit around sun. A. Mercury C. Saturn B. Neptune D. Uranus 19. The following planet takes minimum time for one orbit around sun. A. Earth C. Mercury B. Mars D. Venus 20. The following planet is nearest to the Sun. A. Mars C. Saturn B. Mercury D. Venus ROTATION AND REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH Distance of the earth around the sun. > The distance between the earth and the sun is not constant, due to the fact that, the orbit is elliptical (not perfect circular). > However, the distance has been approximated to about 150,000,000km. > Due to the fact that the earth’s orbit is elliptical this has caused variation in distance during the course of the year. For example, on 3" January, the earth 2020 Page 9 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)is closer to the sun about 147,000,000km and this period is known as perihelion. > Then on 4" July, the earth is far away from the sun about 152,000,000km and this period is called aphelion. Figure 2.1 (Perihelion and Aphelion) . a Buy a HARD copy The earth moves in two distinct ways namely; OF this book at, 1. Rotation and Retait K20 2. Revolution Whowesate Ki (Sitmpiy cait 0976285096 Rotation of the earth > Rotation is the spinning of the earth on its polar axis around the sun. > The earth rotates around the sun from West to East in 24 hours (a day). Because of West — East rotation the sun, moon and stars appear to move westward in the sky. Effects of the rotation of the earth include the following; (a) Day and Night. (b) Deflection of winds and ocean currents. (c) Differences in time at different lines of longitudes. Revolution ens) Rearing Figure 2.3 (Rotation and Revolution of the Earth) 2020 Page 10 of 44. G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Revolution of the earth > As the earth rotates, it also revolves as well. > The revolution takes about 365% days. > The % makes a full day every after 4 years and added to make a leap year with 366 days, in a leap year February always has 29 days. Effects of the revolution of the earth include the following; (a)Changes in the altitude of the midday sun from day to day. (b)Changes in the length of day and night from day to day. (c)Changes in seasons. Sering Eqvinas Waa. moh) Rovalution of the conn ond Sectors Figure 2.4 (Diagram showing the revolution of the earth round the sun and seasons) > Figure 2.4 shows the full Earth orbit. > On December 22, with the southem hemisphere tilting towards the sun, the sun is overhead the tropic of Capricorn and all the places in the southern hemisphere have their longest day and the shortest night and it is mid- summer in this hemisphere. The length of day increases with the increase of latitudes south of the equator. During this time the sun never sets at the Antarctic Circle. > Six months later, On June 21* the sun is overhead at noon along the tropic of cancer, and all the latitudes in the northern hemisphere have their longest day of the year. The length of the day increases with the increase of latitude towards the north of the equator. During this time, the sun never sets at the Arctic Circle. The region beyond the Arctic Circle is famous for its midnight sun and is popularly known as the “land of the midnight sun”. Hammerfest in Norway experiences continuous daylight from May 13 to July 29. 2020 Page 11 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)> The equinoxes occur midway between the solstice dates. At an equinox, the Earth's axis is not tilted towards the Sun or away from it. The March equinox occurson March 21", and the September equinox (autumnal equinox) occurs on September 23. Note: The summer solstice is the day of the year with the most hours of daylight, and the winter solstice is the day of the year with the fewest hours of daylight. While Equinox is the day in the year with 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness. ‘Sommer Soistice oer Didone Tropic ofemeer ase — We 7 Or f N an a . J TN Asuna Eicon ”~ . 238 September | Spring Equinox, OrFquatee o Tv a Staren 0 in " M ! r 3 Tevic ofesricom Winter Solstice aa isi December Figure 2.5 (Summary diagram showing the revolution of the earth round the sun and seasons) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH Internal means inside, now the internal structure of the earth is made up of 3 main sections namely; (a)Core (b)Mantle and ()Crust Figure 3.1 (The Internal Structure of the Earth) 2020 Page 12 of a4 G.ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)(a) The core > At the center of the earth lies the core. This is split into two sections ie. the inner core and outer core. (a) The inner core is solid and is composed of nickel and iron and is called Nife (Ni — nickel and Fe — ferrous ie. iron. It is approximately 1,300 km thick. (b)The outer core is composed of liquid nickel and iron. It is approximately 2,200 km thick. > The core is also known as barysphere. (b)The mantle > The mantle is the thickest layer, being approximately 2,900 km thick. > It is made up of semi — molten rock called magma. > It makes up the bulk of the planet and lies between the core and the crust. > The mantle is also known as mesosphere. (c)The crust > This is the thinnest layer and forms the outer shell on which life exists. > It varies in thickness from just 1km in some places to more than 70 kilometers in other places. > There are two types of crust i.e. oceanic crust and continental crust. (@) Oceanic crust forms the bed or floor of the world’s oceans. It is, on average, 5km thick. (b) Continental crust, on the other hand, is much thicker (on average 35km thick) and yct, despite its thickness, it is less dense material than that which forms oceanic crust. > The crust is also known as lithosphere. Continental Cust, Figure 3.2 (The Sial and Sima) 2020 Page 13 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)‘The crust is horizontally divided into two layers namely; (a)Sial, which refers to the earth’s crust’s upper layer, it is made up of rocks rich in silica and aluminum hence the abbreviation (Sial) “si” for silica and “al” for aluminum. Ithas an average density of 2.7. (b)Sima, which on the other hand is the earth’s crust’s lower layer, it is made up of rocks rich in silica and magnesium “si” for silica and “ma” for magnesium. It has an average density of 3. ‘The layer of the earth that separates the Crust from the Mantle is called Mohorovicie discontinuity or Moho-D. Note: Since the Sial is lighter than Sima, the continents can be said to be floating ona sea of denser Sima. EXERCISE 2 1. The mantle is about 2,900 km thick and is warm and soft enough to flow. Which layer in the figure below is the mantle? A.B CD DE — Buy a HARD Copy OF this BOOK at, =a Revait Ka Whoresate K12 Siteoty Catt 0978285096 2. The lithosphere includes the crust and the upper mantle. Which layer in the figure above is the lithosphere? AA B.B C.Cc D.D » Which part of the earth’s intemal structure is in liquid state? A. Core B. Crust C. Mantle D. Soil 4, The outer core is made of iron and is liquid. Which layer in the figure above is the outer core? AA B.B C.c D.D w . Because of the enormous pressure, the inner core is a...? A. Liquid B. Solid 2020 Page 14 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)C. Gas D. Solid and liquid 6. The center of Earth is referred to as the...? A. Crust C. Lithosphere B. Mantle D.Core 7. Continental crust is approximately how thick? A.3km B.5km C.35 km D.50 km 8. The layer of the earth between the crust and the core is known as the...? A. Lithosphere. C. Outer core. B. Mantle. D. None of the above 9. Which of the following is the correct order for the internal layers of the earth from coolest temperature to warmest temperature? A. Crust, mantle, core C. Core, mantle, crust B. Mantle, crust, core D.None of the above 10. As you move from the surface of the earth to the inner core, what happens to the temperature? A It increases Boat HARD oe B. It decreases en C. It stays the same Uhotesate K12 D. It increases, then decreases ‘sine Cat 0976205096 11. Which one of the earth’s structure would be most significant for agriculture? ‘A. Core C. Hydrosphere B. Crust D. Mantle 12. Study the diagram below which is a cross section through the earth. Sentient ‘Sima piste Wii PAA Which one of the following is the correct mineral composition of the continent? A. Aluminum and Magnesium C. Silica and Aluminum B. Silica and Magnesium D. Nickel and Magnesium 2020 Page 15 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A-ED, MBA-UNZA)13. The oceanic crust is called...? A. Sial C. Nife B. Sima D. Sin CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS > Arock is a naturally formed, non-living earth material. > Based on their formation, rocks are grouped into three classes and these are; {a) Igneous rocks Bur a HARD copy {b)Sedimentary rocks oF nis ek at (c)Metamorphic rocks. hoc Strap Cat (a) Igneous Rocks 0976285096 > Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma) from beneath the earth’s crust. > They are normally crystalline in structure. } Igneous rocks may be subdivided into two on the basis of mineral composition. (a) Acid igneous rocks (b)Basic igneous rocks Acid igneous rocks, these are less dense and lighter in colour than basic rocks and they contain a high proportion of silica e.g. granite. Basic rocks contain a greater proportion of basic oxides and are denser and darker in colour e.g, aluminum or magnesium. Figure 4.1 (Igneous Rocks) > In terms of origin, there are two main classes of igneous rocks and these are Plutonic and Volcanic rocks. 