Durreesamin Journal (ISSN: 2204-9827)

ANALYSIS OF TYPES OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

AND SUPERVISION
AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR QUALITY EDUCATION

Author: Dr. Mustapha Bin Danquah

ABSTRACT

Effective supervision which entails management of the teaching and learning

process is sine-qua-non to improved student learning and achievement of educational

goals. However, despite the efforts of several stakeholders in education to manage and

supervise educational processes and to improve students’ achievement via quality

education, students are still failing perennially especially in core courses. By implication,

it means there is still need for stakeholders in education to pay more than the usual

attention to their style of leadership and sustenance of quality education so that students’

performance can improve academically. This forms the main objective of the present

study. Ample literature was examined in relation to effective school management and its

concomitant improvement in students’ academic achievement. Thorough examination of

extant literature revealed that the focus of administration which involves supervision is to

improve the totality of teaching and learning experience by both the teachers and

learners. Though, several types of administration in terms of supervision were employed

by supervisors, each of these administrative approaches have their strength and

weaknesses, differentiated mode of administering schools has proved very valuable since
 Durreesamin Journal (ISSN: 2204-9827)

it is democratic in nature and allows for adequate input from teachers towards effective

supervision. It is therefore recommended that supervision should be seen as a dynamic

process wherein teachers require regular and consistent guidance and support. Moreover,

teachers should also be seen as part of the supervision process since they can greatly do

their part in improving their professional development. As a result, qualitative delivery of

education can be achieved

Introduction

Defined as an administrative process through which school managers or leaders

ensures that teachers are all contributing towards sound and qualitative teaching and

learning process, effective supervision is sine-qua-non to improved student learning and

achievement of educational goals (Quiroz, 2015; Agih, 2015; Glickman, Gordon and

Ross-Gordon, 2009). There is no gain saying in stating the education in all its form is

very instrumental to individual and national development. According to Agih (2015),

education is a veritable platform for literacy, skills acquisition, technological

advancement as well as creativity in science, education and other fields. It is also the

wheel for harnessing natural resources with concomitant environmental development and

improved living conditions.

However, a thorough examination of what happens in schools nowadays,

especially in relation to the teaching and learning process, reveals an appalling scenario

as far as the objective of quality education are concerned. Several scholars, researchers

and educators including Opoku-Agymang (2015), Quiroz (2015), Anamuah-Mensah,

Mereku and Ghartey- Ampiah (2008) and Djangmah and Addae-Mensah (2012) indicated
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that despite the efforts of several country’s Ministry of Education to improve students’

achievement via quality education, students are still failing perennially especially in core

courses. For example, in Ghana, Djangmah and Addae-Mensah (2012) posit that vast

majority of students pass with weak grades (D7 and E*) or fail English language. Results

revealed that D7 and E8 numbered 35.8 to 47.8%, while those who failed numbered 14.8

to 23.5%. Also, according to Djangmah and Addae-Mensah, out of the 324,998

candidates that registered for the WASSCE, only 62,295 candidates, representing

20.04%, obtained credits in English. Giving credence to the aforementioned, Opoku-

Agyemang (2015) stated in her speech on the state of education in Ghana that though

students with grade A1 to C6 improved from 12.5% in 2006 to 28.1% in 2014, “there is

still a lot of work to be done” by education stakeholder because the remaining 71.9% are

performing below expectation.

Twin Concepts in the achievement of educational goals

Adducing reasons for such poor performance by students due to lack of quality education,

Glickman et al. (2009) and Fritz and Miller (2003) stated that quality education could be

achieved when proper attention is given to both the teachers and their approaches to

teaching. Fritz and Miller indicated that several teachers face the difficulty of knowing

precisely how to teach and in improving their manner or approach to teaching. Also

some teachers lack grounding in relevant teaching theory hence adopt ineffective mode of

teaching. However, as Quiroz intimated, teacher is an important cog in the promotion

and enforcement of the educational system, they are important stakeholders of education

saddled with the responsibility of seeing to it there is improvement in students’ academic

performance.
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In a bid to achieve improvement achieve educational goal of providing students

with quality education with resultant effect on students’ academic performance, Anyagre

