Coursebook 4

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
UNIVERSITY OF L’ARBI BEN M’HIDI
FACULTY OF ARTS AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
PHONETICS: A COURSE FOR

FIRST YEAR ENGLISH
STUDENTS
Dr. Haroun Melgani

Level: First year, LMD
Email: haroun-alg@hotmail.com
2021
PHONETICS: A COURSE FOR FIRST YEAR ENGLISH
STUDENTS
Description
This is an introductory course that overviews basic concepts and issues in the field of
phonetics. It foregrounds how phonetics informs our understanding of many essential speech
features-e.g., voices, vowels, consonants- and casts light over segmental and supra-segmental
segments, such as syllable, rhythm and intonation. The contents of course build from an
introduction to phonetics and phonology, the anatomy of speech production, vowels’
classifications, description of consonants, to the major allophonic variations of vowels and
consonants. It is worth noting that the course addresses not only the segmental side, but also
the suprasegmental side of speech-Rhythm and Intonation. In order to reflect the phonetic and
phonological heterogeneity of speech, this course contains many ‘bona fide’ examples spoken
in Standard American English (GA) and Standard British English (RP), two of the most widely
used standard varieties in the world. In addition, this present course is not a purely theoretical
discussion of phonetics. Many practical activities, ear training tasks, Out-Of-Class Activities
and study questions are added at the end of each lesson, the objective of which is to help First
year students review the progress of their understanding of the main points tackled in the lesson.
Phonetics is, by its very nature, a broad discipline and, thus, addressing all the topics goes
beyond the scope of this present course. That said, many oft-cited books, audio and video
illustrations, websites and dictionaries were suggested to English students who seek to broaden
their knowledge and understanding of phonetics and phonology.
Objectives
The main objectives of this course are manifold. In essence, it seeks to inform students,
and readers more generally, about the complexity of human speech articulation, its rules and
physiological processes. In addition, it seeks to help students understand the recent up-to-date
PHONETICS i
information and subjects in phonetics and phonology. The lessons of this coursebook, also,
provide students with practical guidelines on sounds transcription, both vowels and consonants,
and syllabic division.
The main objective of the integrated practical tasks and study questions is to help
students practice the skills and rules they learned and review their understanding of the phonetic
and phonological constructs. Many of these activities, it must be noted, mirror the phonological
variation of the English language, its standard codes, dialects and accents. Finally, this course
informs students about the interplay between phonetics as a self-contained scientific discipline
with other fields on the one hand, and the contribution of phonetic knowledge in the
advancement of other areas of research-e.g, speech therapy, language teaching,
sociolinguistics-on the other.
Assessment and Evaluation
1. Final Outcome:
50 % of the Grading rubric system adopted in this coursebook pertains to the TD tests
whereas the other 50 % pertains to the final exams. In keeping the objectives of the syllabus,
all the courses provide learners with tasks and questions that enable them improve their
understanding of the courses and transcription skills. Students are expected to double-check
their answers and assess their understanding in the classroom.
The course seeks to develop learners’ knowledge of the essential segmental and
suprasegmental phonetic aspects as well as the basic phonological processes. In essence,
learners are expected to develop the following skills and abilities:
 Learners will be able to understand the basic notions that pertain to phonetics, its fields
and contributions to the other scientific disciplines
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 Learners will learn the correct phonetic transcription and phonemic transcription of
many English words
 Learners will be able to identify the main differences and similarities between vowels
and consonants
 Learners will be able to understand the relationship between phonetics and phonology
and learn some basic phonological processes
 Learners will be able to make distinctions between the different categories of vowels
and to identify their degrees of frontness, closeness, tongue height and roundedness
 Learners will be able to make distinctions between place of articulation, manner
of articulation and force of articulation
 Learners will be able to differentiate between the different types of voice
 Learners will learn the relationship between phonemes and allophones
 Learners will be able to identify some basic allophonic processes such as
Devoicing, Pre-fortis clipping and Intonation.
2. Grading:
TD tests: 50 % (20 points)

Attendance: 2 points
Descipline: 1 point
Participation: 4 points
Test 1: 6 points
Test 2: 7 points
Final Exam: 50 % (20 points)
3. Session Duration: 90 minutes
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Contents
Description ..…….……..….…............................................................................................ i
Objectives ………………..…..………………....…………………….………...……..… i
Contents …..…………………….…………….…………………………….………...….. iv
List of Tables …….…………………………………….…………….……………….…. v
List of Figures……………………………..…………………...……….…………...…. vi
List of Abbreviations ……………………….……………..…………………….....….. vii
IPA Chart ………………………………………………………………………………….. viii
SEMESTER ONE
STARTING PHONETICS : CLEARING THE GROUNDS
1. Writing, spelling and pronunciation………………………………………………... 1
2. What is phonetics? ………….…………………………………………..………… 4
3. Branches of Phonetics.………………..…..……..……..………….………..…….… 7
4. Vowels vs. Consonants ………………………………………..…..………..…..… 10
5. Phonetic Transcription (IPA chart) …………..……..……..……..……..…………. 13
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
6. Phonetics vs. Phonology …………………………………………………………… 17
SPEECH MECHANISMS
7. Anatomy and Physiology of Speech Mechanisms …...…..……..……..……..…… 20
PHONATION
8. Phonatory System ……..…………………….………………………..………….…. 25
9. Larynx and voicing ………..……………….……………………..……………… 29
10. Speech Production and Airflow……..….………………………..…………………. 34
MONOPHTHONGS, DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS
11. Short Vowels and Long vowels ………………………………………….....…….. 37
12. Diphthongs …..…………..……..……..……..……..……..……..……..……..…. 40
13. Triphthongs ……………..……………………………………..……………......…. 43
CHARACTERISATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS
14. Classifications of Vowels ………….…………………...………..…………….. 45
SEMESTER TWO
CONSONANT POSSIBILITIES (Part I)
15. The Description of English Consonants……………………….……………..…….. 49
16. Active and Passive Articulators …..……..……..……..……..……..……..……..… 52
17. Place of articulation …………………………..…….…..………………………….. 55
CONSONANT POSSIBILITIES (Part II)
18. Manner of articulation …..……..……..……..……..……..……..……..……..… 62
19. Force of articulation : Fortis vs. Lenis …………………….……….……….……….. 65
PHONEMES, ALLOPHONES AND MINIMAL PAIRS
20. Phoneme and Allophone ……………………………….……………….…..…….. 67
21. Minimal Pairs and Sets …………..…..……..…………........................................... 70
TYPES OF TRANSCRIPTION
22. Broad transcription vs. narrow transcription and Diacritics ………..…..………… 72
PHONETICS iv
SYLLABLES AND CONSONANT CLUSTERS
23. Syllables ………………..……..……..……..………………………..…….......... 76
24. Consonant clusters ……………..……..……..……..……..…………….……….... 80
PARAMETERS OF VARIATION IN VOWELS AND CONSONANTS …………………..
25. Diphthongization and Monophthongization …………………......…….………. 82
26. Pre-fortis Clipping ………….………………..……..……………...….……….…. 84
27. Devoicing …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..……..……..……..…….. 87
CONNECTED SPEECH ……………………….……………….………….…..
28. Intonation and Rythm ……………….………………………………………..…….. 90
Answer Keys …………………………………….…………..……..……..……..…….….... 93
References ………………………..……..……..……..……..……..……….…………….... 98
List of Tables
Table 1. Phonetic Symbols of English Consonants …..…….……..……..…..……..……..… 13
Table 2. English Monophthongs …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..…….. 38
Table 3. English Consonants and their Voicing Types …..…….……..……..…..……..… 50
Table 4. Manners of Articulation …..…….……..…..…..……..……..……..…..……..……. 63

Table 5. Fortis and Lenis Consonants …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..……. 65
Table 6. The Phoneme (t) and its Various Allophones …..……..……..……..…..……..…… 68
Table 7. Diacritics used in the Allophonic Transcription of Sounds …..……..……..…….. 64
Table 8. Possible Combinations with more than two Consonants…..……..……..…….. 81
Table 9. Examples of Monophthongization and Diphthongization in English Dialects…..… 83
PHONETICS v
List of Figures
Figure 1. The Articulatory System …..……..……..……..…..……..……..…….. 21
Figure 2. Egressive Pulmonic Airstream……………..…………………………… 21
Figure 3. The Larynx…………………………………………………………….. 22
Figure 4. The Articulatory System……………………………………………… 23
Figure 5. The Larynx and Vocal Cords………………………………………….. 25
Figure 6. A simplified Model of the Larynx. …..……..……..……..…..……..……. 26
Figure 7. Models of Voiceless Sound and Normal Voice………..……..…..…….….. 30
Figure 8. Creaky Voice. …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..……..…… 31
Figure 9. Breathy Voice. …..……..……..……..…..……..……..………..……..…… 31

Figure 10. Nasal, Oral and Pharyngeal Cavities…………………………………….. 34
Figure 11. Closing Diphthongs and Centering Diphthongs. …..……..……..…….. 40
Figure 12. Daniel Jones…..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..……..……. 45
Figure 13. English Short and Long Vowels. …..……..……..……..…..……..…….. 46
Figure 14. Centering and Closing Diphthongs in English. …..……..……..…….. 47
Figure 15. Active and Passive Articulators. …..……..……..……..…..……..……. 53
Figure 16. Vocal Tract showing the Six Parts of the Tongue. …..……..……..…….. 53
Figure 17. Vocal Apparatus. …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..…….. 56
Figure 18. Bilabial Sounds …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..……… 57
Figure 19. Labio-dental Sounds …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..… 57
Figure 20. Dental Sounds …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..……….. 58
Figure 21. Alveolar Sounds …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..……. 58
Figure 22. Post-Alveolar Sounds …..……..……..……..…..……..………………… 59
Figure 23. Palatal Sounds …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..…….. 60
Figure 24. Velar Sounds …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..……….. 60
Figure 25. Structure of Syllable …..……..……..……..…..……..……..……..…..… 77
Figure 26. Diagram demonstrating Pre-fortis clipping of the diphthong [ əʊ ]. ….. 84
PHONETICS vi
List of Abbreviations
GA: General American English
RP: Received Prononciation
CVs: Cardinal Vowel System
vi
PHONETICS
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vi
PHONETICS
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STARTING PHONETICS: CLEARING THE GROUNDS
Lesson 1: Writing, spelling and pronunciation

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After studying this course, students will be able to:
 Identify the differences and similarities between the ancient and modern writing
systems;
 Identify the connection between writing and sound articulation;
 Identify the three basic types of letters-sound correspondence
All world’s languages have their distinctive writing systems. The Chinese writing system
used in China, commonly labeled as Hànzì, is different from the Abugida writing system used
in India and other world scripts. Knight (2012) notes that some of these earliest writing systems
were essentially based on pictures (Logogram or pictogram) and symbols that represent
specific objects in reality. Many traditional alphabetic systems, such as Aztec writing system
and Aramaic writing system, had been adopted by people in ancient civilizations. Yet, the
earliest logographic systems cannot fully represent all the events, objects and concepts used in
the modern era and most of them became obsolete and outdated. Conversely, other earliest
writing systems have long been continuously modified and developed to represent the sounds
of the modern languages and language varieties, such as The Chinese writing system (Knight
(2012).
Sounds and letters Correspondence:

The mapping of sounds-to-letters admits of varying degrees from one language into
another. Italian language is an epitome of one-sound-one-letter correspondence, that is, the
perfectly match between the word and the letter. By way of example, the three letters of the
Italian word rosa, meaning a rose, match perfectly with three sounds of the same word. In stark
PHONETICS 1
contrast with the Italian language, English language does not display a full sounds-latters match.
Ogden (2009) notes that the English writing system is based on “a system where a set of twenty-
six symbols is used to represent the forty-five or so sounds” (p. 3). This explains why non-
native speakers of English find difficulties in learning the spelling forms of many English
words, such as thoroughly and queue! Because English, Knight (2012) adds, “has been
influenced by many other languages throughout its history, and because all languages change
over time” (p. 4), spelling form and phonetic form are separated in several words.
Types of sounds-letters match:
In essence, there are four categories of sounds-letters match. The first category refers to a
single sound that is represented by more than one letter. For instance, the sound / z / is marked
by the letter < s > in words like disease and cease, but is spelt as < z > in the words utilize and
criticize. Conversely, one letter in the English language can be pronounced differently in
different English words. For instance, the letter < g > is realized with the post-alveolar sound
/ʒ / in the word pleasure and with the post-alveolar /dʒ / in the word large. Another category
wherein sounds do not correspond with letters can be found in words with silent letters, such as
debt and know. Similarly, while native English speakers do not articulate the letters < h > and
< g > in the word night, they do pronounce the same letters in other words like gate and humid!
There are, also, English words with double letters that correspond to one single sound, such as
butter and hissing. Homographs and homophones represent further cases of mismatch between
sounds and letters in the English language. The former refers to those words which have the
same spelling form, but pronounced differently, such as May, meaning the fifth month, and
may. The latter, conversely, refers to the words which have the same phonetic realization but
are spelt differently (Crystal, 2008). For example, the words eight and ate are homophones.
PHONETICS 2
Study Questions:
What does the sentence ‘English is not spelt phonetically’ stand for?
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What is the difference between homophone and homograph?
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Task: Write one example for each of the four ‘sounds-letters match’ discussed above (see
Answer Keys section)
1. ……………….……... 2. …………………………
3 …………....................... 4 ………………………….
Homework Assignment (Out-Of-Class Activities):
Source: Knight, RA. (2012). Phonetics: A Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. PAGE 13 & 14
Online Resources:
The pronunciation dictionary: https://forvo.com/
Video Illustrations: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IerM7dTQN4
Recommended Readings:
Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6th ed.). Main Street, Malden,
USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Knight, RA. (2012). Phonetics: A Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ogden, R. (2009). An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh
University Press Ltd
Tench, P. (2011). Transcribing the Sounds of English: A Phonetic Coursebook for Words and
Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PHONETICS 3
Lesson 2: What is Phonetics?
 Understand the locus of Phonetics
 Understand the role of phonetics in the advancement of other scientific fields and
areas of research
Introduction:
The previous course considered the complex way in which spoken discourse and written
discourse are inextricably connected. However, linguists from all strands of thought concur that
speech is primary and writing is secondary. Infants learn how to speak their mother tongue
before they start learning how to write through schooling. The long arc of humankind history
reveals that speaking was a primary medium of expression in almost all the ancient civilizations.
In many of these earliest cultures, singing, chanting and other forms of oral culture had earned
honor-roll status as the main symbolic sources of cultural identity and communication among
people. In brief, speaking lies at the heart of all human interactions.
Definition of Phonetics:
As of early 1900s, earliest linguists have long been interested in examining how speech
sounds are made in many world languages and language varieties. The scientific discipline,
which addresses speech articulation, is commonly termed Phonetics, and the specialists
working within this linguistic field are called Phoneticians. Linguists posit different definitions
for the concept of Phonetics. George Yule (2020), for instance, defines Phonetics as “the
general study of the characteristics of speech sounds” (p. 29). A more complex definition is
provided by the linguist David Crystal (2008), who notes that phonetics is “the science which
studies the characteristics of human sound making, especially those sounds used in speech, and
provides methods for their description, classification and transcription” (p. 363). Said plainly,
phoneticians employ scientific methods and statistical tools to study the ways in which: 1) world
PHONETICS 4
speech sounds, both consonants and vowels, are produced by speakers, transmitted in the form
of sound waves and perceived by listeners, 2) the different types of sounds, 3) the main
categories of speech sounds, 4) and their phonetic transcriptions. O’Grady and Archibald (2015)
point out that there are roughly 600 consonants and 200 vowels used in all world languages.
Some of these sounds are common among all world languages, such as / s / and / b /, whereas
other sounds are language-exclusive. By way of example, the sound / x / can be found in Arabic
and Spanish but not in English and French. Furthermore, phoneticians approach speech sounds
from three distinct, yet interrelated, perspectives, namely: Articulatory Phonetics, Acoustic
Phonetics and Auditory Phonetics (see course 3).
Phonetics and other Fields:
It is worth noting that specialists and scientists from different strands of thought benefit
from the field of phonetics. By way of example, many Quran readers (or reciters) and singers
take basic classes in articulatory phonetics or watch online tutorials in order to learn more about
how speech sounds are uttered. Several scientific disciplines, such as Speech Therapy,
Psychology and Accent Coaching, require a sufficient background knowledge in phonetics
(Ashby, 2011). An accent coach, for instance, takes basic classes about how various speech
sounds are produced in different speech communities. By the same token, social dialectologists
and linguistic anthologists participate in regular workshop trainings in phonetics in order to
learn more advanced skills and knowledge about speech perception and identification and the
recently developed software programs used for analyzing and coding speech data.
Pronunciation training workshops and online websites are so helpful for English teachers, who
manage to help their students enhance their accuracy and fluency in the English language.
PHONETICS 5
Study Questions:
What is meant by Phonetics?

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In what ways does phonetics contribute to other scientific disciplines and areas of research?
(do not exceed 10 lines)
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Online Resources:
The English Phonetics and Phonology Glossary (pdf):

https://www.peterroach.net/glossary1.html
Video Illustrations: Phonetics ( Overview)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DnBxhoHnG8I
Recommended readings:
Ashby, P. (2011). Understanding Phonetics. London, UK: Hodder Education.
Yule, G. (2020). The Study of Language (7th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Grady, W & Archibald, J. (2015). Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction (8th

Ed). Toronto, Canada: Pearson
PHONETICS 6
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
Lesson 3: Branches of Phonetics
 Understand the three main branches of phonetics

 Understand the main objectives and characteristics of each subfield
Introduction:
We covered a great deal about what is phonetics, its characterization and goals. We learned
that phoneticians seek to examine, scientifically, the ways in which human beings produce
various speech sounds in isolated words and connected speech. Phoneticians, also, concur that
there are three ways to think about phonetics, namely Articulatory Phonetics, Acoustic
Phonetics and Auditory Phonetics. These three branches represent the fundamental pillars in
the field of Phonetics.
Articulatory Phonetics:
Articulatory Phonetics, the most widely studied subfield in phonetics, sheds light on speech
production, or articulation. Any phonetician or a student of phonetics specialized in this
branch seeks to understand the complex mechanisms involved in the production of consonants
and vowels, contact between speech articulators and airflow, all of which play a major role in
producing speech sounds. The questions: How are speech sounds made? and Which speech
organs are involved in speech articulation? are usually investigated by any researcher working
within the articulatory phonetics realm. Articulatory Phonetics, it must be noted, is considered
as the backbone of the other main subfields of phonetics-Acoustic Phonetics and Auditory
Phonetics.
PHONETICS 7
Acoustic Phonetics:
Researchers working within Phonetics realm are concerned, not only with how speakers
produce speech sounds, but also how those speech sounds and voices move from the speaker to
the hearer in the form of sound waves. This Phonetics subfield is commonly called Acoustic
Phonetics or Physics of speech and it essentially addresses “the physical properties of speech
sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear” (Crystal, 2008, p. 7). Ashby (2011) points out
that researchers tend to measure the sound waves, or the disturbances in the air, by means of
many softwares and applications, such as PRAAT, Audacity and WASP.
Auditory Phonetics:
In stark contrast with Articulatory Phonetics, Auditory Phonetics (or Speech
Perception) examines how listeners receive and perceive speech sounds (Ashby, 2011). Said
plainly, researchers seek to understand how a single speech sound, be it a vowel or a consonant,
is perceived by the listener, and transmitted from the outer ear, through the middle and inner
ears to the brain in the form of electric impulses. Phoneticians use several ear trainings and
technological programs to understand how we hear voices, on the one hand, and to have a clear
image about how the brain understands the meanings of such speech segments and
discriminates between various types of sounds, on the other. By the same token, sociolinguists
working within Speech Perception field (Campbell-Kibler, 2008) tend to use the same
programs and online open sources to gauge the segmental segments and supra-segmental
features uttered by speakers of various regional, ethnic and social origins.
In closing, Articulatory Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics and Auditory Phonetics represent
the three main subfields of phonetics. These three branches tend to approach the same human
speech sounds from different, interrelated angles. While Articulatory Phonetics is concerned
with speech production, Acoustic Phonetics and Auditory Phonetics focus on speech
transmission and perception, respectively.

PHONETICS 8
Task: Discuss, briefly, the main similarities and differences between the three subfields of
phonetics explained above.
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Source: Ashby, P. (2011). Understanding Phonetics. London, UK: Hodder Education. PAGE
10
Online Resources:
Video Illustrations (Phonology vs. Phonetics):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De4iMKxSpg
Discourse. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
PHONETICS 9
Lesson 4: Vowels vs. Consonants
 Demystify the concepts of vowels and consonants
 Identify the main differences and similarities between vowels and consonants
Native speakers tend to talk of and comment on highly marked consonants and vowels
in day-to-day-interactions. They usually talk of ‘weird’ vowels, ‘prestigious’ consonants and
even ‘funny’ consonants typically associated with certain dialects and accents. Using his/her
phonetic ear, for instance, any native English speaker can easily tell you that the words win and
fan have three sounds. Things become more complicated, however, if the same speaker is asked
to hazard a guess about the number of consonants and vowels in words like xenophobia and
onomatopoeic. From phonetic and phonological standpoints, phoneticians study the differences
between vowels and consonants in terms of degree of stricture, vowel quality, position in the
syllable and significance.
Vowels refer to speech sounds made without any contact between speech organs. All
vowels are voiced sounds whose articulation involves no obstruction or blockage to the airflow
that may escape through the oral cavity. Consonants, in contrast, are “sounds made with a lot
of constriction in the mouth, so that the air coming up from the lungs gets squashed” (Knight,
2012, p. 9). Some consonants are typically voiced, such the first and last sounds of the word
red, whereas other consonants are voiceless, such as the middle sound of the word better. When
you produce the vowel / e /, you can feel that your tongue raises against the roof of your mouth,
but not close enough to build a complete closure. Conversely, when you utter the sound / m /,
both upper lips and lower lips form a complete closure such that the air does not pass through
the mouth. In stark contrast with vowels production, the articulation of consonants admits of
PHONETICS 10
varying degrees of stricture. By way of example, the sounds / s / and /f / involve less obstruction
to the airflow than the sounds / g / and / k / (see course 16 on obstruction). Similarly, there are
several points of reference for describing vowels, ranging from vowel quality (monophthongs
vs. diphthongs vs. triphthongs), tongue shape and position to lips shape. As for consonants
possibilities, it is possible to distinguish between consonants with regard to their manner of
articular, place of articulation and force of articulation (see courses 15, 16 and 17)
Vowels and consonants differ in terms of their positions in the word. Generally speaking,
vowels tend to occur in the middle of words-e.g., late, what- or in isolation as in the words eye
and the pronoun I. In contrast, consonants usually occur in the initial position and/or final
position of the words, such as in wood and eight (Knight, 2012). With this difference in mind,
it is, also, worth noting that vowels tend to be more important than consonants in the word.
Consider how dropping off consonants and vowels affects the meaning of the word cart. If, for
instance, you drop off the consonants / k / or / t /, the word would remain meaningful (art / ɑːrt
/, car / kɑːr / ). If you omit all the consonants, the word would still be meaningful (the British
pronunciation of the word are is / ɑː / ). However, if you drop off the long vowel /ɑː/ only, the
word would be meaningless / krt /*. Therefore, vowels tend to be, comparatively, more
significant than consonants in English words structures.
Study Questions: In what ways do consonants and vowels differ? Discuss TWO main points
only.
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PHONETICS 11
Source: Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology (6th ed). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. PAGES 6 & 7
Online Resources:
Video Illustrations:
Introduction to Articulatory Phonetics (Vowels):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u7jQ8FELbIo
Introduction to Articulatory Phonetics (Consonants)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfoRdKuPF9I
Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology (6th ed). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
PHONETICS 12
Lesson 5: Phonetic Transcription (IPA chart)
 Understand how speech sounds are represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet
Chart (IPA)
 Learn how to transcribe consonants and vowels
Sounds Transcription: An overview
Since 1888, phoneticians and linguists have been working on designing a global set of
symbols that attempts to represent the sounds spoken in many world languages (Yule, 2020).
The International Phonetic Alphabet Chart (IPA) is the most well-known system of sounds
transcription. It consists of many symbols that describe the pronunciation of consonants and
vowels as accurately as possible. By way of example, Table 1 below illustrates the consonants
associated with what is commonly labeled Standard English, a type of English that is mostly
used in political conferences, broadcasting (BBC and CNN), academic books and research
papers.
Table 1
Phonetic Symbols of English Consonants