2020 Page 16 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)(a)Plutonic rocks > These are rocks formed at some depth in the earth’s crust. > They have cooled and solidified slowly within the earth’s crust so that large easily recognized crystals have been formed. > Because they are formed within the crust, they are known as intrusive rocks e.g. granite. (b) Volcanic igneous rocks > Volcanic igneous rocks are also known as extrusive igneous rocks. > They solidify rapidly on the earth’s surface and the crystals are small. > Basalt is a common volcanic rock and forms lava flows, lava sheets such as dykes, sills and lava plateaux. > Most igneous rocks are extremely hard and resistant. > For this reason, they are quarried for road making and polished as. monuments and grave stones. (b) Sedimentary rocks > Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments accumulated over long periods, usually under water. > They are formed in layers and are therefore termed stratified or layered rocks. Buy a HARD Copy OF this Book at, Retail K20 Whotesale Ki2 Sitapiy Catt 0976285096 Figure 4.2 (Sedimentary Rocks) > The strata may vary in thickness from few centimeters to many meters. > The rocks may be coarse or fine-grained, soft or hard. > The materials that form sedimentary rocks may be brought by streams, winds or even animals. 2020 Page 17 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)> They are non-crystalline and often contain fossils of animals, plants and other micro-organisms. > Sedimentary rocks are classified according to their age and different kinds of rocks formed during the same period are grouped together. > Sedimentary rocks may be classified under three major categories in accordance with their origin and composition and these are; (a) Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks > Those rocks have been formed from accumulated materials derived from other rocks which have been cemented together. Sandstones are the most familiar sedimentary rocks. They are made from sand grains, often quartz fragments derived from granites. Their texture, composition and colour vary tremendously. Many types of sandstones have been quarried for building purposes or for making grind stones. A coarser type of sandstone is known as grit. The finer sedimentary material form clay, widely used for brick- making, shale or mudstone. vv vv vv (b) Organically formed sedimentary rocks > These rocks are formed from the remains of living organisms such as corals or shellfish, whose fleshy parts have been decomposed, leaving behind the hard shells. > The most common rocks formed in this way include limestone and chalk. > The carbonaceous rocks (coal) are also organically formed but from vegetative matter in swamps and forests. > The pressure of overlying sediments has compressed the plant remains into compact masses of carbon which eventually become peat, lignite, all of which bear great economic value. (c) Chemically formed sedimentary rocks. > Such rocks are precipitated chemically from solutions of one kind or another. > Rock salts are derived from strata which once formed the beds of seas or lakes. Gypsum or calcium sulphate is obtained from evaporates of salty lakes. > In similar ways, potash and nitrates may be formed. 2020 Page 18 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)(c)Metamorphic rocks > All rocks whether igneous or sedimentary may become metamorphic or changed rocks if they are subjected to great heat and pressure. > Their original character and appearance may be greatly changed by such forces, particularly during intense earth movements. > In this manner, they may be metamorphosed into slate, limestone into marble, sandstone into quartzite, granite into gneiss, shale into slate and coal into graphite. Buy a HARD copy OF thls BOOK at, Revait K20 Whorsae K12 simpy Catt 0976285096 Figure 4.3 (Metamorphic Rocks) EXERCISE 3 1. Rocks that have been subjected to tremendous heat and/or pressure, causing them to change into another type of rock are called...” A. Igneous C. Metamorphic B. Sedimentary D. None of these 2. Rocks that are formed from sediments that have settled at the bottom of a lake, sea or ocean are called... A. Igncous C. Metamorphic B. Sedimentary D. None of these 3. Which of the following is a characteristic of igneous rocks? A. Found near volcanic or previously volcanic regions B. Contain skeletons of sea creatures C. Formed in layers D. None of these 4, Which of the following is a characteristic of sedimentary rock? A. Contains skeletons of sea creatures B. Contains crystals C. Resistant to weathering and erosion D. None of these 5. Basalt is an example of which type of rock? A. Igneous B. Sedimentary 2020 Page 14 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)C. Metamorphic D. None of these 6. Which metamorphic rock originates from limestone? A. Chalk C. Marble B. Basalt D. None of these 7. Rocks like granite which are formed from magma are called...? A. Sedimentary C. Metamorphic B. Igneous D. None of these 8. Slate is an example of which type of rock? A. Sedimentary C. Metamorphic B. Igneous D. None of these 9. Limestone is an example of which type of rock? A. Sedimentary C. Metamorphic B. Igneous D. None of these 10. Which of the following is a characteristic of metamorphic rock? A. Soft and easily worn away Buy a HARD copy B. Formed due to tremendous heat and pressure = of eiv/s book ac, C. Formed due to the action of water Rewait Kio D. None of these Whovesate X12 Sitapty Cat 11. Which of the following statements is incorrect? A. Igneous rocks are made from grains of other rocks that have been cemented together B. Sedimentary rocks normally form in layers C. Both metamorphic and sedimentary rocks can contain visible layers D. Igneous and metamorphic rocks often contain crystals 12. Which type of rock is made from molten magma that has cooled down and solidified? A. Igneous C. Sedimentary B. Metamorphic D. All of these MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY Lines of latitude > Lines of latitude refer to the imaginary lines running east to west parallel to the equator. > The equator represents the 0° and the North and South Poles are 90°N and 90°S respectively. > The lines of latitudes are drawn at an interval of 1°. > The most important lines of latitude are the equator (0°), tropic of cancer (23Y°N), tropic of Capricom (2314°S), arctic circle (66%°N) and the Antarctic circle (66/2°S). All as shown in the figure below. 2020 Page 20 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Buy a HARD Copy OF this book at, Retail K20 Whoresaie K12 Stray Cat 0976285096 Figure 5.1 (Important lines of latitudes) Lines of longitude > Lines of longitude are measured East or West of the prime meridian, from the center of the Earth. > They run from North to South. > The meridian which passes through the Greenwich is given the value 0°. > These lines of longitude are important because they determine the local time in connection with the (GMT) Greenwich Meridian Time. Figure 5.2 (Lines of longitudes) > Latitude is angular distance from the Equator to a point on the Earth's surface. > Latitude can either be North or South, depending on the hemisphere in which the location is located. 2020 Page 21 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Buy a HARD Copy OF this OOK ae, Recall K20 Whoresate Ki2 Sita Catt 0976285096 Figure 5.3 (Latitude) > Longitude, as said earlier is the angular distance from the Prime Meridian to a point on the Earth’s surface. > Longitude is described as being either East or West, depending on which way you measure from the Prime Meridian, and ranges from 0 degrees at the Prime Meridian, to 180 degrees at the Antimeridian. CALCULATING DISTANCE USING LINES OF LATITUDE (@) First locate the two places involved, (b) Find the difference in latitude between the two places involved. Latitude Calculation Procedures 1. If the two places involved are from north to north, you subtract “> North to North = subtract If the two places involved are from south to south, you subtract South to South = subtract 2. If the two places involved are from north to south or from south to north, you add “+ North to South = addition + South to North = addition 3. If it is from the equator 0° to North or South you add or subtract, but the subtraction is useless because equator is always zero. > After getting the difference in latitude, you multiply the latitude difference by 111km. 2020 Page 22 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)> One degree (1°) of latitude is approximately 111km on land. > 11 1kmis derived by dividing the length of equatorial circumference: 40,085km divided by 360° 40085/360 = 111km > Given the number of degree of latitude between two places, it is easy to calculate the distance between them. Example 1 Calculate the distance between the equator and Egypt of latitude 30°N Solution Buy 2 HARD cory Locate the two places involved aa @ Equator = Latitude of 0° Whoresalo K12 Egypt = Latitude of 30°N ‘Simpy catt > From the 3rd procedure 0975285095 > Equator to North or South = addition or subtraction > But equator is always at 0°, so subtraction will have no effect Latitude difference; = 30° + 0° or 30° - 0° still the same thing = 30° > Since 1° = 111km > Therefore 30° = (111 x 30) km > =3330km Therefore; distance between the equator and Egypt is 3330km. Example 2 Calculate the distance between South Africa (30°S) and Spain (40°N) Solution First locate the two places involved, Latitude of South Africa = 30°S. Latitude of Spain = 40°S Latitude difference From South to North = addition Thus Latitude difference =30°S + 40°N = 70° > Since 