(2016) and Montgomery (1999) posit that school management and effective supervision

is a must. Explicating this point, Quiroz (2015) indicated that in any organization there

are several interdependent departments filled with individuals knowledgeable in the use

of tools, equipment, human and material resources. The efforts of these individuals must

be coordinated and supervised by constituted authority or supervisor so that the

organization can achieve its mission or goals. Likewise, the school system which

comprises of several stakeholders including the head teacher and teachers can only

achieve its goals when there are effective supervision and administration of daily

activities in the school. Agih (2015) refers to these twin concepts, school administration

and supervision, as very important for quality education.

School Administration

Essentially, as it is in several organizations, school administration or management

is directed towards enabling classroom teacher work collaboratively amongst themselves

and with the head-teacher of the school as a team to achieve the lofty goals of quality

education. The head-teacher is saddled with the responsibility of coordinating the daily

activities of the school which comprises management of both material and human

resources so as to achieve the objectives of the institution. This means the head-teacher

is an administrator, organizer, supervisor, and enlists the cooperation of teachers in the

implementation of plans, policies and programs designed for specific educational

objectives. Enumerating the onerous work of the head-teacher, Jaiyeoba (2003) stated

the following:
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Effective Planning

For proper administration of schools’ activities, the head-teacher must conceive a

plan that will encompass all the subjects in the school curriculum entailing relevant

information about students, classes, teachers and teaching and learning materials suitable

for the quality education and sees to it that the daily schedule for teachers and other

personnel do not clash so that all things can take place decently and by arrangement.

Effective Organization

In order to properly dispense his onerous duties, the head teacher must be an

effective organizer both in the context of human and material resources. Defining what

these entails, Agih (2015) indicated that he is required to organize schools work into units

and see that each of these units are coordinated by an expert in the particular field. He

also sees to it that administrative personnel and teachers (involved in instructional

matters) are adequately briefed about their duties in the achievement of quality education.

Adequate Coordination

It is also important that head-teacher coordinate the several interdependent parts

of the school. This means each teacher must know he or she is not autonomous member

of the school rather must be cognizant and collaborative with other teachers and

administrative personnel including the head-teacher. This will facilitate collaborative

effort in the achievement of educational goals.

Effective Control and Supervision

This aspect of the head-teachers’ role in administration is very important because

by means of his or her style of leadership, the head-teacher can improve collaboration

among teachers, teachers’ professional qualification and overall impact of the teaching
 Durreesamin Journal (ISSN: 2204-9827)

and learning process. It is the responsibility of the head-teacher to see to it that all

teachers abide and willingly follow recommendations provided to improve their

professional touch on student learning and laid down principles and guidelines designed

for the attainment of schools’ educational goals. This means, head-teacher should

provide effective and result-oriented leadership through constructive criticism of

teachers’ approach to the teaching and learning process and the use of teaching and

learning material. Motivated and properly supervised teachers undoubtedly improve

students’ performance academically.

In a bid to achieve the above-mentioned responsibilities, the head-teacher must

install short term activities so as to foster the achievement of his or her onerous long-term

responsibilities. Such short term tasks or contributory tasks, according to some authors

(Glickman et al. 2001, Sidho, 2002; Jaiyeoba, 2006), putting things in place for

improving the school’s relationship with its immediate environment comprising parents

and the community on whose area the school is operative. This means, the head-teacher

must establish the Parents/Guardian and Teacher Association (PTA) meetings to serve as

a platform to interact with the parents and guardians of the students, listen and attend to

their complaints and constructive criticisms. He must also create a conducive and

peaceful relationship with the surrounding community with the aid of fostering peaceful

coexistence.

The head-teacher is also required to adequately and effectively supervision

curriculum and instruction, in fact, he must see to it that teachers adopt practical and

result-oriented approach to the teaching and learning process. This requires providing

constructive criticism to aid quality delivery of instructional programs and

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implementation of curriculum for each subject as recommended by the ministry of

education. This means, head-teacher should adopt dynamic leadership model, see to the

provision of material and instructional items, arrange for co-curricular activities for the

students and design practical means of motivating teachers so as to uphold innovative

mode of instruction and maintain good human relations.