Symbol Example Symbol Example
/θ/ thing /ð/ this
/f/ Fate /v/ vast
/p/ Pin /b/ blame
/s/ Seat /z/ zip
/ʃ/ shrink /ʒ/ pleasure
/t/ Tall /d/ drink
/k/ Kit /ɡ/ gate
/h/ huge /m/ maze
/tʃ/ church /n/ nine
PHONETICS 13
/j/ Yes / dʒ / judge
/r/ Ring /ŋ/ Zink
/w/ Wave /l/ late
The symbols listed above are part of the International Phonetic Alphabet system (IPA).
Certain sounds, such as /g/ and /n/ are pretty familiar to all students, while others like /ð/ and
/ʃ/ seem to be unfamiliar. You can see that the symbol /z/ is used to transcribe the underlined
letters in the words Zinc and disease. This simply means that there is no one-to-one match
between the uttered sounds (spoken form) and arthrography (written form). You can also notice
that there are two phonetic symbols that consist of two symbols, mainly / dʒ / and / tʃ /. These
two symbols describe complex sounds in the English language. For instance, / dʒ / and /tʃ/
represent the initial combined sounds of the words judgment and cheating, respectively. Similar
to consonants, there are also symbols for all the vowels spoken in English. So, for instance, we
write the symbol / e / to describe the middle sound of the words men and ten, and use the vowel
/ i: / to describe the final sound of the word bee. Some phonetic symbols were conventionally
created to represent more complex sounds, commonly termed Diphthongs and Triphthongs.
So, the symbol / ɔɪ / can be found in words like boy and toy, and the symbol / aɪə / is commonly
used in words like fire and liar.
On Phonemic Transcription and Phonetic Transcription:
In the previous section, we covered a great deal of ground. We overviewed the standard
transcription of English sounds and discussed some relationships and examples. In phonetics
realm, such standard system of transcribing sounds is commonly called Phonemic
Transcription. It is, equally, labeled as Broad Transcription because it tells us about how
each sound is pronounced, but does not contain any further detailed phonetic data. Said
differently, while the aforementioned symbols-e.g., /m/, /n/, /k/- can accurately represent the
spoken forms of English, they do not provide us with more information about the exact
PHONETICS 14
pronunciation of each consonant in different contexts. By way of example, although it is easy
to recognize the way in which the symbol / p / corresponds with the letter < p >, it does not
include any details about its different realizations in isolated words and connected speech.
Using your phonetic ear, you can easily realize that, phonetically, the letter < p > is produced
with a puff of air if it is placed at the beginning of the word, but it is produced without a release
of air if it is placed at the end of the word. Therefore, Phoneticians have introduced another
type of transcription, called Phonetic Transcription or Allophonic Transcription, to account
for, not only the major phonetic data, but also every minor change in the pronunciation of the
sound. More details about these types of transcription can be found in the course ‘Broad
Transcription vs. Narrow Transcription’.
Roach (2009) notes that there are two main ways to teach students how to transcribe
sounds. In Transcription from Dictation, students are asked to listen to an audio script or a
native speaker and then write down the phonetic symbols of every sound they heard. In
Transcription from a Text, conversely, students are given a text and then asked to transcribe,
phonemically or phonetically, the words they read in the same text. Both types, it must be noted,
engage students to pay a close-grained attention to every sound they heard or read and learn
more about the standard representation of sounds.
Source: https://www.cambridge.org/features/genetti/CH02-IPAtranscription/
Online Resources: The Pronunciation Dictionary https://forvo.com/
Task 1: Transcribe the following words (see Answer Keys Section):

baker: …………. dinner: ……………. swift: …………… sheep: ……………
language: …………quiz : …………… thrive: ……………… fit: …………
PHONETICS 15
Task 2: Circle the words with the same vowel sound in each of the words set below.
a. Bake fate wait mute
b. Fight late light tight
c. Boat stupid moan dot
d. High lie date why
University Press.
PHONETICS 16
Lesson 6: Phonetics vs. Phonology
“Phonetics gathers the raw material, phonology cooks it.”
Kenneth Pike, 1947
 Understand the concepts of phonetics and phonology
 Identify the relationship between phonetics and phonology
 Learn some basic phonetic patterns and rules that govern the occurrence of some
specific sound realizations in English.
Introduction:
Each individual speaker pronounces one speech sound in different ways and in different
words and situations. By way of example, a native speaker of English may pronounce the sound
/ k / with a puff of air in words like kit and cake. In words like stuck and duck, however, the
same speaker would pronounce the sound / k / without a release of airflow. Such difference and
many other cases are not arbitrary, as many non-linguists believe, but rule-governed and
constrained by internal factors. Whenever the sound / k / occurs at the beginning of the word
and is followed by a vowel, it is produced with a puff of air (aspirated). The same sound is
said to be unaspirated if it occurs at the end of the word. The same rule can be applied to other
sounds, like / p / and / t /, to name but a few. In fact, the distinction between how a sound is
made and how it is pronounced in specific phonetic contexts corresponds significantly with the
relationship between Phonetics and Phonology. The former is essentially concerned with the
various ways in which human beings utter speech sounds and how the three systems,
respiratory, phonatory and articulatory, operate to produce voices and sounds. Conversely, the
PHONETICS 17
latter, Yule (2020) notes, “is about the underlying design, the blueprint of each sound type,
which may vary in different physical contexts” (p. 45).
The epigraph stated above (Pike, 1947) nicely echoes the relationship between the two
fields. While it is possible for every student to learn phonetics as an independent field along
with its basics, it is quite impossible for him/her to understand phonology without having a
solid background knowledge in phonetics. Phonetics inputs to the field of phonology which
needs a lot of phonetic information to account for all the potential sound patterns and their
surrounding contexts. In brief, phonology is dependent on phonetics. A specialist in phonetics
would ask: how do we produce sounds? whilst a phonologist would ask: which phonological
factors influence the pronunciation of a single sound in different sound contexts. The aspirated-
unaspirated distinction discussed above demonstrates the fact that sounds are affected by their
surrounding phonetic environments. The same two sounds are termed Allophones, which
belong to an overarching speech unit, called a Phoneme. The latter, it must be noted, is a mental
representation of a specific speech sound. The different realizations of one single phoneme are
termed Allophones (for more details, see Course: ‘Phoneme and Allophone’).
In closing, phonetics and phonology are inextricably connected fields of inquiry. While
the former considers the physical properties of speech production, the latter foregrounds the
mental representation of sounds in the minds of speakers, along with their actual (concrete)
realizations in various speech contexts. While phonology, by and large, relies on the data
provided by phonetics, a full understanding of both fields would enable us draw a clear image
about how human speech sounds operate, change and connect with other sounds in various
phonetic environments.
Study questions:
In what ways are phonetics and phonology similar and different?
PHONETICS 18
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..………………………………………………………..……
…………………………………………………..………………………………………………
………..………………………………………………………………………………………...
Task: Mention three examples of allophones you know in English? (see Answer Keys
section)
1. ………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………
3. ………………………………………………………
Source: Ashby, P. (2011). Understanding Phonetics. London, UK: Hodder Education. PAGE
10
Online Resources:
Video Illustrations (Phonology vs. Phonetics):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De4iMKxSpg
University Press.
Pike, K.L. (1947). Phonemics: A technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. USA:
University of Michigan
Yule, G. (2020). The Study of Language (7th ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PHONETICS 19
SPEECH MECHANISMS
Lesson 7: Anatomy, Physiology and Speech Mechanisms

 Understand the basics of speech mechanisms
 Learn the three processes involved in speech productions, namely respiration,
phonation and articulation
 Understand the airstream types involved in speech production
 Learn about the speech organs that play a major role in the articulation of
sounds
Introduction:
That speech production is one of the most complex physiological processes in the human
body is crystal clear. A quick glance over the anatomy of speech reveals that the functions of
some organs are manifold. By way of example, the teeth and tongue are intended for articulating
sounds, on the one hand, and for chewing up and pushing food inwardly to the stomach, on the
other. The lungs, by the same token, take part not only in speech production, but also in normal
breathing. The larynx has protective and phonatory functions. In brief, organs play two basic
roles-biological and in speech production. Since this course is mainly concerned with the
phonetic side, we set the task to discuss the second function, speech, and foreground the
anatomy and physiology of speech production. It is worth noting that the speech production
involves three basic processes called Respiratory System, Phonatory System and
Articulatory System.
PHONETICS 20
Figure 1. Basic Processes of Speech Production. From Practical Phonetics and
Phonology (p. 30), by Collins, B. & Mees., I. M. (2003). London: Routledge.
Respiratory System:
The respiratory system is located in the chest. It is usually noted that lungs’ main biological
function is respiration, that is, breathing in and breathing out. However, the lungs, also, play a
significant function in speech production. In fact, it is almost impossible to utter one single
sound without the inhalation and exhalation of the airstream. The type of the airstream pushed
out from your lungs is termed Egressive Pulmonic airstream (see Figure 2 below).
Figure 2. Egressive Pulmonic Airstream. From Airstream Mechanisms and
Phonation Types.
PHONETICS 21
The word Egressive means outward and Pulmonic is a Latin word and it refers to the
lung. Egressive Pulmonic airstream is almost the opposite of the so called Ingressive
Pulmonic airstream, which involves pushing the airstream inwardly, that is, towards the lungs
(Collins & Mees, 2013). Although this type of airstream does not take part in the production of
English sounds and many other world languages, it is usually used, intentionally and
unintentionally, in some situations, such as when you sob or continuously count numbers. It
also occurs when you express surprise such as when you unintentionally push the air inwardly
as you hear surprising news or suddenly notice something scary or unusual.
Phonatory System:
Figure 3. The Larynx. From (https://teachmeanatomy.info/neck/viscera/larynx/organ/)
The Phonatory system is located in the throat. It is represented by the larynx (commonly
called Adam’s Apple), a voice-box device that produces different voices by modifying the
shapes and tension of the vocal cords. The abduction and adduction processes, caused by the
space between the vocal cords, are accompanied by the movement of the Egressive Pulmonic
PHONETICS 22
air stream inside the larynx. The airstream, then, moves through the pharynx and takes two
directions, commonly known as The Oral Cavity (mouth) and Nasal Cavity ( nose)
Articulatory System:
The normal way for any speech sound, be it a vowel or a consonant, to be produced is
for speech organs to be combined and stricture be modified in different ways. The Articulatory
system is located in the head and is usually termed the Supra-Glottal Vocal Tract by some
phoneticians (Collins & Mees, 2013). Its anatomy consists of a set of speech organs located
above the throat. The speech organs, which are movable, are labeled Active articulators, whilst
those which are fixed are termed Passive Articulators.
Figure 4. The Articulatory System. From The Study of Language (p. 30) .by Yule,
G. (2020). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
A closer look at the vocal apparatus in figure 4, it appears that many organs interact with
each other to produce meaningful speech sounds. For instance, in producing the consonant /m/
and /b/, one can easily notice the lower lip, fixed in the lower jaw, moving upwardly to form a
firm closure with the upper lip. After the two lips are tightly hold together for a few
milliseconds, they move apart from each other. The obstruction is, then, followed by a quick
PHONETICS 23
release of the airstream outside the mouth. The production of the semi-vowel /w/ involves a
narrowness of the speech organs at two levels, mainly the lips and between the velum and the
back part of the tongue.
In closing, the operation of speech productions involves three basic, interrelated, systems:
Respiratory System (chest), Phonatory system (larynx) and articulatory system (head). The
speech organs associated with each of these aforementioned systems modify the tension,
amount and passageways of the airstream as it moves upwardly in the vocal apparatus.
Study Questions:
Explain, briefly, the meaning of the Egressive Pulmonic Airstream.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Source: Carr, Philip (2013). English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (2nd Ed.) UK:
Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd. PAGES 8 & 9
Online Resources:
Speech Mechanisms (website): https://linguisticsstudyguide.com/speech-mechanisms/
Airstream (website): https://linguisticsstudyguide.com/the-airstream-in-english/
Video Illustrations:
Speech Anatomy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-m-gudHhLxc
Collins, B. & Mees., I. M. 2003. Practical Phonetics and Phonology. London: Routledge.
PHONETICS 24
PHONATION
Lesson 8: Phonatory System