1° = 111km > Hence, 70° =(111 x 70) km =7770km Hence, the distance between South Africa and Spain is 7770km. vovvyvyv 2020 Page 23 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A-ED, MBA-UNZA)Example3 Calculate the distance between Lagos (4°N) and Cairo (30°N). Solution > First locate the two places involved, > Latitude of Lagos = 4°N Bura HARD copy > Latitude of Cairo = 30°N oF ehis book ac. From North to North = subtraction Rewait K20 > Latitude difference = 30°N - 4°N = 26° onan > Since 1° = L11km 0975285095 > Then 26° =(111 x26) km > =2886km Hence, the distance between Lagos and Cairo is 2886 km. EXERCISE 4 1. Budapest (Hungary) and Cape Town (South Africa) lie along the same meridian (18°E). Budapest lies at 47°N while Cape Town lies at 33°S. What is the approximate distance between them? A. 1554km C.5217km B. 3663 km. D. 8880km 2. Find the distance in km between Lusaka (15°S) in Zambia and Khartoum (15°N) in Sudan in a straight line. ‘A. 2226.0km C. 4452.0km B. 3330.0km D. 5565.0km 3. What is the approximate straight line distance between Cape Town (33°S) and Tropical of Capricorn (2314°S)? A. 1054.5km C. 3663.0km B. 2608.5km D. 6216.0km 4, What is the distance between Harare 17°S and Lusaka 13°S. A. 444km C. 22km B. 33km D. 222km 2020 Page 24 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.8.ED, MBA-UNZA)CALCULATING LOCAL TIME USING LINES OF LONGITUDE EXAMPLE 1 Calculate the time at X (30°E), when it is 18:00hrs in London. ‘+ There are three steps to follow and these are; 1. Plot Buya HARD copy Of this book at, Retail K20 Uhoresate K12 Simpy Calt 0976285096 Figure 5.4 (Plotting) 0° 18}00hrs_ ? x E o 30° 2. Find the difference in degrees Difference = 30°- 0° = 30° 3. Convert the difference in degrees into time using the formula; 15°= 1 hour 1° =4 minutes Therefore, if 15° = 1 hour, what about 30°? 15° = 1 hour 30° X= 30=2 hours 15 Finally, since the point at which we want to find time is on the right of the point where we have both degrees (longitude) and time, we thus add 2 hours to 18:00 hrs. 18:00hrs + 02:00hrs = 20:00hrs 2020 Page 25 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)EXAMPLE 2 ‘What would be the time in Mongu (31°E), when the time at place ‘X’ 47°E is 16:00hrs? + There are three steps to follow and these are; (Plot 0° Buya HARD copy OF this LOOK at, Recall K20 ihotesate K22 Simpy cat 2976285096 (2)Find the difference in degrees Difference = 47°- 31° = 16° (3)Convert the difference in degrees into time using the formula; 15°= 1 hour 1° =4 minutes ‘Therefore, if 15° = 1 hour, what about 16°? 15° = 1 hour 16° = X= 16=1 hour, 4 minutes 15 Finally, since the point at which we want to find time is on the left of the point where we have both degrees (longitude) and time, we thus subtract 1 hour 4 minutes from 16:00hrs._16:00hrs EXAMPLE 3 When the local time is 21:00 hours on 3" March in Melbourne (140° E), what would be the time in Calgary (90°W)? + There are three steps to follow and these are; 1 Plot oa 21:00hrs x 90° 140° 2 Find the difference in degrees Difference = 90°+ 140° = 230° 3. Convert the difference in degrees into time using the formula; 15°=1 hour 1° =4 minutes 2020 Page 26 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Therefore, if 15° = 1 hour, what about 230°? 15°= 1 hour 230° = X X= 230 = 15 hours, 20 minutes 15 Finally, since the point at which we want to find time is on the left of the point where we have both degrees (longitude) and time, we thus subtract 15 hours, 20 minutes from 21:00 hrs. 21:00hrs Buy a HARD copy OF this book aq, ~ 15:20hrs Reraii K20 05:40hrs Wheresae K12 EXERCISE 5 Shopy Cait 0976285096 1. The world cup final between West Germany and Holland was played at Munich (longitude 11°E) at 17:00 hours on 7 July, 1977. What was mathematically the local time in Kuala Lumpur Longitude (102°E) when it was televised? 2. What time would it be at place X which is 75°E? If the time is 07:00hrs in London. 3. Time at place X (108°B) is 18:48 hours. What time would it be at Y (75°W)? 4. What would be the time in Lusaka (30°E)? If the time in New York (75°W) is 18:00hrs. 5. What would be the time at Lusaka (30°E) if the time at New York (75°W) is 15:00hrs? 6. The FIFA world cup opening match between South Africa and Mexico was beamed live in Johannesburg (30°E), at 16:00 hours on Friday, 11" June, 2010. What was the time and date when the viewers in Auckland, New Zealand (165°E), were watching the live match? A. 05:00 hours, Friday, 11" June B. 08:00 hours, Friday, 11"* June. C. 01:00 hours, Saturday, 12 June. D. 03:00 hours, Saturday, 12 June. CALCULATING LONGITUDE USING LOCAL TIME EXAMPLE 1 At 13:00hours local time, people in Ghana (0°) are watching a live television broadcast of the swearing ceremony of the newly elected president in a country where the local time is 09:00 hours. What is the longitude of the place? There are three steps to follow and these are; 2020 Page 27 of 44. G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)1. Plot oe 0! hrs = 13:00hrs 2. Find the difference in time Difference = 13:00 — 09:00 = 4 hours 3. Convert the difference in time into degrees using the formula; 1 hour =15? 4 minutes = 1° Therefore, if 1 hour = 15°, what about 4hours? Point to note, always multiply hours by 15. Burs HARD copy & 4x15=60° OF this Book at, Longitude therefore is 60°W Retalt K20 Whowesele Ki2 Sitapy cat EXAMPLE 2 When the time at place ‘X” (47° F) is 16:00 hours what would be the longitude at place ‘Y’ where time is 14:56 hours? + There are three steps to follow and these are; 1, Plot o° 14:56hrs 16:00hrs x ? 47 2. Find the difference in time Difference = 16:00 — 14:56 = 1 hour, 04 minutes 3. Convert the difference in time into degrees using the formula; 1 hour =15° 4 minutes = 1° Therefore, if 1 hour = 15°, what about 1hour, 04 minutes? Point to note, always multiply hours by 15 and divide minutes by 4 and then add the two results. & 1x 15=15° e 41° 4 Then add the two, that 15° + 1° = 16° Longitude therefore is 16°E 2020 Page 28 of 44 G. ZIBA (6.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)EXAMPLE3 If the local time in Melbourne (140°E) on 3* March is 21:00 hours, calculate the longitude of Calgary when the time is 05:40 hours. » There are three steps to follow and these are; Buy a teARD copy 1. Plot o° one Ohrs 21:00hrs Uhoweoo je x Simpy cat 140° O76 20096 2. Find the difference in time Difference = 21:00 —05:40 = 15 hours, 20 minutes 3. Convert the difference in time into degrees using the formula; 1 hour =15° 4 minutes = 1° Therefore, if 1 hour= 15°, what about 15hour, 20 minutes? Point to note, always multiply hours by 15 and divide minutes by 4 and then add the two results. ® 15x 15=225° > 20 =5° 4 Then add the two, that 225° + 5° = 230° Longitude therefore is 230°W EXERCISE 6 1. The captain of a ship observed that it was local noon. He tured on the radio and listened to the 08.00 hours BBC news. What was his longitude? 2. At 13.00 hours local time, people in Ghana (0°) are watching a live television broadcast of swearing ceremony of a newly elected president in a country where the local time is 09.00 hours. What is the longitude of the place where the ceremony is taking place? 3. What is the longitude of a place whose local time is 12:00hrs when Greenwich Time is 16:00hrs? A.45°E C. 60°E B. 45°W D. 60°W 2020 Page 24 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE Buy aHARD copy OF this book at, Revait X20 ighoresate Kz Sitmpty cat 0976280096 Tein sah pole Figure 5.5 (Intemational Date Line) Itis the line where dates change by exactly one day when it is crossed. A traveler going eastwards gains time from Greenwich until he reaches the meridian 180° when he will be 12 hours ahead of GMT. Similarly when going westwards, he loses 12hours when he reaches 180°w. There is therefore a total difference of 24hours or a whole day between the two sides of the 180°meridian. A waveler crossing the dateline from east to west loses a day, because of the Joss in time he has made. When crossing the dateline from west to east he gains a day because of the gain in time he has encountered. vv WV VV GREAT CIRCLES These are lines dividing the globe into two equal parts. There are an infinite number of great circles of equal length running around the globe. These include: - 1. The circle formed by the Greenwich Meridian and 180° meridian. 2. The circle formed by the 130°W and 50°E meridian (XY). 3, Among the lines of latitudes only the equator AB is a great circle. Vv 2020 Page 30 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)vv Buy a HARD Cony oF this book at, Rerait K20 Whotesate Ki2 (Simpy Cat 0976285096 Figure 5.6 (Great Cycles) Modern aircrafts follow routes along sections of great circles for speedy long distance flights and thus cut down flying time. Great circles are used to cross Polar Regions. But it is not always possible to follow great circle routes because~ 1, Airroutes link numerous cities. 2. OF political reasons, some countries forbid the use of their air space. 3. Air routes tend to follow the land in case of accident and rarely fly for ong distances over the sea. THE ALTITUDE OF THE MIDDAY SUN During the year, the earth revolves round the sun with its axis inclined at 664° to the plane. ‘This inclination changes the apparent altitude of the midday sun. (a)The sun is ovethead at noon along the equator (0°) on March 21* and September 23" as a result places along the equator experience equal days and nights. > These are called equinoxes. (b)On 21* June the sun is overhead at midday along the Tropic of Cancer (234°N). > This is called Summer Solstice. (c)On 22 December the sun is overhead at midday along the Tropic of Capricorn (23%4°S). > This is called the Winter Solstice. 