It is also paramount that the head-teacher manages both teaching and non-

teaching staffs so that there the school runs smoothly. Hence, non-teaching staffs should

also be encouraged and provided needed incentive to willing pursue educational goals.

Newly employed staff whether teaching or non-teaching should also be provided ample

orientation so as to acclimatize himself or herself with the new terrain in educational set-

up to ease integration into the school system.

Other important tasks include proper maintenance of school properties such as

school buildings, school grounds, equipment and other important items instrumental to

qualitative education and effective teaching and learning process. The head-teacher

should see to it that the buildings and other physical items are conducive to student

learning. Teachers should also be provided needed training in the use of these teaching

and learning materials. The entire school system should be well-adorned to suit the focus

of educational institution – improvement in student academic achievement.

Another very serious task the head-teacher is tasked with is the administration and

management of finances and business operations. He should prepare budget for the

school, secure revenue from the designated ministry in charge of educational issues and

in some cases from other sources. The head-teacher is also required to manage

expenditure, provided practical direction to non-teaching staff and must provide up-to-
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date and functional accounting system for disbursement and reimbursement of schools

funds. Adequate checks and auditing should also be in place to curtail fraud in any form.

Generally, the head-teacher is to provide effective coordination and management

of schools’ resources in terms of material and human resources. Practical and functional

materials should be available to teachers’ use and their entire school system should be

closely knit together as one through collaborative efforts, direct communication and

peace co-existence of all the interdependent members of the school organization or

hierarchy. When head-teachers are arduous and painstaking in every aspect of their

administrative work, there is a pervading atmosphere of trust and harmony facilitating

educational goals to the end of improving teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and

competencies. This in turn will catalyze students’ academic performance.

Supervision of instruction

In line with Baffour-Awuah (2011), supervision of instruction entails

administrative process through which the head-teacher ascertain that supervisees are

given adequate training pedagogically so as to improve students’ learning experience. In

effect, as Agih (2015) indicated, supervision critically examine organization of teachers’

classroom approach to teaching, the grouping of students, mode of evaluating, reporting

and ascertaining students’ progress, curriculum content and implementation, time

schedule for teaching and learning, philosophy and practice of schools’ discipline and

other necessary examination critical to the improvement of the teaching and learning

process.

As educationists, Sergiovanni and Strarratt (2002) stated that supervision and

monitoring of instruction at schools cannot be overemphasized because it enhances and

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develops the expertise of teachers. Teachers’ classroom practice, which is crucial to

students’ academic achievement in any subject, is also enhanced. Sergiovanni and

Starratt further indicated that the nature of supervision and monitoring is very

contributive to students’ academic achievement because it revolves around a

collaborative effort between the supervisors and teachers through effective dialogue with

the sole aim of improving classroom instruction.

In his study, Fisher (2002) stated that by means of effective supervision of

instruction, supervisors can adequately influence and reinforce teaching practices with

resultant improvement in the quality of education. This often requires supervisors to

carefully study performance and appropriate data regarding classroom instruction so as to

provide meaningful feedback and direction to teachers coupled with appropriate

inspection, control and evaluation of their activities (IIEP/UNESCO Module 2, 2007).

With this processes in place, classroom instruction will undoubtedly exert immense

influence on the teaching and learning process.

Quiroz (2015) also posited that effective supervision and monitoring is critical to

the objective of providing equal access to quality educational programs for all students

irrespective of their background. It behooves supervisors or administrators to emphasize

the importance of appropriate and well-organized program to all teachers, clearly

delineating how teachers can employ diverse teaching techniques to meet the ever

changing needs of the students.