 Understand the basic mechanisms of the Phonatory system

 Identify the structure of the larynx and its essential functions
Introduction:
Phoneticians concur that speech vocal sounds are made by modifying the airflow at
various points and in various ways in the whole articulatory system (Carr, 2013). One of those
points is the Larynx, or the voice box, as it usually called by laypeople. This course considers
the meaning of Phonatory system and casts light over the anatomy of the larynx and its basic
functions (see Figure 5 below)
Figure 5. The Larynx and Vocal Cords (Anatomy). From
https://www.informedhealth.org/how-does-the-larynx-work.html
PHONETICS 25
Phonation and the Anatomy of the Larynx:
Crystal (2008) notes that Phonation refers to the vocal activities produced by the
modification of the airstream in the larynx. By vocal activities, he means the set of voices (e.g.,
breathy voice) and audible sounds caused by the low and high vibrations inside the larynx. Yet,
that the larynx is one of the most significant organs involved in speech production is crystal
clear. It is a box-like structure made of cartilages and is located in the interior side of your neck.
Commonly labeled as Adam’s Apple, the larynx is, comparatively, more visible in the case of
adult men than most women. Figure 6 below represents a simplified picture of the larynx and
some of its basic aspects. The Epiglottis is a fleshy flap, whose main job is to close off the
entrance to the trachea and to prevent the food from moving to the lungs (Collins & Mees,
2013). The food, then, moves to the stomach through the so called Oesphagus.
Figure 6. A simplified Model of the Larynx. From Practical Phonetics and

Phonology (p. 32), Collins, B. & Mees., I. M.( 2003). London: Routledge.
PHONETICS 26
The cross-section model above displays two pear-shaped cartilages called the Arytenoid
Cartilages. These two cartilages are attached to muscles from one side and to the Vocal Folds
(or Vocal Cords) from another side. The latters are two fleshy tissues that vibrate on varying
degrees to produce voices. Compared to females, Males’ vocal cords are comparatively thick.
This explains the tough and heavy voice produced by men, as opposed to women whose voices
sound soft. The space (in black color) that you see between the cords in the figure 6 is called
the Glottis. When the vocal cords move apart, the airflow can pass from your lungs through the
same space to the trachea and then escapes through your mouth. In a nut shell, the larynx’s
functions are twofold. First, it has a Protective function, whereby the Epiglottis acts as a valve
that opens up and closes off to protect your lungs from any substance or object. Second, it has
a Phonatory function in that it modifies the airflow in various ways to produce voices, such as
creaky voice and breathy voice.
Study Questions:
What is meant by the Epiglottis?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
What are the two main functions of the Larynx?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
What is the difference between Larynx and Pharynx? Do NOT Exceed 8 lines.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
PHONETICS 27
Online Sources:
Larynx (Interior view): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_ZGqn1tZn8
Vocal Cords movement: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vf8hctg2ahg
Philip, Carr. (2013). English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (2nd ed.). UK : Wiley
-Blackwell
PHONETICS 28
Lesson 9: Larynx and Voicing
 The different voices made at the level of the larynx

 The basic characteristics of each voice produced by the vocal folds
Introduction:
In the previous course, we covered a great deal of information about the anatomy and
functions of the larynx. We pointed out that the larynx has two main roles, mainly protective
and Phonatory, and foregrounded some of the most significant aspects of the larynx’s structure,
such as the vocal folds and Epiglottis. When the vocal folds abduct (open) and adduct (close),
they cause the larynx to produce an infinite number and diverse types of voices. Said plainly,
the vibrations made by the movements of the vocal cords admit of varying possibilities of voice
types and registers of voices. This present course will cast light over some of these voices and
foregrounds their basic mechanisms.
Voiceless (No voice):
In Producing no voice, the vocal folds are moved apart, vibrating at an extremely low
frequency. The abduction of the cords leads the pulmonic airstream to escape through the mouth
freely.
Normal Voice:
As the pulmonic airstream passes through the larynx, the Arytenoids pull the vocal folds
tightly, causing them to vibrate at a very high speed similar to the hummingbird’s wings beats.
Collins and Mees (2013) assert that vibrations’ frequency of normal voice crisscrosses with sex,
noting that the changing vibration “occurs on average 130 times a second for male voices, and
230 times per second for females” (p. 32). This explains why the voice made by males sounds
PHONETICS 29
deep and heavy, as opposed to the sharp and soft voices made by their female counterparts.
Figure 6 below elucidates the models of the Voiceless voice (left model) and Normal voice
(right model).
Figure 7. Models of Voiceless Sound and Normal Voice. From Practical Phonetics
and Phonology (pp. 32-33), Collins, B. & Mees., I. M.( 2003). London: Routledge.
Creaky Voice:
Ashby (2011) notes that when producing a creaky voice, “the vibratory cycles tend
to be irregularly spaced in creaky as opposed to regular in normal voice and that the
frequency is always very low” (p. 24). That is, the production of creaky voice involves a
sequence of vibrations with varying frequencies. In some English speaking communities, this
type of voice is highly remarkable in the speech style of women and is commonly called Vocal
Fry (more information about Vocal Fry can be found in
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4L7-9N1xQZA). In the USA, the latter is emblematic of
prestige and belongingness to higher social classes. It is, also, worth noting that some highly
educated speakers in Algeria and France choose to, intentionally, adopt this phonation type to
index stances, such as ‘educated’ and ‘elitism’. In some cases, we make this voice type when
we wake up in the early morning, producing a sequence of slow, low-pitched sounds.
PHONETICS 30
Figure 8. Creaky Voice. From Practical Phonetics and Phonology (p. 35), Collins,
B. & Mees., I. M.( 2003). London: Routledge.
Breathy Voice:
The production of Breathy voice involves a complete closure of the glottis. However, a
small gap is maintained between the Arytenoid, enabling the pulmonic airstream to
continuously pass through, as shown in Figure 9. Anyone can produce this phonatory voice in
specific situations, especially those in which he/she feels extremely afraid, swims in a
swimming pool or holds heavy objects.
Figure 9. Breathy Voice. From Practical Phonetics and Phonology (p. 36), Collins,
B. & Mees., I. M.( 2003). London: Routledge.
PHONETICS 31
Other Phonatory Voices:
In essence, the aforementioned voice types represent some of the most widely known
voices to laypeople. However, it must be noted, people tend to produce other voices in different
situations and cultures. By way of example, Falsetto, characteristically a very keen and sharp
voice, is mostly made by Opera signers. In addition, many people tend to use a very low voice
for various purposes, such as gossiping and disclosing secrets. This voice type is called
Whisper and it involves holding both vocal cords together with no vibrations (Collins & Mees,
2013).
Study Questions
In what ways does Breathy voice different from Normal voice?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….……
…………………………………….……………………………………………………………
……………….………………………………………….………………………………………
….……………………………….………………………………………….……………………
…………………….………………………………………………..……………………….
Home Assignment (Out-Of-Class Activities)/
What are the main characteristics of the so called Vocal Fry
…………………………………….……………………………………………………………
……………….………………………………………….………………………………………
….……………………………….………………………………………….……………………
…………………….………………………………………………..……………………….
…………………………………….……………………………………………………………
……………….………………………………………….………………………………………
PHONETICS 32
….……………………………….………………………………………….……………………
…………………….………………………………………………..……………………….
Online Sources:
Vocal fry: An attack on women? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UuAQsnAVoMw
What Is Vocal Fry? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4L7-9N1xQZA
Recommended readings:
Ashby, P.(2011). Understanding Phonetics. London, UK: Hodder Education.
PHONETICS 33
Lesson 10: Speech Production and Airflow
 Understand the essential processes involved in the movement of the airflow
 Identify the main types of the airflow
Introduction:
The voice coming out of the larynx passes through the Pharynx into two airflow
directions. Depending on the position of the Velum, the air escapes either through the mouth
or through the nose.
Figure 10. Nasal, Oral and Pharyngeal Cavities. From Practical Phonetics and
Phonology (p. 38), Collins, B. & Mees., I. M.( 2003). London: Routledge.
Oral Airflow:
When the velum (or soft palate) is raised, the passageway to the nose is blocked. This
would cause the airstream to escape through mouth. The production of all vowels and most
English consonants is accompanied by a flow of the airstream through a channel to the mouth
PHONETICS 34
called Oral Cvity (see Figure 10). Notice when you utter the sound / w / in words like wave
and wait. You can easily feel that the air goes out freely through your mouth.
Nasal Airflow:
In start contrast with the Oral Airflow, Nasal Airflow refers to the channel though which
the air escapes through the nose (Ogden, 2009). Phonetically, the velum is lowered, closing off
the channel leading up to the mouth, causing the air to go out of the vocal tract through the
nose. Unlike the sounds produced with the Oral airflow, there are only three consonants that
involve the escape of the airflow through nose, namely /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/. The channel though
which the air goes out of the nose is called Nasal Cavity.
On Central and Lateral Airflow:
When the Oral airflow escapes through the mouth, it goes down through various
passageways in the oral Cavity. The Phonetician Richard Ogden (2009) points out that it is
possible to talk of two passageways in the Oral Cavity, namely the Central Airflow and
Lateral Airflow. The former involves the movement of the airflow through the central part of
your tongue. Ogden (2009) adds that when you utter the sound / s / and then quickly suck the
air in, you can easily feel that the air flows on the central part of your tongue. The same is well
attested with the sounds /r/ and /w/. Conversely, the airflow is said to be Lateral (Airflow
Lateral) when the air escapes through both sides of your tongue. When you pronounce the
sound /l/ and then suck the air in, you can easily notice the air flowing down through both sides
of the tongue.
Home Assignment (Out-Of-Class Activities):
In what ways does the Nasal Airflow differ from the Oral airflow?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
PHONETICS 35
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Online Resources:
Oral Cavity (YouTube Video): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1EXhMpH6oU
Ogden, R. (2009). An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University
Press Ltd
PHONETICS 36
MONOPHTHONGS, DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONG
Course 11: Short Vowels and Long Vowels
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:
 Understand the locus of Vowel and its basic characteristics
 Understand the meaning of monophthongs
 Identify the differences and similarities between short vowels and long vowels
What is meant by a vowel?

