Q1: DEFINE THE FOLLOWING

Sterilization: Complete elimination of all microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
spores.

Sanitization: Reducing microorganisms on surfaces to a safe level, minimizing the risk of

contamination.

Cross Contamination: Transfer of harmful microorganisms or contaminants between surfaces or

objects, leading to potential infection or spoilage.

Pasteurization: Heat treatment to kill or reduce harmful microorganisms in food and beverages
without significantly altering their quality.

Q2: D- RAW FISH

Q3: C- LAG, LOG, STATIONRY, DEATH

Q4: Biological Hazards:

Biological hazards involve microorganisms that can cause foodborne illnesses. These include bacteria
(e.g., Salmonella, E. coli, Listeria), viruses (e.g., Norovirus, Hepatitis A), parasites (e.g., Giardia,
Cryptosporidium), and fungi (e.g., molds, yeasts). These microorganisms can multiply in food if
conditions are favorable, leading to illnesses when contaminated food is consumed.

Chemical Hazards:

Chemical hazards refer to substances that can contaminate food and cause harm if ingested. These
substances can be naturally occurring or added during food production, processing, or preparation.
Examples include allergens (e.g., peanuts, shellfish), food additives, pesticides, heavy metals (e.g.,
lead, mercury), cleaning agents, and contaminants from packaging materials.

Physical Hazards:

Physical hazards are foreign objects that unintentionally find their way into food and can pose a risk
to consumers. These objects can include items such as glass fragments, metal shavings, plastic
pieces, stones, or wood. Physical hazards can cause injuries or damage to teeth and gums if
consumed.

Q5:

A- Thermal reduction value (log reduction) time or time to reduce the population by one log
cycle, is a crucial concept used to measure the heat resistance of microorganisms,
particularly bacteria and spores. The D-value represents the time it takes for a specific
microorganism population to be reduced by 90% (one log cycle) at a particular temperature.
B- Factors that affect D-value: time and temperature
Temperature: The most significant factor influencing the D-value is temperature. Higher
temperatures generally result in shorter D-values, meaning that higher temperatures achieve
faster microbial reductions. A small change in temperature can have a substantial impact on
the D-value.
C- Psychrotrophic organisms, also known as psychrotrophs or psychrophiles, are a group of
microorganisms that are adapted to thrive and grow in cold temperatures, typically ranging
from about 0°C (32°F) to 20°C (68°F). Unlike true cold-loving microorganisms called
psychrophiles (which prefer temperatures near freezing), psychrotrophs can grow at slightly
higher temperatures while still exhibiting significant cold tolerance. They are commonly
found in various environments, including cold storage facilities, refrigerated foods, and cold
climates.
e.g.,bacterium Listeria monocytogenes is a psychrotrophic pathogen that can grow and
cause infections even in refrigerated conditions.