Underscoring the necessary connection between mode of administration and

supervision, Tesema (2014) posits that supervisors should see to the enabling of
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individual teachers become implementer of effective teaching. Hence, Tesema outline

six key components of effective supervision or attributes of an effective supervisors as

shown below:

1. Ensuring curriculum implementation

2. Providing direct technical support to teachers

3. Providing on-the-job training to teachers

4. Conducting teacher performance evaluation

5. Conducting formative education program evaluation coupled with

6. Monitoring and coordination

These lofty goals of effective supervision are certainly instrumental to improved

teaching and learning process. Achieving this goal requires the government and

stakeholders in education to make concerted effort in connection with the nature of

education, it should be improved so that it is qualitative which will foster an increase in

students’ achievements since learning outcomes depend on the mode of instruction and

its effectiveness. In his study, Barro (2006) posits that national development and

economic growth can only be achieved via higher quality of education and De Grauwe

(2001) posits that such type of education depend largely on how teachers are trained and

supervised in view of their key position in pedagogy. Among other things, De Grauwe

stated: “national authorities rely strongly on the school supervision system to monitor

both the quality of schools and key measures of its success, such as student achievement

(p. 39).
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Hence, according to Cobbold, Eshun, Bordoh and Kofie (2015), effective

supervision should seriously consider what quality education entails. This includes but

not limited to how educational goals can be developed and sustained, achievement of

ample control and coordination of educational activities, how teachers can be motivated

and non-teaching staff too can be stimulated to higher level of service. Cobbold et al.

also intimated that supervision ensures resolution of problems associated with teaching

and learning and development of teachers’ professional qualification and thorough

evaluation or assessment of educational outcomes such as students’ level of achievement.

This means, as head-teachers carry out their administrative work they should not neglect

the onerous work of supervising teachers so as to ensure that each of the teacher are

improving professionally and performing well in their respective duties so as to facilitate

the attainment of the schools’ goal or mission of quality education delivery.

In a nutshell, head-teachers’ approach to administration, which includes effective

supervision of instruction, curriculum and its implementation coupled with improving

teachers’ professional qualification is at the center of quality education with the sole aim

of improving the teaching and learning process so as to benefit students, teachers and the

society in general.

Supervisors’ mode of administration and its impact on quality education

Achievement of qualitative and functional education, according to stakeholders in

educations such as Fisher (2002) and Quiroz (2015), requires certain qualities by the

head-teacher which will provide access to education and ample understanding of

individual rights, needs and value. Among qualities these author feels are instrumental to

quality education include:

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1. Creativity and innovativeness in administrative and supervisory roles

2. Adoption of civil and democratic values

3. Adequate knowledge, ability and skills needed for discharging administrative and

supervisory roles.

4. Regular on-the-job training so as to update understanding and dimensions of

responsibilities.

5. Desire to be abreast current and latest methodologies as far as supervision is

concerned.

In his study, Baffour-Awuah (2011) intimated that with the passage of time in

educational settings, several individuals and supervisors have employed varied

approaches to administration with the goal of improving the quality of education. These

educationists have introduced several types of administration with the chief aim of

achieving the paramount reason for education which comprise improvement of teaching

and learning process and academic performance of students. Two of these forms of

administrative approaches are discussed below due to their wide acceptance by

stakeholders in education.

Administration and Supervision by Inspection

Popularly known as traditional form of supervision, supervision can also be

regarded as a form of inspection. According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), this form of

inspection was the dominant method for administering schools in the 19th century. In

most cases, teachers were viewed as deficient and inspectors inspected their practices for

errors (Glanz, 1998). Supervisors are required to employ the tools of directing,

controlling and overseeing the activities of teachers to ensure that teachers performed
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their duties as expected. In this form of supervision, according to Daresh (2006),

supervisors are seen to devote most of their time and attention to finding out what is

wrong with what teachers are doing in their classrooms.

Sullivan and Glanz further indicated that the perception of supervisors in the 19th

century was largely that most teachers are incompetent. Teachers were seen as inept.

Daresh (2006) also posits that supervisors who employ this type of approach are inclined

to suggest what and how teachers should teach. The explanation is that “teachers (mostly

female and disenfranchised) were seen as “bedraggled troop- incompetent and backward

in outlook” (Bolin Panaritis, 1992, p. 8). Daresh (2006) also thinks that it is doubtful if

those employed (teachers) knew much more than the students. According to Daresh, this

resulted in employing more experienced teachers (inspectors) who provided basic

oversight to ensure that teachers provided quality of instruction. In colonial African

countries (including Ghana) most teachers were untrained. Even today “pupil teachers”

are found in some Ghanaian primary schools.