Ogden (2009) points out that “Vowels are syllabic sounds made with free passage of air
down the mid-line of the vocal tract, usually with a convex tongue shape, and without friction.
They are normally voiced; and they are normally oral” (p. 56). As noted in previous courses,
vowels articulation, contrary to consonants production, involves neither an obstruction of the
airflow nor contact between the articulators. Similarly, vowels are, by their very nature, voiced
sounds and their articulations admit of varying types of tongue shape and height and lip
roundedness. In essence, English vowels can be classified into monophthongs (or pure vowels),
diphthongs and triphthongs.
Monophthongs (Short Vowels and Long Vowel):
BBC pronunciation and General American English have seven short vowels and five long
vowels. The former vowels are typically short in length and highly frequent in daily speech.
The vowel /ə /, called Schwa, is the shortest vowel in the English phonetic inventory system.
Because it is the shortest vowel in English, it is almost difficult for non-linguists to hazard a
guess about whether a specific word contains a Schwa or not-e.g., lower. Although there is no
general pattern for the occurrence of the vowel / ə /, it is, however, highly pronounced in words
PHONETICS 37
which end with er, such as baker, darker and daughter and, also, in the first syllable of many
words like around and above. Examples of the vowel / ʌ /, also called Wedge, are the words
cut and but. Examples of the vowels / æ /, / ɒ / and / ʊ / are the words fat, dot and good,
respectively, whereas the vowels / ɪ / and / e / are used in words like bit and men. In contrast
with short vowels, long vowels, also called Steady-state vowels (Collins & Mees, 2013), are
almost double in length than short vowels. It is worth noting that all short vowels have long
versions, except for / æ / and / e /, as shown in Table 2 below. We usually add the length marker
: in front of each symbol to indicate that the monophthong is long. Therefore, the long versions
of the short vowels / ɪ / and / ɒ / are / iː / and / ɔː /, respectively.
Table 2
English Monophthongs
Short Vowels Example Long Vowels Example
/ʌ/ but / ɑː / car
/ʊ / foot / uː / moody
/ɪ/ kit / iː / seat
/e/ hen / /
/æ/ rat / /
/ɒ/ knot / ɔː / thought
/ə/ around / ɜ: / curtain
Task 1: Say whether the words below contain short vowels or long vowels (see Answer Keys
section)
Foot: ……… hit: ……… goods: ……… above : ……… thought: ………
certain: ……… hat: ……… pen: ……… weak: ………
PHONETICS 38
Task 2: Write five words that contain long vowels (see Answer Keys section)
1. ………………
2. ………….….
3. …………….
4. …………….
5. …………….
University Press. PAGE 15
Online Resources:
Cardinal vowel system (Website) http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/CardinalVowels.htm
Classification of vowels ( Video Illustrations) :
1 . http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/tongue.mp4
2. http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/peat.mp4
Cardinal Vowel System ( Video): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xU8uARRN1es

PHONETICS 39
Lesson 12: Diphthongs
 Understand the locus of Diphthong and Gliding movement
 Identify the essential characteristics of Diphthongs
 Identify the main categories of Diphthongs
Diphthongs are more complex than monophthongs. While short vowels and long vowels
consist of one sound, diphthongs consist of two combined sounds. In producing diphthongs, the
tongue smoothly shifts from one position into another. Such Gliding movement represents a
shift from one sound into another, such as when moving from / e / to / ɪ / in the word rate and
from / e / to / ə / in the word fair. Peter Roach (2009) points out that though the duration of
diphthongs is relatively similar to monophthongs, first vowel tends to be, more or less, longer
and louder than the second vowel. When you utter the diphthong / ɪə /, you can notice that
loudness decreases as you move to the second sound Schwa.
Figure 11. Closing Diphthongs and Centering Diphthongs. From English

Phonetics and Phonology (p. 17), Roach, P. (2009). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
PHONETICS 40
There is a general consensus among phoneticians that sees that diphthongs can be divided
into two main categories, namely: centering diphthongs and closing diphthongs. The former
category is called centering simply because it consist of diphthongs that end with the central
vowel Schwa, whereas the second category are called closing because they end with close
vowels. There are three centering diphthongs in English, namely: / ɪə /, / eə / and / ʊə /. Figure
10 shows three diphthongs that end with the vowel / ɪ / and two diphthongs that end with the
vowel / ʊ /. It is, however, worth noting that the pronunciation of some diphthongs is not the
same in the RP and GA (Yule, 2020). By way of example, while British people pronounce the
word poor with the standard form / ʊə /, Americans in several USA regions pronounce it with
the short vowel / ʊ /. Likewise, while British speakers realize the words square and there with
the diphthong / eə /, many native speakers in the USA realize the same words with the short
vowel / e /.
Task 1: Identify the diphthong for each the words below.
Fair: /……/ here: /……/ mate: /……/ boil: /……/ down: /……/
bow: /……/ brown: /……/ cure: /……/ blow: /……/ stone: /……/
Task 2: Indicate the type of diphthong for each the following terms.
Example: Fate: closing diphthong
1. Slow: …………………….............
2. Fight: …………………….............
3. Wave : …………………….............
4. Case : …………………….............
Task 3: Provide one example for each of the diphthongs below.
a. / ɪə / …………….
b. /ʊə / …………….
c. /əʊ / ……………
PHONETICS 41
Online Resources:
University Press.
PHONETICS 42
Lesson 13: Triphthongs
 Understand the meaning of Triphthong and its types
 Identify all the possible and impossible combinations of triphthongs
Vowels, which consist of a combination of three juxtaposed sounds, are commonly termed
Triphthongs. Contrary to diphthongs production, the articulation of triphthongs involves two
gliding movements, that is, a smooth shift from the sound A to B and finally to C. By way of
example, when we produce the triphthong / eɪə /, the vocal organs shift from the vocalic position
/ e / to / ɪ / and then smoothly shifts to / ə / (Roach, 2009). It worth noting that it is almost
difficult for native and non-native speakers to recognize the last vocalic position, Schwa, in
words that have a triphthong. Because, it must be noted, / ə / is the shortest vowel in the whole
English inventory system, many non-linguists cannot hear it in speech, and thus fail to hazard
a guess about the exact number of sounds in the words which typically have triphthongs, such
as royal and lower. In essence, there are five triphthongs in the English language:
/ eɪ / + /ə/ = / eɪə /
/ ɔɪ / + /ə/ = / ɔɪə /
/ ɑɪ / + /ə/ = / ɑɪə /
/ əʊ / + /ə/ = / əʊə /
/ ɑʊ / + /ə/ = / ɑʊə /
Remarkably, all the five triphthongs listed above end with the short vowel /ə/. Although
it is possible to find triphthongs which are composed of one closing diphthong followed by /ə/,
it is impossible to find a triphthong that is formed by combining a centering diphthong and a
Schwa in any English speaking community. This is quite conceivable, provided that in English
PHONETICS 43
phonetic system the vowel is not followed by another identical vowel, in this case /ə/ + /ə/ =
/ʊəə/*. In brief, the combination of one centering diphthong + Schwa, though theoretically
possible, does NOT occur in any English-based variety, be it standard or vernacular.
Task: Identify the triphthong in each of the following words (see Answer Keys section):
loyal /……………/ fire /……………/
hour /……………/ tower /……………/

Online Resources:
University Press.
PHONETICS 44
CHARACTERISATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS
Lesson 14: Classifications of Vowels

 Understand the locus of the Cardinal Vowel System (CVs)
 Learn how to describe the vowels in terms of distinct reference points, such as height
and frontness
Introduction:
This course overviews the Cardinal Vowel System (CVs) used to describe
monophthongs, diphthongs and triphthongs in terms of a set of criteria. Some of the CVs
descriptions discussed in this course, it must be noted, are similar to other descriptions used
with other languages.
Cardinal Vowel System:
Figure 12. Daniel Jones
In 1917, the British phonetician Daniel Jones (1881–1967) devised the so called Cardinal
Vowel System (In short, CVs) as a reference point for classifying the English vowels. The
PHONETICS 45
cardinal vowel system was introduced to describe the vowels with regards to many criteria,
ranging from height, openness/closeness, backness/frontness to roundedness. The section that
follows addresses each criterion individually and considers the possible differences in
descriptions in both varieties, namely the standard British English (RP) and General American
English (GA).
Classifications: Monophthongs
Figure 8 displays the cardinal vowel system of the English monophthongs. It was noted
in the previous course that monophthongs vary in terms of length and quality. Yet, they also
differ in terms of their height, backness and openness. At a closer look, the vowels / ɪ / and / ʊ
/ are high vowels, as opposed to the mid vowels /e/, /ʌ/ and / ə / and the low vowels / æ / and /
ɒ /. Likewise, long vowels vary in terms of their height, as well. Comparatively, notice that the
tongue position for the long vowels / i: / and / u: /, for instance, seems to be higher than their
short counterparts-/ ɪ / and / ʊ /. As for frontness, / ɪ / and / i: / are front vowels, whilst / ʊ / and
/u:/ are back vowels. Unlike the central vowels /ʌ/, / ə/ and / ɜ: /, the vowels / æ / and /e/ are
front vowels. As for openness, it appears that all low vowels, such as / æ / and / a: / are open
vowels, as opposed to the vowel /e/ which is considered as a half open vowel. Conversely, all
the high vowels are also close vowels, such as / ɪ /, / i: / and / u: /.
Figure 13. English Short and Long Vowels. From English Phonetics and Phonology
(p. 13-16), Roach, P. (2009). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PHONETICS 46
The roundedness criterion refers to the shape made by your lips when articulating the
vowels. All back vowels, be they short or long, such /ʊ/ and / ɔː / involve a complete
roundedness of the lips (Rounded). However, the shape of your lips tends to be, more or less,
neutral when pronouncing central vowels and spread when pronouncing front vowels (Roach,
2009)
Figure 14. Centering and Closing Diphthongs in English. From English Phonetics
and Phonology (p. 18), Roach, P. (2009). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Centering diphthongs end with the short vowel / ə /. The CVs in figure 14 shows that the
diphthong / ɪə / begins with the spread, front and close vowel /ɪ/ and gradually moves to the
neutral, central and mid vowel / ə /. The vowel / eə /, conversely, starts with the spread, front
and half close vowel /e/ and then glides to the neutral, central and mid vowel / ə/. As for closing
diphthongs, the ending vowel is either /ʊ/ or / ɪ/. By way of example, the articulation of the
diphthong /əʊ/ involves a gliding movement from the neutral, central, mid vowel /ə/ towards
the rounded, back, close vowel / ʊ /. A full, detailed, CVs description of monophthongs,
diphthongs and triphthongs can be found elsewhere in Peter Roach (2009) and George Yule
(2020).
Tasks: Describe the middle sound of each word in terms of roundedness, frontness and
closeness (see Answer Keys section).
1. Back: …………………………………………………………….
PHONETICS 47
2. Bite : …………………………………………………………….
3. Voice : …………………………………………………………….
4. Hat: ………………………………………………………………

Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd. PAGE 21
University Press.
PHONETICS 48
CONSONANT POSSIBILITIES (Part I)
Lesson 15: The Description of English Consonants