2020 Page 31 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)Buy a HARD copy OF chis book a Revait K20 UWhowsaje Ki2 Sitnpy Cat O9762E5096 Figure 5.7 (Important Lines of Latitudes) CALCULATING ANGLES OF ELEVATION OF THE MID DAY SUN > An angle of elevation is simply the amount that you would have tumed your view upward from the horizontal to see the plane, the moon, or the tops of the buildings. You may be wondering what is meant by the horizontal. > The horizontal in these situations would be looking straight ahead. In other words, if you alter your line of sight from being straight ahead to looking upward, then you have created an angle of elevation. Figure 5.8 (Angle of Elevation) Example > Calculate the angle of elevation of Milan 46°N on 21* June. > The following formula is useful. > Angle of elevation = [90° — (Place + overhead sun)]. @) sign is used when the place and overhead sun are in different Hemispheres. 2020 Page 32 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)©) sign is used when the place and overhead sun are in the same Hemispheres. > Angle of elevation should not be more than 90°; it must be 90° or less. > Using the example above let us Calculate the angle of elevation of Milan 46°N on 21" June. Bara HARD Cony oF this book ar, AOE = 90° - (46 - 23%) Revait K2a = 90° - (224%) Whoesate K22 Tie sitapty Catt — 0976285096 » For us to prove if our answer is correct, We can use the same formula to find the latitude by making it subject of the formula, if our latitude will still be 46°N as given in the question then our angle of elevation 6742°is correct. Let’s calculate Place = 90° - (AOE + overhead sun) = 90° (67% - 23%) =90° - 44° = 46N EXERCISE 7 L. Atwhich angle is the earth’s axis inclined to and is responsible for the change of seasons? A. 238 B. 66" c.90° D. 360° 2. What would be the angle of elevation of a midday sun for a place on latitude 58°S on 22" December? A. 24Y2 B. 324° c. 55ve D.67% 3. Study the map below. Which of the following was the correct date in Alaska? A. Thursday, 29" December, 2019 2020 Page 33 of 44. G. ZIBA (8.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)B, Friday, 30" December, 2019 C Saturday, 31" December, 2019 D. Sunday, 1 December, 2020 4, The sun’s angle of elevation at noon at Vancouver, 50°N on 22 December would be...? A. 164° C. 30° B. 234" D. 50° 5. The sun’s angle of elevation at noon at latitude 48°S on 21" June would Be...? A 184" Cc. 65" B. 494° D. 714° 6. On 21* June the sun is overhead at the tropic of cancer. What will be the angle of elevation at 10°S? 7. What is the angle of elevation of the sun on 21“ June when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricom? A. 664° C. 43° B. 60° D.34° 8. The sun’s angle of elevation at noon at latitude 48°N on 21 June would be...? A. 24° Cc. 654° B. 42° D.90° EARTH’S MOVEMENTS Earth movements are of two (2) types and these are; Buy a HARD com (a)Horizontal or lateral movements and OF this book ac, (b)Vertical movements Reeait K20 Whoresate Kiz Sttapiy cat (a) Horizontal earth movements anor > These are movements which act along a horizontal plane within crustal rocks. > They are caused by the following main forces, tensional, compressional and shear forces. (b) Vertical earth movements > These are movements which occur from the centre towards the earth’s surface or from the surface towards the earth’s centre. 2020 Page 34 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)‘The main forces that affect faulting and folding are; (a)Tensional force — this is when two forces act away from each other. — Tensional force (b)Compressional force — this is when two forces act towards each other. — <—— Compressional force (c)Shearing force — this is when two forces act parallel to each other, though in opposite direction. —_— — ‘Shear force Faulting > These are fractures of the rock strata of the earth’s crust called faults. > Faults occur in rocks when rocks are unable to resist the pressure to which they are subjected and crack, resulting in fractures or joints. > When a fault occurs, the rocks on either side of the fault are displaced. Types of faults (a)Normal fault > A normal fault results from two forces moving in a horizontal plane in opposite directions. > The rock strata are under tension and finally break, causing the rocks to become disjointed with normal faults occurring. > The tension in the rocks is normally caused by tectonic plates moving apart. > Note: forces move away from each other. ‘Yensslonal stress = Normal fault Figure 6.1 (Normal Fault) (b)Reverse fault > A reverse fault is caused by compression of the rock strata. > Faulting may accompany folding of the rock strata or may occur instead of folding. 2020 Page 35 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Note: forces move towards each other, causing compression and reverse. faulting. Faultline Buy a HARD copy) of this book ae Reval K20 Whotesate K12 Sitopy Cat 976285096 Figure 6.2 (Reverse Fault) (©)Tear fault > A tear fault occurs when two plates slide past each other. > The plates slide past each other, with no vertical movement. However, the evidence of horizontal displacement can be quite marked. Figure 6.3 (Tear Fault) Features formed by faulting (a)Rift valleys or grabens > Rift valleys can be the result of normal faulting in which one side of a fault subsides relative to the other. > The valleys are formed due to tensional forces in areas of divergent plate boundaries. 2020 Page 36 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)<-Baults Tension forces ‘Figure 6.4 (Rift Valley formed by Tension) > Rift valleys can also be formed by compressional forces which push up the land on each side of a central block, resulting in the central block subsiding. > The uplifted area is called a block mountain or horst. Figure 6.5 (Rift Valley formed by Compression) (b)Block Mountain or Horst > Ablock mountain or horstiis the raised fault block bounded by normal faults or rift valley. 2020 Page 37 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)> An elongate (stretched out) blocks of the earth’s crust that have been raised compared to their surrounding areas as a direct effect of faulting. How Block Mountains are formed > The cracks formed on the earth's surface are called "faults", Due to tectonic or seismic movements, there are movements along these faults. As a result, block of rocks are moved on either side of these faults. They can get tilted sideways or can be uplifted with incredible force. There are two formation theories of Block Mountains. 1. Block Mountain formed by tension > Rock layers being pulled apart by tensional forces going in opposite directions. Tensional forces cause rocks to break and normal faults develop. > As a result, the side rocks went down. And in the middle, the central block remained at a higher than the outer blocks. Figure 6.6 (Rift Valley formed by Compression) 2020 Page 38 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A-ED, MBA-UNZA)2, Block Mountains formed by compression > According to this theory, the rock layers compressed the middle block. > Due to this compression, the middle block rose forming the Block Mountain. The middle block remained at a higher elevation than the side rock blocks. ryveree fault Buy a HARD copy OF this book a Reval K20 Whoresae Ki2 (Sttopy Catt foun cone O97625096 Coupression from the side Figure 6.7 (Rift Valley formed by Compression) Folding > It is the bending of strata as a result of compressive forces in the earth's crust. > These folds range from a gentle flexure of a few centimeters in size to folds that produce the world’s great mountain systems of the world. Parts of a fold Limb - The rock strata on either side of the fold. Anticline - The up part of the fold (up-fold). Syncline - The down part of the fold (down-fold). Fold aris _ys4 Figure 6.8 (Rift Valley formed by Compression) 2020 Page 34 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)‘Types of folds There is a wide variety of different fold sizes and types that can be observed in the rocks of fold mountain areas. The variations are related to rock types and thicknesses, as well as to the direction of the compressional forces being applied to them. (a)Simple fold/symmetsical fold > Those are folds in which axial plane is vertical. > The sides are symmetrical. > This is the simplest type of fold. Figure 6.9 (Simple fold) (b)Asymmetrical Fold > A fold in which one limb bends more steeply than the other. > In this fold the limbs bend at different angles. > An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined. Figure 6.10 (Asymmerrical fold) 2020 Page 40 of a4 G.ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)()Overfold/overturned fold > An over fold is formed when one limb is pushed over the other limb. > This process occurs when the compressional forces from one side are greater than from the other side. Figure 6.11 (Overjold) (@)Recumbent fold > This is an overturned fold in which the axial surface is horizontal, or nearly so, or a fold in which the axial plane is almost horizontal. Figure 6.12 (Recumbent fold) (@)Overthrust fold > Itisa large body or sheet of rock that has been moved by folding some distance from its original position. 2020 Page 41 of 44. G. ZIBA (8.