This model espoused the notion that it is the supervisor’s responsibility to

intervene directly in the work of teachers so as to correct faulty performance. Sullivan

and Glanz (2000) refer to the first textbook on supervision (Payne, 1875) in which it is

stated emphatically that “teachers must be “held responsible” for the work performed in

the classroom and that the supervisor, as expert inspector, would oversee and ensure

harmony and efficiency” (p. 8). Daresh (2006) indicated that due to this model,

educational supervisors as inspectors were very popular in the US. However, this type of

administrative approach resulted in resentment among several teachers since they are
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looked as being faulty and needing correction and in some cases they were not given due

recognition within educational system.

Administration and Supervision through Clinical Approach

In the 1950’s Cogan promoted the Clinical Supervision Model which described

supervision as a face-to-face encounter with teachers regarding teaching usually in a

classroom with the goal of professional development and improvement of instruction.

The model is primed at improving the teacher’s classroom performance and it is based on

what transpires between the teacher’s classroom interactions with the students during the

teaching and learning process. It often involves procedures and strategies with the intent

of improving students’ learning via improvement of teacher’s classroom behavior. This

type of supervision, according to Cogan is also referred to as school-based or in-school

model of supervision which through a systematic and analytic approach attempt to

account for teacher’s behavior and teacher’s feelings in analytic, supportive and non-

evaluative ways.

Oye (2009) outlined the various components or phases of clinical supervision as follows:

Stage One: Establishing the teacher-supervisor relationship: At this stage, rapport is

established between the supervisor and the teacher. The purpose is for the teacher to see

the supervisor as a good friend and professional colleague who he can confide in.

Stage Two: Planning with the teacher: The second stage the supervisor and the teacher

discusses freely the teacher’s classroom problems.

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Stage Three: Planning the strategy of observation: This stage is based on the nature of

the teacher’s classroom problem; the supervisor plans with the teacher on the best

approach to be adopted in observing the teaching-learning situation.

Stage Four: Observing the instruction: This stage is also about the actual observation of

instructional process is done at this level.

Stage Five: Analyzing the teaching-learning process: The stage is in relation to the data

collected during observation is collated and analyzed. The results are then interpreted in

line with the teaching-learning process.

Stage Six: Planning the strategy for the conference: At this stage, the supervisor agrees

on a better strategy to be proposed and adopted during the conference stage. The

supervisor uses his superior knowledge and experience in teaching to plan the ultimate

strategy for instruction.

Stage Seven: The conference phase: This stage entails a forum where the observations

made during the instructional process are tabled and discussed by the supervisor and the

teacher (s). Here, various ideas are shared and the best solution towards solving the

perceived problem (classroom) is adopted.

Stage Eight: Renewal planning – Based on the agreement reached at the conference, the

supervisor and the teacher, at this stage, will turn their attention to planning the next

lesson and the changes the teacher will attempt to make in his instructional methods. This

phase marks the re-commencement of the process and hence the clinical nature of the

process. It improves the instructional method capable of improving learning, which is the

sole aim of supervision of instruction.

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Administration and supervision through Differentiated Approach

In his notable book, Supervisory Leadership, Glatthorn (1984) sees supervision as

a dynamic process that allows teachers to choose between different kinds of supervisory

and evaluative services they receive considering their daily experiences in the classroom.

Essentially, the focus of differentiated supervision is that the varying and sometimes

difficult circumstances teachers face in the classroom in the course of teaching and

learning should be addressed via different approach during supervision (Daresh &

Playko, 1995).

Glatthorn does not see supervision as a position to be occupied by only one

individual, rather it involves other individuals who practices the process of supervision,

hence, Glatthorn indicated that supervision comprises four components affecting the

professional development of a teacher, namely: the clinical supervision, cooperative

professional development, which is a process of collegial collaboration for the

improvement of instruction, self-directed development, a process in which a teacher

works independently, directing his or her own professional growth and administrative

monitoring, a brief and informal observation by a principal (Abdul Kareem, 2001).