 Learn the pronunciation of all the consonants used in the English language
 Learn how to transcribe all the consonants spoken in English
Introduction:
In course 4, we noted that consonants occur either in the initial position or final position
of the word, as opposed to vowels which may occur in any possible position in the word.
Phonetically, the production of all consonants involves an obstruction of the airflow, though
with varying degrees. This course considers all the transcriptions of all the possible consonants
commonly used in both standard varieties of English, namely British English (RP) and
American English (GA). The manner, place and force of articulation will be tackled, in details,
in the following courses.
Transcription of English Consonants:
A quick glance over the IPA chart reveals that English language contains a various
number of consonants with different speech articulations and voicing quality. By voicing, we
mean the “auditory result of the vibration of the VOCAL FOLDS” (Crystal, 2008, p. 514).
Thus, consonants accompanied by high vibrations of the vocal cords are termed Voiced
consonants, whereas those which are produced without any vibration are termed Voiceless
consonants. Table 3 below displays all the possible consonants used in the English language,
along with their voicing quality and transcriptions. Some consonants have the same phonetic
symbols as their orthographic symbols, such as /t/, /d/.
PHONETICS 49
Table 3
English Consonants and their Voicing Types
Consonants Voicing Example Consonants Voicing Example
/ŋ / voiced language /r/ voiced ride
/ʃ/ voiceless shape /θ / voiceless thigh
/ʧ/ voiceless church /s/ voiceless sit
/t/ voiceless top /m / voiced make
/ dʒ / voiced edge /j/ voiced yield
/ð/ voiced these /f/ voiceless fit
/z/ voiced zip /k/ voiceless kit
/n/ voiced neck /w/ voiced wave
/l/ voiced light /p/ voiceless pink
/h / voiceless hit /d/ voiced dove
/ɦ/ voiced behind /v/ voiced of
/ʒ/ voiced pleasure
All the consonants spoken in English contain one single sound, except / dʒ / and / ʧ /,
which consist of two consonants. Each consonant, it must be noted, is a combination of two
sounds with the same voicing quality. / dʒ /, by way of example, comprises two voiced sounds,
that is, / d / and / ʒ /.
PHONETICS 50
Task 1: Transcribe the initial sound in each of the following words (see Answer Keys section).
1. Paper : /……/
2. Tasks /……/
3. Filter /……/
4. Think /……/
5. Those /……/
6. Gauge /……/
Task 2: Transcribe the last vowel sound in each of the following words (see Answer Keys
section).
1. later : /……/
2. bath /……/
3. please /……/
4. box /……/
5. huge /……/

University Press.
USA: Blackwell Publishing Lt

PHONETICS 51
Lesson 16: Active and Passive Articulators
 Distinguish between Active and Passive Articulators
 Identify the features of some articulators involved in speech production
Introduction:
A closer look at the vocal tract below shows that the production of one single
consonant in any natural language involves an interaction between a set of speech organs.
In phonetics realm, specialists distinguish between diametrically two distinct, yet
interrelated, groups of organs. Some organs are termed Active Articulators whereas other
organs are termed Passive Articulators. Active Articulators are the movable parts of the
vocal tract and most of them are parts of the lower jaw. The lower lip and lower teeth are,
unequivocally, the most visible organs in the vocal tract, as opposed to the uvula. The latter
is a tiny egg-like organ and it can been seen when you open your mouth and look at the
mirror. Conversely, Passive Articulators are characteristically fixed and are parts of the
upper jaw. Alveolar ridge (hard palate) and soft palate are two passive articulators which
form the so called Roof of the Mouth.
PHONETICS 52
Figure 15. Active and Passive Articulators. From Understanding Phonetics (p.
33), Ashby, P.(2011), London, UK: Hodder Education.
Tongue and Articulation:
Figure 16. Vocal Tract showing the Six Parts of the Tongue. From Understanding
Phonetics (p. 34), Ashby, P. (2011), London, UK: Hodder Education.
PHONETICS 53
Of all the Articulators involved in speech production, the tongue seems to be the most
active articulator in the vocal tract. It is the most important articulator because it is involved in
the production of most consonants. Ashby (2011) points out that the tongue consists of six main
parts. As you open your mouth, it is easy to see the two visible parts of your tongue, namely
the Tip (or Apex), and Blade, as shown in Figure 16 above. When you push your tongue a little
bit forward, you can also see the Front part of your tongue. The last three parts of the tongue,
Center, Back and Root, are the least visible parts of the tongue and are usually involved in the
production of sounds like /g/ and /k/. In some introductory books, the Back part is also termed
Dorsum (Crystal, 2008).
Study Questions: What is meant by an Active Articulator?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..…
Tasks: List the six main parts of the tongue (see Answer Keys section).
1. …………………………
2. ……………………….
3. ……………………….
4. ……………………….
5. ……………………….
6. ……………………….
PHONETICS 54
Lesson 17: Place of Articulation
 Understand the locus of place of articulation
 Learn where exactly in the vocal apparatus consonants are produced
Introduction:
The previous course, Active and Passive Articulators, tackled the speech organs
involved in speech productions. This course overviews the place of articulation of the
consonants associated with Standard English. That is, it addresses where exactly in the vocal
apparatus the movable active articulator approaches the fixed passive articulator. When the
former moves towards the latter, the space between them becomes very narrow, forming the so
called Stricture or constriction of the airflow (Knight, 2012).
Places of Articulation:
Figure 12 below displays all the points of contact for all the consonants discussed in this
course. It is worth noting that the point of contact is named after the passive articulator. Hence,
we label the sound /g/ as velar, simply because the back part of the tongue (active articulator)
moves upwardly toward the Velum (passive articulator). This course overviews the most
significant places of articulators, starting with the most visible places and gradually moving
towards the least visible places in the vocal apparatus.
PHONETICS 55
Figure 17. Vocal Apparatus. From Practical Phonetics and Phonology (p.
47), Collins, B. & Mees., I. M. (2003), London: Routledge.
Bilabials: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
Bilabial is originally a Latin term and it contains two parts. Bi means the number two and
Labial refers to the lip. In producing Bilabial sounds-/p/, /b/, /m/, /w/- the lower lip raises
against the upper lip, forming a complete closure at the level of both lips. It is worth noting that
the semi-vowel /w/ is labeled Labial-velar in some other references, since the constriction of
the airflow is made at two points (Double articulation), namely the lips and velum (Collins &
Mees, 2013)
PHONETICS 56
Figure 18. Bilabial Sounds. From English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (p.
3), Carr, Philip (2013). UK: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Labiodentals: /f/, /v/
In producing the labiodentals /f/ and /v/, the lower lip approaches the upper teeth. Notice
that when you utter the sound /f/ and then the sound /v/, you can feel that the lower lip moves
a little bit forward.
Figure 19. Labio-dental Sounds. From English Phonetics and Phonology: An
Introduction (p. 3), Carr, Philip (2013). UK: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Dentals: / ð /, / θ /
Dentals are named after the word la dent (a French word for tooth). The dental sounds are
formed by a contact between the lower teeth and the upper teeth. In some American mainstream
PHONETICS 57
dialects, speakers tend to use what is called Interdentals (Ashby, 2011), consonants produced
by moving the tongue a little bit forward, as in the words health and thrive.
Figure 20. Dental Sounds. From English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (p.
Alveolar: /t/, /d/, /r/, /s/, /z/, /l/, /n/
Alveolar consonants are named after the Alveolar Ridge, a harsh tissue that is located
right behind your teeth. You can easily identify the alveolar ridge by moving your thumb back
and forth over the harsh tissue in the roof of the mouth.
Figure 21. Alveolar Sounds. From English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (p.
PHONETICS 58
Post-Alveolar: / ʃ /, / ʧ /, /ʒ /, / dʒ /
Post alveolar refers to the region behind the bony alveolar ridge zone. It pronouncing the
Post-Alveolar consonants, the tip (or the blade) of the tongue raises against the region behind
the alveolar ridge. The distinction between the Alveolar sounds and post alveolar sounds seems
to be, more or less, easy when your utter any word that contains / t / and / ʧ/ . Notice that when
you articulate the word teacher, your tongue moves a little bit backward as you move from the
sound / t / to / ʧ /. This clearly indicates that the articulation of Alveolar consonants and Post
alveolar consonants involves two different points of contact.
Figure 22. Post-Alveolar Sounds. From English Phonetics and Phonology: An
Introduction (p. 4), Carr, Philip (2013). UK: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Palatal: / j /
Palatal, a word that originally comes from the term palate, is formed by moving the front
part of the tongue towards the last region of the hard palate. Examples that illustrate the palatal
sound /j/ would be: yield, yes and yellow.
PHONETICS 59
Figure 23. Palatal Sounds. From English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (p.
Velars: /g/, /k/, / ŋ /
In producing Velar sounds, the back of your tongue (Dorsum) raises against the Soft
palate region or Velum. Examples that illustrate the velar sounds would be: gate (/g/), tongue
(/ ŋ /) and case (/ k /).
Figure 24. Velar Sounds. From English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (p. 5),
Carr, Philip (2013). UK: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd
PHONETICS 60
Glottal: /h/
The aforementioned places of articulation involve contacts at the level of the upper lip,
upper teeth or any specific point in the roof of the mouth, be it hard palate or soft palate.
Conversely, the production of the glottal sound /h/ involves contact at the level of the Glottis,
or the space between the vocal cords inside the larynx (Knight, 2012). The sound /h/ is said to
be voiced if it is followed by a voice sound, be it a vowel or a consonant. The same consonant
is said to be voiceless (or devoiced) if it is followed by a voiceless sound or the sound /j/, as in
the word humid. The former is notated with symbol /h/, while the latter is notated with the
symbol / ɦ /.
Task: State the place of articulation for each initial sound of the words below (see Answer
Keys section).
Word Place of Articulation Word Place of Articulation
Phone ……………………………. Sleep …………………………

Road ……………………………. Humid …………………………
Wake ……………………………. Clock …………………………

PHONETICS 61
CONSONANT POSSIBILITIES (Part II)
Lesson 18: Manner of Articulation

 Understand the nature of manner of articulation
 Learn how speech organs combine to produce consonants
Introduction:
One way to describe consonants is by referring to their manner of articulation. The
latter refers to how a given speech sound is produced. That is, it focuses on how articulators,
both active and passive, approach each other to form a Stricture in the vocal tract (Collins
& Mees, 2013). Likewise, it focuses on the processes involved in the articulation of
consonants. The narrowing of the space between the speech organs admits of varying
degrees of strictures in the vocal apparatus. Phoneticians usually talk of three levels of
Stricture, namely Complete Closure, Close Approximation and Open Approximation.
Each Stricture corresponds with one or more manners of articulation.
Manners of Articulation and Stricture:
The constriction of the airflow corresponds with the manner of articulation of each
consonant. Table 4 below displays all the consonants, along with their manners of
articulation and degrees of structure. For some consonants, the firm contact between the
articulators leads to a full blockage of the airflow in the vocal apparatus. This Complete
closure is usually well attested for Plosive sounds, namely /p, t, k, b, d, g/. The articulation
of plosives involves three stages. In the first stage, the air passes through the pharynx to the
mouth. In the second stage, the speech organs obstruct the airflow. In the third stage, the
PHONETICS 62
airflow is released, so to speak, in an explosive fashion. In producing Fricatives, the
articulators are held close to one another, but not so closely as to prevent the air from
moving out of the mouth. In fact, because the organs are very close to each other, the airflow
yields a friction in the vocal tract (2020). The nine fricatives used in English are /f, v, θ, ð,
s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/. The friction voice is almost analogous to the sound made by the rubber band.
The articulation of Affricates- / ʧ /, / dʒ /- involves producing one plosive sound (/t/ or /d/)
followed by a fricative (/ ʃ / or /ʒ/). When the so called Nasal sounds-/n/, /m/ and / ŋ /- are
produced, the velum is lowered such that the airflow can only escape through the nasal
cavity.
Table 4
Manners of Articulation
Manners of Articulation Consonants Stricture
Plosives p, t, k, b, d, g Complete Closure
Affricates ʧ , dʒ Complete Closure
Nasals n, m, ŋ Complete Closure
Trills r (Alveolar Trill) Complete Closure

R (Uvular Trill)
Taps ɾ Complete Closure
Fricatives f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h Close Approximation
Approximants l, r, w , j Open Approximation
When Trills are made, the tongue strikes the alveolar ridge with a sequence of fast
strikes. This manner of articulation is absent in Standard English, but is commonly used in
Spanish-Alveolar Trill-and Arabic-Uvular Trill (Collins & Mees, 2013). Taps, like Trills,
are commonly used in Spanish and Castilian (Catalonia). They occur when the tongue
PHONETICS 63
strikes the alveolar ridge only one strike, but “not enough time for pressure to build up”
(Knight, p. 47). An example of Taps would be the word cera, meaning wax. It must be
noted that, while Fricatives correspond to close approximation, the articulation of
Plosives, Affricates, Nasals, Trills and Taps involves a complete closure of the vocal tract.
In producing Approximants, the articulators approximate one another, but not close
enough to build a friction. Collins and Mees (2013) point out that approximants can be grouped
under two main categories. The Lateral approximant/l/ is produced with the airflow moving
down through both sides of the tongue. The Central Approximants /r/, /w/ and /j/ are made with
the airstream moving through the central part of the tongue.
Task: Identify the manner of articulation for each final sound of the words below (see
Answer Keys section).
Word Manner of Articulation
Lake …………………………….
Spoon …………………………….
Above …………………………….
Covid …………………………….
bill …………………………….
PHONETICS 64
Lesson 19: Force of Articulation: Fortis vs. Lenis
 Understand the meaning of Energy (or Force) of articulation