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)> In overthrust fold, compressional force is so great that the rock strata are broken and slide over the other. > One area of the crust slides over and overrides the other. TP =THRTSI PLANE Figure 6.13 (Overthrust fold) EXERCISE 8 1. Study the diagram shown below. ert [Aetna What type of a fault is indicated by the diagram? A. Thrust fault C. Reverse fault B. Normal fault D. Tear fault 2020 Page 42 of 44 G.ZIBA (B.4-ED, MBA-UNZA)2. Study the diagram shown below. Buy a HARD Copy Of this book ac Rewait Ka . Wnowsare Ki Compression simpy Cat 0976285096 fe “compression —— What type of a fault is indicated by the diagram? A. Normal fault C. Tear fault B. Reverse fault D. Thrust fault 3. Study the diagram below. What feature is represented by the diagram above? A. Anticline C. Syncline B. Horst D. Valley 4, Study the diagram below and answer the question that follows. The diagram above shows the formation of...? A. An Asymmetrical fold C. An Overfold B. A Simple fold D, An Overthrust fold 2020 Page 43 of a4 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)5. Study the diagram below, which illustrates a series of folds in a mountain area, then answer the following questions. (a) Name the structural features at A and B. (>) Name the feature represented by the broken line through C. (© Which of the areas marked A, B and C represents a simple fold? @ Identify the type of fold shown at D. (@) Describe how the features shown in the diagram could have been formed. 6. Study the diagram below showing a folded part of the earth’s surface. Buy a HARD Copy OF this DOoK at, Reval K20 j Uhotesate Ki2 =, Sttoply Cait 0976285096 ! What type of force is responsible for the formation of the feature shown? A. Lateral movement C. Vertical movement B. Tension D. Compression 7. When plates slide past each other, compressional stresses produce which type of fault? A. Normal C. Transverse B. Reverse D. Tensional 8. A sunken block between two parallel normal faults is a... A. Horst C. Graben B. Echelon D. Anticline 9. A.....is formed by an upthrow block that lies between two reverse faults that run parallel to each other. A. Upthrow C. Normal fault B. Downthrow D. Block mountain 2020 Page 44 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)10. A normal fault results from which type of force? A. Tension C. Transverse B. Compression D. Thrust 11. A rift valley results from which type of force? A. Tension C. Transverse B. Compression D. Thrust 12. Anticlines are downfolds and synclines are upfolds. A. True B. False 13. Study the diagram below and answer the question that follows. Buy a HARD copy OF this book ae, Recait K20 Whojesate Ki SiapIY Cait 097628509 The feature above represents the formation of a...? A. Plateau by compression B. Plateau by tension C. Rift valley by compression D. Rift valley by tension EARTHQUAKES An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the earth's crust due to movement of the earth's plates. Earthquakes can happen along any type of plate boundary. The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus. The point on the earth's surface above the focus is called the epicentre. Earthquake energy is released in seismic waves. These waves spread out from the focus. The waves are felt most strongly at the epicentre, becoming less strong as they travel further away. The most severe damage caused by an earthquake will happen close to the epicentre. 2020 Page 45 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Buy a HARD copy] OF this BOOK at, Retait K20 Whowesate Ki2 Simpy Cat O9762E5096. Figure 7.1 (The Epicentre) > The Pacific Ring of Fire or the Circum-pacific region is a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. Figure 7.2 (The Pacific Ring of Fire) Effects of earthquakes Effects of earthquakes are often classified as primary and secondary. (a)Primary effects occur as a direct result of the ground shaking, e.g. buildings collapsing. (b)Secondary effects occur as a result of the primary effects, e.g. tsunamis. 2020 Page 46 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)What is the meaning of the word tsunami? > It is a Japanese word “Tsu” means “harbor” “Nami” means “wave” > Therefore, tsunami means harbor wave in English. Buy a HARD Copy OF this DOoK at, Short-term (immediate) effects of earthquakes Rerait K20 > People may be killed or injured. Mowe Riz > Homes may be destroyed. > Transport and communication links may be disrupted. > Water pipes may burst and water supplies may be contaminated. > Shops and businesses may be destroyed. > Looting may take place. > The damage to transport and communication links can make trade difficult. > The built landscape may be destroyed. > Fires can damage areas of woodland. > Tsunamis may cause flooding in coastal areas. Long-term effects of earthquakes > Diseases may spread. > People may have to be re-housed, sometimes in refugee camps. > The cost of rebuilding a settlement is high. Investment in the area may be focused only on repairing the damage caused by the earthquake. > Income could be lost. Factors affecting the impact of an earthquake (a) Distance from the epicentre > The effects of an earthquake are more severe at its center. > The higher the reading on the Richter scale, the more severe the earthquake is. (b)Level of development (MDCs or LDCs) » Most Developed Countries (MDCs) are more likely to have the resources and technology for monitoring, prediction and response than Least Developed Countries (LDCs). (©)Population density of an area (rural or urban area) > The more densely populated an area, the more likely there are to be deaths and casualties. (@Time of day an earthquake occurs > Time of day an carthquake occurs influences whether people are in their homes, at work or travelling. > A severe carthquake at rush hour ina denscly populated urban arca could have devastating effects. 2020 Page 47 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A-ED, MBA-UNZA)EXERCISE 9 1. An earthquake can best be described as. A. Faulting of the earth’s crust. B. Movement of the tectonic plates in the earth’s crust. C. Shattering of the earth’s crust. D. Sudden release of energy in form of motion in the earth’s crust, 2. When an earthquake occurs on the ocean floor, the resulting wave is called a...? ALS wave C. Tsunami B. P wave D. None of these 3. What is an earthquake? A. An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the earth's crust due to movement of the earth's plates B. An earthquake is the eruption of molten rock from inside the earth's crust C. An earthquake is the creation of new land formed by molten rock pushing through gaps in the earth's crust D. None of these 4, At what sort of plate boundaries might earthquakes take place? A. Conservative plate boundaries B. Conservative and destructive plate boundaries C. All plate boundaries D. All of these 5, What causes earthquakes? A. Earthquakes are caused when tension is released inside the earth's crust B. Earthquakes are caused when the Earth moves closer to the Sun C. Earthquakes are caused when plate boundaries pull away from each other D. None of these 6. The point inside the earth where the pressure is released is called the...? A. Inner core C. Cone B. Focus D.None of these 7. The point on the Earth's surface that is directly above an earthquake is called the...? A. Epicentre C. Inner core B. Cone D.None of these 8. Energy released by an earthquake is in the form of... A. Magma C. Shakes B. Seismic waves D. All the above 2020 Page 48 of 94 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)9. A seismometer measures what? A. The damage caused by an earthquake B. The distance of an earthquake from the focus to the epicenter C. The vibrations caused by an earthquake D. None of these 10. The strength or magnitude of an earthquake is measured using what? A. Sonar equipment C. Vanderlay chart B. Richter scale D. None of these 11. What is an aftershock? A. Aftershocks are the smaller earthquakes that follow the main earthquake B. Aftershocks are earthquakes that take place before the main earthquake C. An aftershock is the spot on the surface of the earth's crust that is located immediately above the epicentre of the earthquake D. None of these 12, What isa primary effect of an earthquake? A. Effects on the landscape B. Effects nearest the epicenter C. Impacts as a direct result of the ground shaking D. None of these 13. Scismograph is dependent on extent of damage caused by a/an...? A. Earthquake €. Volcano B. Air barrier D. Explosion 14. Earthquakes and Volcanic eruptions mainly take place at the...? A. Plate surface C. Terrestrial areas B. Plate boundaries D. Ocean beds 15. What is the Richter scale? A. A device that measures the number of earthquakes B. A device that measures the intensity of an earthquake C. A device that measures the name of a volcano D. None of these 16. An earthquake is caused when...? Buy @ HARD copy A. The earths plates rub together of this book ar, B. When mountains collapse pean ee - ip: Whoresie Ki2 C. Heavy storms ‘Sitapty Cant D. None of these (0976285096 2020 Page 44 of 44 G.ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES (VULCANISM) A Volcano is basically an opening in the earth’s crust through which heated, materials usually in form of magma are ejected out to the surface of the earth. Volcanism: it is the activity of eruption or ejection of molten rock on the surface of the earth from an opening called vent. Magma: it is molten rock within the earth’s crust. Lava: when magma reaches the earth’s surface, it is known as Lava. Volcanoes have distinctive features (a)Magma chamber > This is where the molten rock is stored beneath the ground. (b)Main vent > This is the channel through which magma travels to reach the earth's surface. (©)Secondary vent > Some magma may escape through the side of the volcano, particularly if the main vent becomes blocked. (@Crater > This is found at the top of the volcano, where the magma erupts from. Figure 8.1 (Cross section of a volcano) 2020 Page 50 of 44 G.ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Types of Volcanoes Volcanoes are found in three types i.e. extinct, dormant and active. (@) An active volcano > Itis an erupting volcano that is having an eruption. > Itisa volcane that has had at least one eruption during the past 10,000 years. > Itis an erupting volcano. Buy a HARD Copy (b)An extinct volcano OF this Book at, > Itis a volcano that will never erupt again. thomenene > Ithas not erupted in the past 10,000 years or so. ‘sitpy Cat > Itisadead volcano. 0976265096 (A dormant voleano » It is a volcano that has not erupted recently but is expected to do so again. > It has not erupted in the past 2000 years. > Itisa sleeping volcano. Volcanic landforms Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on weather magma cools within the crust or above the crust. Intrusive volcanic landforms > They are formed when magma cools and solidifies within the crust. > The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives rise to various landforms. Figure 8.2 (Intrusive Volcanic Landforms) 2020 Page 54 of 44 G. ZIBA (6.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)(a)Batholiths > These are large rock masses formed due to cooling down and solidification of hot magma inside the earth. (b)Laccoliths > These are large dome-shaped intrusive volcanic landforms. (©)Lapoliths > These are large saucer-shaped intrusive volcanic landforms. (@)Sills Buy a HARD Cony > Sills lay along the bedding plane Of this book ag (e)Dykes Retait K20 > Dykes cuts across the bedding plane. Whowesaie Kiz (Sitmpiy Cait 0975285096 Extmusive volcanic landforms > The word extrusive means exterior. This means it is something on the outside. That is why extrusive volcanism is when volcanic activity takes place on the earth’s surface. > The hot magma escapes the earth’s crust. Once the magma has reached the surface, it is then called lava. > Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out during volcanic activity. The following are the extrusive landforms; (a) Caldera Lake > After the eruption of magma has ceased, the crater frequently turns into a lake at a later time when water collects in it. > This lake is called a ‘caldera lake’. Figure 8.3 (Caldera lake) (b)Composite Volcano > It erupts violently. > Erupts ash, steam, gases, pyroclastic flows and tephra. Very little lava. 2020 Page 52 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)> Itis made up of layers of ash, tephra and thick sticky lava (andesite). Buy a HARD Copy OF this book at, Revait K20 Whotesate Kz Sitmpry cat 976285096 Figure 8.4 (Composite Volcano} (©)Shield Volcano > Itis along broad sloping volcano made up of layers of thin lava (basalt). > Unlike the composite volcano, shield volcano does not erupt violently. > Itis with usually a gentle lava flow. > Often formed over hot spots. > These are the largest volcanoes. Shield Volcano Figure 8.5 (Shield Volcano) (d)Cinder volcano > Itis often found on or near larger volcanoes. > Itis the smallest and most common type of voleano. > Itis a small steep volcano made up of volcanic debris that builds up around the vent. > Ithas violent eruptions with fiery displays of erupting lava. 2020 Page 53 of 44. G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Figure 8.6 (Cinder Volcano) Associated volcanic features Hot springs > Itis a fountain of hot water and superheated steam originating from beneath the crust. > On ahot spring, hot water flows out quietly. Geysers > They are fountains of hot water and superheated steam originating from beneath the crust. > A geyser is a rare kind of hot spring that is under pressure and erupts, sending jets of water and steam into the air. > Iterupts violently. The importance of geysers and hot spring > Hot water can be harnessed to heat houses, swimming pools and other domestic purposes. > Both geysers and hot spring have become tourist attractions. ‘Hot underground waters). E Figure 8.7 (Geyser and Hot spring) 2020 Page 54 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Effects of volcanic eruptions Volcanic eruptions can have a devastating effects on people and the environment. However, unlike earthquakes, volcanoes can also have positive effects on an area. Positive effects > The dramatic scenery created by volcanic eruptions attracts tourists. ‘This brings income to an area. > The lava and ash deposited during an eruption breaks down to provide valuable nutrients for the soil. This creates very fertile soil which is good for agriculture. > The high level of heat and activity inside the earth, close to a volcano, can provide opportunities for generating geothermal energy. Negative effects > Lava flows can destroy settlements and clear areas of woodland or agriculture. > Human and natural landscapes can be destroyed and changed forever. > Many lives can be lost as a result of a volcanic eruption. EXERCISE 10 1. What is a volcano? A. A large storm with very high speed winds B. A violent shaking of the earth that occurs when two tectonic plates bump into each other C. An opening in the earth's crust where magma erupts to the surface D. A large cloud that generates rain, hail, and lightning 2. Which of the following are positive effects of volcanic eruptions? A. Floods and ash C. Heat and minerals B. Fire and minerals D. Minerals and ash 3. In volcanism, rocks below the earth’s crust have very high temperatures and exist in a molten state called? A. Batholith Cc. Lava B. Laccolith D. Magma 4, What kinds of rocks are formed when lava from a volcano cools? A. Metamorphic rocks C. Sedimentary rocks B. Igneous rocks D. Magma rocks 5. Which of the following descriptions describes a dormant volcano? A. A volcano that is currently erupting B. A volcano that has erupted in recent history 2020 Page 55 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)C. A volcano that scientists believe will never erupt again D. A volcano that has not erupted in along time, but may erupt again 6. Which of the following is a product of volcanism? A. Ionosphere C. Tropopause B. Lithosphere D. Troposphere 7. Study the volcanic features shown below Buya HARD Copy Of this book at, RevaitK20 Whoresae K12 ‘Sipe colt A aid What materials formed features A and B? A B A. Fluid Java Viscous lava B. Mixture of gases Smoke C. Viscous lava Finid lava D. Volcanic bombs Ash 8. What type of volcanoes form from wide thin layers of lava? A. Cinder cones C. Shield volcanoes B. Composite volcanoes D. Lava domes 9. What type of volcanoes can sometimes form inside another volcano? A. Cinder cones C. Shield volcanoes B. Composite volcanoes D. Lava domes 10. Study the figure and name the voleanic features A.B, C,D, Hand F. A ¢ 2020 Page 56 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)MAJOR LAND FORMS, A landform is a feature on the earth's surface that is part of the terrain. Landforms can be categorized into Mountains, Plateaux and Plains depending upon their elevation and slope. Let us look at them individually. (a)Mountains > Any landmass that is higher and steeper than a hill is called a Mountain. ® Avhill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. > Generally, mountains are higher than 610m. PLATEAU MOUNTAIN Figure 9.1 (Mounains) ‘Types of Mountains 1. Fold Mountains > Fold Mountains are created when two tectonic plates collide and the edges of these plates ‘fold’ because of the enormous force between them. > Scientists classify Fold Mountains into ‘young fold mountains’ ard the ‘old fold mountains “according to the mountains age. (a) The young fold mountains are between 10 and 25 million years old such as the Himalayas in Nepal, the Alps in Europe and the Andes in South America. (0)Now, old fold mountains are older than 200 million years’ old such as the Aravalli Mountains in India and Ural Mountain in Russia. > Fold Momntains are also known as mountains of elevation. Buy a HARD Copy Of this bOOK at, Retai{ K20 Whowsate Ki2 Sitapty Catt 0976285096 2020 Page 57 of 44. G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Figure 9.2 (Fold Mountains) 2. Block Mountains > Block Mountains occur when large areas are broken and displaced vertically. > These large areas of rock, sometimes stretching across hundreds of kilometers are created by tectonic and localized stresses in the carth’s crust. > The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts. The lowered blocks are called grabens. They resemble piano keys. > Block Mountains are also known as Horst Mountains. Figure 9.3 (Black Mountains) 3. Volcanic Mountains } Volcanic mountains are formed by magma rising up from the mantle to the earth’s crust. > Anexample of a volcanic mountain is Mount Kilimanjaro. > Volcanic Mountains are also known as mountains of accumulation. 2020 Page 58 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Buy a HARD copy OF this Book at, Rewait K20 Whojesale Ki2 (Sitapty cat 975285096 Figure 9.4 (Volcanic Mountains) 4, Residual mountains > Residual mountains are those mountains which have been eroded by agents of degradation such as winds, rain, frost and running water. > The hard rocks that are left behind are called residual mountains. > Residual mountains are also known as mountains of denudation. rigiral amos fat Patou surface Dawn cutting by vers or glaciers Figure 9.5 (Residual Mountains) (b) Plateaux > Plateaux are elevated flatlands. > Itis a flat land which is standing above the surrounding area. > Plateaux may have one or more sides with steep slopes. > Depending upon the plateaux their height varies from a few hundred meters to several thousand meters. 