With passage of time, Glatthorn modified the model to comprise three

components to meet the prevailing circumstances teachers experience and these include:

intensive development (clinical supervision), cooperative development which entails

professional interactions and dialogues, peer couching, curriculum development and

action research and self-directed development which refers to the process whereby the

teachers work extensively to develop themselves. There is no strict rule in following

Glatthorn (1997) proposal rather, since supervision is seen as a process and not a job to
 Durreesamin Journal (ISSN: 2204-9827)

be performed by only the supervisor, a school or district can develop a suitable model

that works for them.

Providing a rationale for his proposal, Glatthorn contended that i) teaching is a

profession and not a craft that only one person should dictate what is acceptable, rather

“teachers should have more control over their professional development, within generally

accepted professional standards” (1997, p. 4). He also asserted that ii) teachers are

instrumental to school effectiveness due to the support they give to each other based on

the feedback they receive from students. This fosters collegiality and strongly

encourages cooperation and mutual assistance because as Glatthorn put it, “teachers feels

a greater spirit of cooperation and trust of other teachers” (1997, p. 5).

Also, Glatthorn contended that iii) it is impractical to expect supervisors to

effectively supervise several teachers alone because it is time-consuming with resultant

divided attention culminating in a situation where supervisors are prevented from

concentrating efforts in areas that need improvement. Differentiated supervision caters

for such deficiency, because it enables the supervisor to focus clinical efforts on those

teachers needing or requesting them, instead of the perfunctory routine of visiting all the

teachers.

Finally, Glatthorn strongly believes iv) that since teachers differ in their skills,

abilities, orientation and motivations, supervising them requires differentiated approach

designed and strategically outlined to meet their preferences for professional

development. Differentiated proposal enables a school or district develops what is

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suitable for their teacher’s professional development with full recognition of the

prevailing circumstance in their school or district.

Evidence shows that Glatthorn’s differentiated view in connection with

supervision in administration was practical and result oriented because Jailall (1998)

intimated that due to the self-directed component, which allows teachers to work

assiduously towards their own professional development coupled with the opportunity for

each school or district to develop a practical and functional model for the professional

development of their teachers, Glatthorn differentiated supervision as a type of school

administration approach has been variously adopted by several institutions of learning.

Conclusion and Recommendation

The study revealed that the focus of administration which involves supervision is

to improve the totality of teaching and learning experience by both the teachers and

learners. Several types of administration in terms of supervision were employed by

supervisor, such as inspection, clinical approach and differentiated approach. While each

of these administrative approaches have their strength and weaknesses, differentiated

mode of administering schools has proved very valuable since it is democratic in nature

and allows for adequate input from teachers towards effective supervision and

supervisors are highly interested in improving teachers’ professional qualification to the

end of achieving quality education.

In view of the aforementioned, it is recommended that instead of clinging to the

view of seeing supervision as a job or responsibility of one person, it should be seen as a

dynamic process wherein teachers require regular and consistent guidance and support.
 Durreesamin Journal (ISSN: 2204-9827)

Moreover, teachers should also be seen as part of the supervision process since they can

greatly do their part in improving their professional development. As a result, qualitative

delivery of education can be achieved.

Acknowledgement

Foremost, I would like to thank the Almighty Allah for granting me the knowledge and
strength to undertake this milestone in my life after so many years of hard work.

Besides Allah, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Atlantic International

University for their continuous support of my PhD study and research, for their patience,
motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge.

My sincere thanks also goes my dear wife Ayesha Sam and My four kids namely: Asif
Ahmed Bin Danquah, Matlah Abena Danquah, Sajjad Bin Danquah and Adeel Bin
Danquah

Last but not the least; I would like to thank the Staff of Alhejaz International School and
all my friends for encouraging and supporting me throughout this work
 Durreesamin Journal (ISSN: 2204-9827)

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