 Distinguish between Fortis and Lenis
 Identify the major characteristics of Fortis and Lenis sounds
Force of articulation is generally used by phoneticians to describe the degree of
articulatory energy of different speech sounds. Although the articulation force of sounds admits
of varying degrees of muscular energy, phoneticians differentiate between two distinct types of
articulation force, namely Fortis and Lenis. Some other labels, such as Tense (or Strong) vs.
Lax (or Weak) are also used interchangeably in phonetics and phonology textbooks. These two
categories differ in terms of muscular force, voicing and length.
Table 5
Fortis and Lenis Consonants
Sounds Force Voicing Muscular Energy Length
θ, f, p, k, s,
h, t, ʃ, tʃ Fortis (Strong) Voiceless More articulatory energy Relatively longer than lenis
dʒ, d, b, g,
w, r, n, j, l, ð
Lenis (Weak) voiced Less articulatory energy shorter than Fortis
In phonetics realm, Fortis refers to “a sound made with a relatively strong degree of
muscular effort and breath force” (Crystal, p. 197). By way of example, the articulatory force
of the sounds /s/ and /f/ requires a relatively high degree of pressure and muscular force.
PHONETICS 65
Similarly, Fortis sounds are voiceless and longer than Lenis sounds. Conversely, the latter are,
by their very nature, voiced consonants and their production involves a relatively less muscular
energy. Thus, while the initial sounds in the words feel and paper require a strong force of
articulation, thus Fortis, the initial sounds in words like gate and box involve weak force
articulation, thus Lenis. Table 5 above shows the different Fortis and Lenis sounds in English.
Task: Indicate whether the following words contain Fortis or Lenis sounds (see Answer Keys
section).
a. Seat b. vow c. fat d. rough e. aloof f. twitter g. wrath
h. remark i. arrive j. watertight k. throne l. blame
Ear training
https://www.phonetics.expert/ear-training
PHONETICS 66
PHONEMES, ALLOPHONES AND MINIMAL PAIRS
Lesson 20: Phoneme and Allophone
 Understand the meaning of Phoneme and Allophone
 Distinguish between complementary and contrastive distribution
Introduction:
Laypeople usually pronounce sounds differently in different contexts and make
comments, positive and negative, on the way other people utter specific sounds. Unlike
phoneticians, however, native speakers cannot easily perceive and distinguish between all the
specific differences between phonological pronunciations in many words and utterances. By
way of example, a native speaker of English would fail to notice that the sound / p / is
pronounced differently in the words paper and split and stop.
In phonetics field, researchers distinguish between the terms Phoneme and Allophone.
The terms Phoneme and Allophone (or Phone) are technical words, which represent central
concepts in studies of phonology. Researchers working on phonological studies concur that
Phonemes are abstract units that represent specific speech sounds. Thus, the sounds (ŋ) and (ð)
are English phonemes, whereas (ɣ) and (x) are characteristically Arabic Phonemes.
Nevertheless, each phoneme can be realized in different ways or pronunciations, commonly
known as Allophones or simply Phones. The number of allophones, or phonetic realizations,
differs from one phoneme into another. By way of example, the phoneme (t) can be realized
with many pronunciations, as shown in Table 6 below. English speakers may pronounce the
sound /t/ as an alveolar plosive (tar or ten), a flap sound (writer), a silent letter ( international),
and as a glottal sound, as in butter /bʌʔə/. In pronouncing the alveolar (t) in the word eight, the
PHONETICS 67
tongue is brought in contact with the upper incisors, a process commonly known as
Dentalization (Yule, 2017). The sound ( s ) would more or less sound as a dental phone to a
speaker’s phonetic ear.
Table 6
The Phoneme (t) and its Various Allophones
Source: Yule, G. (2017). The Study of Language (p, 140). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
The phonetic environment determines, to a great extent, the allophonic quality of the sound.
Said differently, the allophonic variation in a given word is, by and large, affected by the sounds
surrounding the consonant. If, for instance, a plosive sound, such as /p/, /t/ or /k/, is used word-
initially, chances are that it is aspirated, that is, produced with a puff of air. If the same is used
word-finally, chances are that it is pronounced without the release of airstream, that is, without
any plosion of the airflow. The aspirated sounds are indexed by the use of the little symbol [ ʰ
], as in the word pink [ pʰɪnk ]. Equally, it is worth noting that phoneticians use the
parentheses () to indicate that the sound is a phoneme and use the slashes // to indicate that the
sound is characteristically an allophone.
PHONETICS 68
In essence, allophones are, by their very nature, in Complementary Distribution. Tench
(2011) points out that “The distribution of the one variety complements the distribution of the
other – they can never occur in exactly the same position as the other.” (p. 60). Put plainly, the
substitution of one allophone with another alternative allophone does not affect the meaning of
the word. Pronouncing the word stuck with an aspiration after the sound /k/ [ stʌkʰ ] *, albeit so
odd to an English speaker’s phonetic ear, does not change the word meaning. Phonemes, unlike
allophones, are said to be in Contrastive Distribution. If the initial sounds in words like rat
and bat are replaced with the sound /h/, the meaning of the word would be completely different.
In brief, phonemes, in stark contrast with allophones, contrast with one another in the phonemic
system of words.
Study Questions: What is the difference between contrastive distribution and complementary
distribution?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… …
Online Resources:
What are phonemes? (Video): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCeXfLfVQ2I
USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
PHONETICS 69
TYPES OF TRANSCRIPTION
Lesson 21: Minimal Pairs and Sets
 Define the concepts of minimal pair and minimal set
 Identify the basic phonologic rules that pertain to Minimal Pairs
What is meant by Minimal Pair?
Crystal (2008) notes that Minimal Pair refers to “Two words which differ in meaning when
only one sound is changed” (p. 307), such as fight. Right and dry. cry. The different sound is
not an allophone, but a phoneme, such as /k/, /s/ and /z/. That said, two words are considered
as an example of a Minimal pair only if the two sounds are in contrastive distribution. If we
substitute the aspirated allophone [ pʰ ] with an unaspirated alternative in, say, park, the
meaning does not change, and thus the two words [ pʰɑːrk ] and [ pɑːrk ] * are not one minimal
pair.
Characteristics of Minimal Pair:
Two words are considered to be one minimal pair only if:
 The two alternative sounds occur in the same position, word-initially, middle position,
or word-finally;
 The two words should have the same number of sounds;
 Both words should have ONE different sound only;
 The replacement of one sound (allophone) with another sound (or allophone) leads to a
change in meaning.
PHONETICS 70
All Minimal pairs, thus, should fit into the aforementioned four phonological conditions.
By way of example, the words bright and flight are minimal pairs, whilst the words strong and
gone are not. In brief, the latter pair are simply considered as different words and not one
minimal pair. It is also worth noting that a group of words, commonly known as Minimal set,
can also fit into the same conditions stated above, such as hat, cat, fat and rat; sigh, see and saw
(Crystal, 2008)
Task: Make minimal pairs in English by changing the initial consonant in these
words (see Answer Keys section).
a. Sit . ……
b. Lit . ……
c. Late . ……
d. Boat . ……
e. Kit . ……

Make minimal pairs by changing the initial consonant in these
words: fate, light, kick, wood, down, lazy, feet, table, cup.
Phonemes and Allophones (Video): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCeXfLfVQ2I
USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
PHONETICS 71
Lesson 22: Broad Transcription vs. Narrow Transcription and Diacritics
 Distinguish between Broad Transcription and Narrow Transcription
 Learn how to transcribe words phonetically and phonemically
 Understand the meaning of Diacritics and their functions
 Learn how to add diacritics to the transcription of speech segments
Introduction:
Generally speaking, the transcription version we used in the first courses indicates how a
given sound is pronounced. However, it does not provide us with any clues about the phonetic
details found in the words. This course, then, foregrounds two of the most widely used
transcriptions in phonetics, namely Broad Transcription and Narrow Transcription
Broad Transcription vs. Narrow Transcription:
Touch: / tʌtʃ / vs. [tʰʌtʃ ]

Bug: / bʌg / vs. [ bʌ g̥̚ ]
Notice the examples stated above. Using your phonetic ear, you can easily notice that the
way /t/ in the word right is recorded seems to be slightly different from the / t / version you
hear in another word, as in tiny. The same thing is well attested for the sound /g/ in the word
bug. The second consonant sounds more like the voiceless plosive / p /. Likewise, you can
easily notice that the transcription of the plosive / t / in the word touch contains a little angle
over the symbol and the transcription of the sound / g / in the word bug contains a small angle
and a small circle over the symbol (in some other cases, its ok to use it under the symbol, too).
PHONETICS 72
Furthermore, you can notice that the each word is transcribed twice and enclosed with
different marks, namely slashes (or slants) and square brackets. The aforementioned
distinctions reflect two common distinct, yet related, transcriptions called the Broad
Transcription and Narrow Transcription. The former, also termed Phonemic
Transcription, refers to the use of the phonetic symbols that describe the pronunciation of the
phonemes. The latter, also termed Allophonic or Phonetic Transcription, refers to the use of
the phonetic symbols and markers that indicate the minor changes in the pronunciation of the
sound (Crystal, 2008). Said plainly, while broad transcription provides us with the general
phonetic information of sounds pronunciation, narrow transcription describes all the phonetic
details in the production of speech segments. When transcribing a word phonemically, we
enclose the symbols between slashes. However, when we transcribe the word phonetically, we
enclose the same symbols between square brackets and add little markers, called Diacritics, to
mark any small change or detail in its transcription. The section that follows will cast light over
some of the well-known diacritics in English phonetics.
What is meant by Diacritics?
Any slight change or detail in the pronunciation of a sound is marked by adding a little
symbol to the transcription. This small additional marker is commonly termed Diacritic in
phonetics and phonology literature. Crystal (2008) defined Diacritic as “a mark added to a
symbol to alter the way it is pronounced” (p. 142). We add small markers to the Phonemic
transcription to mark a change in pronunciation, indicate a small phonetic detail or a specific
way of speaking. We, also, use Diacritics to mark specific minor speech segments associated
with dialects and accents.
PHONETICS 73
Table 7
Diacritics used in the Allophonic Transcription of Sounds
Source: The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005)
The table 7 above is a small section of the full IPA chart. It displays some of the diacritics
we put in the allophonic transcription of the symbols. For instance, notice that the velar stop [̚g]
is marked with two diacritics. The angle [ ̥̚ ] indicates that the airstream is unreleased after the
production of the plosive sound, and the circle [ ̥ ] is used to mark the devoicing feature in the
consonant (in some cases, it is used over the symbol). In order to mark the aspiration feature in
the consonant, the little marker [ʰ ] is added, as in the word pace [pʰeis]. Likewise, Breathy and
Creaky voices are marked by the diacritics [ b̤ ] and [ b̰ ], respectively.
Ear training:
Task 1: Transcribe the following words, making sure you add all the diacritics you learned in
the course (see Answer Keys section).
1. Pitch: […………. ]
2. Fake: […………. ]
PHONETICS 74
3. Paper: […………. ]
4. Dog: […………. ]
Task 2: Transcribe narrowly the following words and make sure you add the necessary
diacritics (see Answer Keys section).
1. Stuck: […………. ]
2. Juzz club: […………………. ]
3. Dad: […………. ]
4. Talk: […………. ]