2020 Page 54 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Buy a HARD Copy OF this Dok at, Rewalt K20 Whojesate Ki2 Sitopy Cait 0976285096 Figure 9.6 (Plateau) (©)Plains > Plains are the most fertile regions. > They are stretches of large land. > These stretches of land are the most suitable for human habitation and agriculture activities like farming and poultry. > Plains are formed by rivers and their tributaries. > The rivers flow down the mountains and erode them. They deposit sediments along their courses and in valleys. It is from these deposits that plains are formed. Figure 9.7 (Plain) EXERCISE 11 1. What's the highest type of landform? A. Hill C. Valley B. Mountain D. Desert 2020 Page 60 of 94. G.ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)2. 2020 Study the diagram below. ‘rgral snot nat Patan surace own cuting by Hers Buy a HARD copy | a aacers OF thls book a w-bee Rewait K20 Whotesaie Ki2 sitopiy cat 0976285096 The feature shown above illustrates the formation of...? A. Fold mountains C. Residual mountains B. Intermont plateau D. Volcanic plateau . How many types of mountains are there? A.5S B.4 C.2 D.3 . What's a plateau? A.A type of desert B. A very high mountain C. A flat topped highland with steep sides D. A very green valley |. What are the river plains good for? A. Building cities C. Building farms B. Growing crops D. Nothing really .. Which of these continents is an island? A. Australia C. Asia B. Europe D. Africa . What's the world's biggest cold desert? A. Death Valley C. Sahara B. Gobi D. Antarctica . Landforms are the...? A. Plants and animals on earth surface. B. Houses and building in our communities. C. Natural shapes and features of an area of land. D. Good places to visit. . A natural feature on earth's surface is called a...? A. Landform C. Forest B. Beach D. Hills Page 62 of a4 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)10. A raised area or mound of land is called...? A. Hill C. Mountain B. Canyon D. None of the above 11. A land that is higher than a hill is called...? A. Canyon €. Volcano B. Mountain D. None of the above 12. What is the highest kind of land called? A. Valley C. Mountain B. Hill D. Plain 13. Low land that is between two mountains or hills is called A. Valley C. Peninsula B. Plain D. Field 14. The mountains differ from the hills in terms of. A. Elevation C. Aspect B. Slope D. None of the above 15. Which of the following is a landform? A. Mountain C. Map B. Globe D. Compass 16. A piece of land all sides surrounded by water is called.,.? A. Island cc. Peninsula B. Lake D. None of the above WEATHERING AND MASS WASTING > Weathering is the breaking down of a rock, when it is exposed to elements of weather. > Weathering can occur in two ways namely; (a) Physical/Mechanical weathering and (b)Chemical weathering. Physical or Mechanical Weathering > Mechanical weathering is when rocks are physically broken into smaller pieces. > Mechanical weathering is also known as physical weathering. > This type of weathering occurs when rocks are broken down by physical factors in the environment, such as wind, water, and temperature change. > Importantly physical weathering does not change the chemical composition of the rock. 2020 Page 2 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Types of Mechanical Weathering (a)Repeated temperature changes > Usually occurs in arid regions. > Arid regions are regions characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. > During the day temperatures rise and heat the rock. As the rock heats up it expands. Then at night, when temperatures fall, the rock also cools and contracts. > This cycle leads to exfoliation where the top layers of rock peel away. Buy a HARD copy Of this BOOK at, Reeait K20 Whotesate Ki2 Sitopiy Catt 0976205096 Figure 10.1 (Repeated temperature changes) (b)Repeated wetting and drying >If a rock surface gets very hot in the sun and is suddenly cooled by a rain shower, small cracks may be developed. > Repeated wetting and drying of surface layers, is more common in tropical regions like Malaysia where short downpours saturate the rocks and then the hot sun quickly dries them again. > The tropical regions are the regions of the earth near the equator and between the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. > These tropical regions are also referred to as the tropical zone. (c)Frost action > Itprimarily occurs in temperate humid regions. > Temperate regions are regions lying between the tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere or between the tropic of Capricom and the Antarctic Circle in the Southem Hemisphere. > Water gets into cracks in the rock and at night, when temperatures fall the water can freeze. When water freezes it expands, by on average 9%, this puts pressure on the surrounding rock. 2020 Page 63 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)> This cycle will eventually put enough pressure on the rock and causes pieces to fall off. This processes is also known as exfoliation or onion peeling. War cllees Tee thaws, contracts inet exack angwoter gotsdoorer Repeated expansen Watertreczes ant "Sie eadka again “bndconsceon expands, facing causes fore ‘ack widen recs tl tock Figure 10.2 (Frost Action) (@Biotic factors > Itis the breakdown of rocks by plants, animals and micro-organisms. > For example plant roots can enlarge cracks in a rock as they grow and expand. Figure 10.3 (Biotic factors) CHEMICAL WEATHERING > Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks because of the interaction of air, water or acid with the chemical composition of the rock. > Chemical weathering changes both the composition and appearance of rocks. 2020 Page 64 of 44 G. ZIBA (8.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)‘Types of chemical weathering (a)Hydration > Hydration occurs when water is absorbed by minerals in the rock, creating crystals which exert pressure on the surrounding rock, eventually causing it to break. (b) Oxidation > Oxidation occurs when oxygen reacts with minerals such as calcium and magnesium to form iron oxide. > Iron oxide is reddish brown in colour and causes the decomposition of rocks. (©)Solution > Solution occurs because many minerals are soluble and are removed when they come into contact with water. (@)Hydrolysis > Hydrolysis occurs when water reacts with minerals in the rock causing the chemical composition of the rock to change and become more unstable. > This reaction makes the rock more susceptible to decomposition. (e)Carbonation > Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide from moisture in the air reacts with carbonate minerals found in rocks. > This creates carbonic acid which breaks down rock. MASS MOVEMENT Mass movement is the movement of weathered materials down a slope due to gravitational force. Types of mass movement There are four types of mass movements; (a)Soil creep > Itis a downward movement of soil on any sloping land. > Rain water lubricates soil particles and enables them to slide over each other and other materials such as boulders and stones are carried along. > It is the most gradual form of mass movement. > Soil creep is common in damp soils were the water acts as a lubricant. > Itis also found where continuous trampling by animals grazing on the slopes set up vibrations which loosen the soil and cause it to move. > The gradual movement of soil tilts trees, fences and posts. 2020 Page 65 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Figure 10.4 (Soil creep) (b)Mud or Soil flow > Continual heavy rains on a soil covered slope can turn the soil into semi-liquid state. > Under certain conditions the soil then acts as a liquid and flow down. a slope as a mud or soil flow. > Mudflows can occur on desert slopes, which are not protected by cover of vegetation. Figure 10.5 (Mud flow or Mud slide) ()Landslide > These are sudden movements of large masses of rock and soil. > These slid down on fairly steep hillsides to the land below. > Often landslides occur after heavy rain, or because of earthquakes. Figure 10.6 (Landslide) 2020 Page 66 of 44 G.ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)(@Rockfall > When amass of rock falls from a steep cliff, the process is called rockfall. > Ibis the rapid form of mass wasting. >If a rockfall goes on repeatedly, for a long time, broken rocks collect at the bottom of the slope in a mound. OF this book at. B ressve RevaitK20 rocctal Wdhotesae K12 (Simpy Cat 0976285096 Figure 10.7 (Rock fall) (e) Avalanche > When the layers of snow and ice become too thick on the steeper mountain slopes, they become unstable and slip down in avalanches. > An avalanche is the moving layers of snow and ice. Figure 10.8 (Avalanche) EXERCISE 12 1. Which of the following is NOT an agent of denudation? A. Weathering C. Mass wasting B. Folding D. Erosion 2. Which of the following is NOT an example of physical weathering? A. Frost action C. Repeated wetting and drying. B, Hydrolysis D. Repeated temperature changes is the breaking down of rocks. A. Weathering B, Folding 2020 Page 67 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.4.ED, MBA-UNZA)C. Mass wasting D. Erosion 4. Carbonation and oxidation are types of...? A. Climatic weathering C. Biotic weathering B. Chemical weathering TD. Mechanical weathering 5. Burrowing animals and plants play a role in...? A. Climatic weathering C. Biotic weathering B. Chemical weathering D. Mechanical weathering 6. This form of weathering is also known as “rusting”. A. Oxidation C. Pressure release B. Carbonation D. Frost action 7. This form of weathering is often responsible for the formation of caves in limestone areas. A. Frost action . Carbonation B. Oxidation D. Temperature changes 8. This form of mass wasting is so slow that it cannot be observed with the naked eye. A. Soil flow C. Soil creep B. Landslide D. Weathering 9. This is a sudden movement of weathered material down a slope. A. Soil flow C. Soil creep B. Landslide D. Weathering 10. Cracks in roads, tilted fences and posts are signs of....? A. Soil flow C. Soil creep B. Landslides D. Weathering 11. Man increases the chance of landslides in all of the following ways EXCEPT. A. Building on unstable slopes B. Planting trees on unstable slopes C. Undercutting the base of slopes to build roads D. Removing vegetation from steep slopes Buy a HARD copy OF this book ar, Revait K20 Whotesate K12 stapy cat 0976285096 2020 Page 8 of 44. G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)12. What type of mass movement is depicted below? Buy a HARD copy Of chis HOOK at, Retait K20 Whojesaje K12 Stony Catt O9762E5096 A. Rockfall C. Soil flow B. Soil creep D. Avalanche 13. Which of the following will NOT increase the chance of landslides? A. When bedding planes are roughly parallel to the slope surface B. When there is an extended period of drought C. An earthquake D. Where there are rocks like shale or clay 14, Animals, plants and humans themselves are responsible for weathering of rocks and this process is known as...? A. Biological weathering C. Physical weathering B. Chemical weathering D. Mechanical weathering 15. Water in freezing form may break rocks into pieces by force of...? A. Reduction C. Expansion B. Evaporation D. Condensation 16. Dead remains of animals and plants also accumulate to form...? A. Coal C. Diamond B. Natural oil D. Sedimentary layer 17. Weathering of rocks is affected by...? A. Rain C. Both aandb B. Temperature D. Erosion 18. The breakdown of rock material in its current location. This is a definition of... A. Erosion C. Transportation B. Weathering D. Deposition 19. What is the process by which rock fragments are broken loose called? A. Transportation C. Deposition B. Weathering D. Erosion 2020 Page 64 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)20. 21 22. 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. 2020 |. Study the diagram below. Whoresae Ki2 (Sitapty Cait 0976285096 ‘What is the likely cause of the movement of the materials shown above? A. Earthquake C. Running water B. Frost action D. Wind . Which one of these things is not an agent of weathering? A. Glacier C. Precipitation B, Wind D. Soil Which type of weathering involves the outer layers of rock peeling off due to the rock expanding as it is heated and contracting as it cools? A. Hydration C. Oxidation B. Repeated temperature changes D. Tree Root Action Which one of these processes is not a chemical weathering process? A. Carbonation C. Oxidation B, Hydration D. Frost Action Certain minerals within certain rocks absorb water. As they absorb water the rock expands and this can exert a pressure. Over many years this can lead to the weathering of the rock. What is the name given to this type of chemical weathering? A. Carbonation C. Hydrolosis B. Hydration D. Oxidation Which one of the following factors is responsible for all forms of mass movement? A. Gravity C. Pressure B. Moisture D. Temperature Which one of these terms is another name for onion peeling? A. Repeated wetting and drying C. Oxidation B. Hydrolosis D. Exfoliation What is the name given to the group of weathering processes associated with the action of organisms? A. Tree root action B. The action of burrowing animals Page 70 of 44. G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)C. Chemical Weathering D. Biological Weathering 28. This type of weathering occurs when the internal structure of a mineral is altered. A. Chemical C. Physical B. Water D. Mechanical 29. This is the mechanical breakup of rock by the expansion of freezing water in cracks and crevices. A. Oxidation C. Frost Action B. Mass Wasting D. Erosion 30. This type of weathering breaks rock into smaller pieces withont changing it chemically. A. Mechanical C. Oxidation B. Chemical D. Rusting 31. This is a type of chemical weathering that affects the iron in rocks that contain silicate minerals. A. Frost Wedging C. Oxidation B. Mechanical Weathering D. Erosion RIVER PROCESSES ‘The Water Cycle (or hydro-logical cycle) ‘The water cycle is the continuous transfer of water among the sea, the atmosphere and the land, It is a continuous cycle with no beginning or end. Water changes state throughout the cycle between liquid, ice and vapour. Tro watareie Buy a HARD copy => of this book ac, coma) 9s 3 Rerait Kia Se S C Lee Botesate Ki2 we ry ‘Sitapy cet Fig gE vevengaton'/ 11 1 enon ye repaia Figure 11.1 (fhe water cycle) 2020 Page 74 of 44 G. ZIBA (6.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Some terms used on the water cycle Buy a HARD copy . OF this book at. (a) Evapouration Retail K20 ® This is a state of change of water vapour. Whotesate Kiz > Water evaporates into the air as water vapour. ‘simpy Catt 0976285096 > Air currents cause the water vapour to rise. (b) Transpiration > The release of water vapour through the leaves of plants during photosynthesis. (c) Condensation > The change of water vapour back into water. > As the air cools the water vapour condenses to form clouds. > The condensed water, falls as precipitation in the form of rain, sleet, snow or hailstone. (@) Precipitation > Moisture falling from the atmosphere to the ground. > Precipitation that is not intercepted can then flow over the surface of the earth as surface run-off. This often makes its way to rivers which in turn feeds lakes, seas and oceans. (e) Percolation > The infiltration or soaking of rain water into the ground. Note: the water cycle is driven by the sun. It heats water in rivers, seas and oceans. Some terms used in river processes (a) Drainage basin > This is the area of land around the river that is drained by the river and its tributaries. Watershed > This is the area of high land forming the edge of a river basin. (c) Source > Itis where a river begins. @) Mouth > Itis where a river meets the sea. (e) Confluence > Itis the point at which two rivers meet. (®) Tributary > Itis asmall river or stream that joins a larger river. (g) Channel > This is where the river flows. © 2020 Page 72 of 94 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)Figure 11.2 (Drainage Basin/Watershed) Types of drainage patterns Buy a HARD Copy ape Be P OF this book ae, . Rerait KX ‘There are three drainage patterns; Uhowsaiexi2 (a) Dendritic Drainage ‘Simpy Catt > It has a tree like appearance. O9T62B5096 > The direction of the river/tributaries is determined by its slope. > The tributaries join the main river at an angle less than 90°. Figure 11.3 (Dendritic Drainage) (b) Trellised Drainage > This pattern is rectangular in shape. > Here tributaries join the main river at right angles as subsequent streams. 2020 Page 73 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)> Subsequent streams are the tributaries of the master consequent stream. > Consequent stream is basically the master river. > The hard rock’s stand up as escarpments. Ridgesof resistant oc | softer rock Figure 11.4 (Trellised Drainage) (c) Radial Drainage > This pattem is formed when streams flow outwards and downhill from a dome or volcanic cone. > The rivers flow outwards forming a pattern like the spokes of a bicycle wheel. Figure 11.5 (Radial Drainage} 2020 Page 74 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A-ED, MBA-UNZA)EXERCISE 13 . Buy @ HARD copy 1, What is condensation? = _ onhis bok an A. A change of state in which gas becomes a liquid. Recall K20 B. A change of state in which liquid becomes a gas. Wnowsae K22 C. A change of state in which liquid becomes a solid. Sitapy Cat (0975285096 D. Water falling from the air as rain, sleet or snow. . What is precipitation? A. A change of state in which gas becomes a liquid. B. A change of state in which liquid becomes a gas. C. Water evaporating from water bodies as rain, slect or snow. D. Water falling from the air as rain, sleet or snow. 3. What is the source of a river? A. The lower course of a river. C. Where a river begins. B. The upper course of a river. D. Where a river ends. 4. What is a tributary? ‘A. Where a larger river joins a smaller river. B. Where a smaller river joins a larger river. C. Where a smaller river leaves a larger river. D. Where two rivers of the same size join together. 5. The hydrological cycle is also known as...? Nv A. The carbon cycle. C. The rain cycle. B. The nitrogen cycle. D. The water cycle. 6. How much of the world's water is stored in seas and oceans? A. 2 per cent. C. 59 per cent. B. 40 per cent. D.97 per cent. 7. The drainage basin is...? A. Also called a sink. B, The area of a river drained by land. C. The area of land drained by a river. D. The ridge of high land which surrounds a river. 8. The confluence is...? A. A conversation you have when standing in a river. B. A point at which two rivers meet. C. Downward movement of water in the soil. D. None of these. 9. The mouth ofa river is...? A. The end point of a river. C. The start point of any river. B, The middle point of a river. D. Where the fish get fed. 10. The watershed is. A. A building made to house water. 2020 Page 75 of 44 G. ZIBA (B.A.ED, MBA-UNZA)