What do we mean by Allophonic Transcription? Do NOT exceed 5 lines
……………………………………………………………………………………….…………
…………………………….……………………………………….……………………………
………….……………………………………….………………………………………………

PHONETICS 75
SYLLABLES AND CONSONANT CLUSTERS
Lesson 23: Syllables
 Understand the nature of Syllable and its structure
 Learn how to identify the types of syllables
 Learn how to decide on the syllabic division of words that contain intervocalic
consonants.
Introduction:
Syllables represent one of the most important subjects in phonetics. When people asked
how many syllables are there in the words fragility or transnational, chances are that they are
unlikely to agree on the exact number. While some of them may hazard a guess about the
number of syllables, others would avail themselves of the falling and rising of the voice
loudness as a criterion for counting the number of syllables. This course considers the locus of
the syllable, its structures and types. The course ends with a brief overview of the Maximal
Onset Principle.
The Locus of Syllable and its Structure:
Peter Roach (2009) states that syllables are speech units that consist of “a centre which has
little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this
centre (i.e. at the beginning and end of the syllable), there will be greater obstruction to airflow
and/or less loud sound.” (p. 56). As shown in figure 25 below, the most common syllable
consists of an Onset, a Nucleus and a Coda. The onset and coda are usually consonants (c),
whereas the nucleus is generally represented by a vowel (v). The Nucleus and Coda are usually
PHONETICS 76
termed the Rhyme. Comparatively, it is the nucleus which represents the most significant part
of the syllable, as noted by Roach (2009) in the definition above.
Figure 25. Structure of Syllable. From The Study of Language by Georg Yule (2020)
It is worth noting that it is possible to have a syllable without a coda, as in the words bee
and sea. Equally, some syllables do not consist of an onset, such as off and ought. Words like
eye and I consist of the nucleus only. Nevertheless, it is almost impossible to form a syllable
without a nucleus, except for the so called Syllabic Consonants, as in the word cotton.
Open Syllable vs. Closed Syllable:
In Phonotactics realm, phoneticians distinguish between Open Syllables and Closed
Syllables. The former does not contain a coda at the end as in the words we and key. The latter
is usually used to refer to syllables which are enclosed with a coda, such as sail and seat.
Other Types of Syllables:
The number of syllables varies from one word into another. Some words consist of one
syllable (e.g, meat, dog) and are usually termed Monosyllablic. A word is called Disyllablic if
it contains two syllables (e.g, English) and Trisyllablic if it consists of three syllables. Words,
which are composed of more than three syllables, are commonly called Polysyllablic.
PHONETICS 77
Syllabic Division: The Maximal Onset Principle
One of the most confusing issues in syllables pertains to the correct way to divide words
that contain intervocalic consonants. By way of example, should we say that the consonant /p/
in the word happy is a coda of the first syllable or an onset of the second one? One way to
answer this question is by referring to the so called Maximal Onset Principle, a well-known
rule that postulates that any intervocalic consonant “should be attached to the right-hand
syllable, not the left, as far as possible.” (Roach, 2009, p. 61). This means that the intervocalic
consonant /p/ can form an onset and thus should be, by principle, treated as an onset of the
second syllable /pi/. Knight (2012) notes that the consonants /ŋθ/ occur in the middle of the
word lengthy /leŋθi/. Using the Maximal Onset Principle, one can state that, since the cluster
consonant /ŋθ/ cannot work as a perfect onset in any English word, then one should use the
velar /ŋ/ as a coda in the first syllable /leŋ/, and add the consonant /θ/ as an onset to the second
syllable /θi/. A detailed description of the syllable division and Maximal Onset Principle can
be found in Roach (2009), Carr (2013) and Knight (2012).
Task 1: Identify the number of syllables in each of the following words (see Answer Keys
section).
1. Cake: …….
2. Language: …….
3. teacher: …….
Tasks 2: Say whether each of the words below contain an open or closed syllable (see
Answer Keys section).
1. tea: …….
2. bat: …….
3. fees: …….

Identify the number of syllables in each of the words below.
Stone / flag / Virus / standard / activity / educated
PHONETICS 78
Online Resources:
Syllable Structure: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPPhYnqhjxc
Carr, Philip (2013). English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (2nd Ed.) UK: Wiley-
Blackwell Publishing Lt
PHONETICS 79
Lesson 24: Consonant Clusters
 Understand the locus of Consonant Cluster
 Learn all the permissible and impermissible combinations in the English language.
What is a Consonant Cluster?
Though vowels represent the nucleus of English syllables, there are many other cases in
which they are not present in the syllable. Crystal (2008) defined Consonant Cluster,
Consonant Compound or Consonant Sequence as “any sequence of adjacent
CONSONANTS” (p. 81). Said differently, a syllable, which contains only an onset and a coda,
is labeled a Consonant Cluster. Some of these consonant clusters occur word initially, such as
sky and slight, while others occur at the end of the word as in park and folk.
Some Possible and Impossible Cluster Combinations:
In Phonotactics realm, syllables in all world languages and language varieties are
governed by specific phonological constraints. For instance, while the cluster consonant /l /+
/b/ ( ‫قلب‬, /kəlb/, meaning heart) is possible in Arabic, other sequences such as / k / + / z / and /
f / + / h / are not. Similar to Arabic and French, English has its permissible and also
impermissible consonant clusters. It is, also, impossible to have cluster consonants in English
syllables with consonants such as / dʒ /,/ z / and / tʃ /. In English, some possible sequences have
two adjacent consonants (CC), such as sp (e.g., spot and spy), kr (e.g., cry and crew), and pl
(e.g., play and plain). Yule (2017) notes that the same cluster compound may occur word
initially, as in stay and stone and word finally as in list and fist. Examples of consonant clusters
with more than two consonants are illustrated Table 8 below:
PHONETICS 80
Table 8
Possible Combinations with more than two Consonants
Three Consonants Syllable Structure Cluster Four Consonants Syllable Structure Cluster
scream CCC / skr / Twelfths CCCC / lfθs /
Tasks CCC / sks / glimpsed CCCC / mpst /
Strange CCC / str / Texts CCCC / ksts /
Task: Write down three examples for each of the cluster combinations below.
a. / skr / : …………………., ……………………., ……………………….
b. / srt /: …………………., ……………………., ………………………..
c. / sp / …………………., ……………………., ………………………..
Online Resources:
Consonant Clusters (YouTube): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P73dwwm14fo
PHONETICS 81
PARAMETERS OF VARIATION IN VOWELS AND CONSONANTS
Lesson 25: Diphthongization and Monophthongization

 Understand the locus of two allophonic vowel processes, namely Diphthongization
and Monophthongization;
 Learn how to transcribe, phonetically, Diphthongized and Monophthongized vowels
Introduction:
Phoneticians and researchers working within the Historical Linguistics paradigm and
dialect change (vowel shift) studies have long been concerned with how dialectal sounds change
in quality and length. Diphthongization and Monophthongization represent two of the most
widely allophonic vowel processes in English specifically and many world languages more
generally. It is worth noting that Diphthongization and Monophthongization are mostly
frequently realized in non-standard varieties, such as mainstream dialects and accents. While
the former refers to the process in which English sounds display more complexity of sound
quality, the latter designates a change of a diphthong into a monophthong.
Diphthongization:
Diphthongization is a process whereby vowels, which are characteristically monophthongs,
tend to display a gliding movement from one position into another (Crystal, 2008). In brief,
Diphthongization is a process whereby the vowels become more complex. Phonetically,
monophthongs, such as /iː/ and /uː/, are articulated with a slight shift of the tongue from one
position into another. By way of example, vowels in words like kit and two are realized as [tɪə]
and [tʊu ], respectively.
PHONETICS 82
Monophthongization:
In some other cases, conversely, a diphthong becomes less complex and is realized as a
monophthong, such as when we replace the diphthong / ɔɪ / with the long vowel / ɔː /. Speakers
of Texas dialect, for instance, are more likely to pronounce the words boy and toy as [bɔː ] and
[t ɔː], respectively.
Table 9
Examples of Monophthongization and Diphthongization in English Dialects
Standard Form Monophthongization Standard Form Diphthongization
Toy / ɔɪ / [tɔː ] Tea / t: / [ t ɪi ]
( Texas speech)
Time /t aɪ m/ [t ɑː m ] (African Two /t u: / [ t ʊu ]
American vernacular
English)
oil / ɔɪ l / [ ɔː l ] (African American See /s i: / [ s ɪi ]
vernacular English)
Task: Write four examples of Diphthongized sounds and Monophthongized sounds used by
native speakers of English dialects in the USA (see Answer Keys section).
5. ……………….……... 2. …………………………
3 …………....................... 4 ………………………….
PHONETICS 83
Lesson 26: Pre-fortis Clipping
 Define the concept of Pre-fortis clipping
 Identify the differences between Pre-fortis and Pre-lenis
 Identify the phonetic processes that govern the duration of vowels
Pre-fortis clipping represents one of the pure phonetic processes that may influence the
duration of vowels. Tench (2011) defined Pre-fortis clipping as “the shortening of vowels in
syllables that are closed with voiceless consonants” (p. 70). Generally speaking, while English
vowels have full duration when followed by lenis consonants or placed at the final position,
they are usually shortened in word final contexts or when followed by fortis consonants.
Figure 26. Diagram demonstrating Pre-fortis clipping of the diphthong [ əʊ ]. From

Understanding Phonetics (p. 106), Ashby, P.(2011). London, UK: Hodder Education.
PHONETICS 84
The sound context tends to affect the length of vowels in the English words. When placed
word finally, English vowels have full length, such as the words bow, cow and sea. Similar to
word final position, English vowels have full duration when followed by lenis (voiceless)
consonants. For instance, the vowels in the words ride and feed have full length. However, if a
vowel is followed by a fortis consonant, its duration tends to be clipped almost half of the
vowels which occur in the final position or followed by a fortis consonant. Figure 26 displayed
above demonstrates the three prototypical cases of pre-fortis and pre-lenis positions of the
diphthong [ əʊ ]. The duration of diphthong [əʊ] before fortis consonants tends to be remarkably
shorter than that is word finally or placed before lenis consonants. Pre-fortis clipping, Collins
and Mees (2013) assert, tends to be so remarkable in monosyllables or single-syllable words,
such as late and case than polysyllabic words.
Marking Pre-fortis Clipping:
Clipped long vowels are usually marked by replacing the diacritics [ː ] with the diacritics
[ˑ], whereas Clipped diphthongs, tripththongs and short vowels are transcribed by adding the
marker [˘] over the phonetic symbol.
Task 1: Choose the correct answer (X)
Word Pre-fortis Pre-lenis Word Pre-fortis Pre-lenis

Wheat Head
Wide Tide
State Peace
Seed Hat
White What
Rough wave
Task 2: Transcribe the following words phonetically(see Answer Keys section).:
1. Kit [………………]
PHONETICS 85
2. Flood [………………]
3. Sue [………………]
4. Knot [………………]

Write 10 examples of Minimal Pairs and 5 examples of Minimal Set.
Collins, B. and I. M. Mees. 2003. Practical Phonetics and Phonology. London: Routledge.
PHONETICS 86
Lesson 27: Devoicing
 Understand the meaning of devoicing
 Learn some phonological contexts that constrain the realization of devoiced
consonants
Definition of Devoicing:
In the previous course, we have covered a great deal of ground about consonants. We
now know that the production of voiced consonants involves vibration of the vocal folds (or
cords). Thus, consonants as /z/ and /v/ are phonologically voiced sounds, as opposed to /s/ and
/f/, which are regarded as voiceless sounds. However, voiced consonants may also be realized
as voiceless or Devoiced sounds, depending on their surrounding sound contexts.
Devoicing and Sound Contexts:
Rule ONE: voiced fricatives and affricates + voiceless sounds.
When pronouncing some English words, lenis fricatives and affricates are realized as
completely Fortis or devoiced sounds, especially when followed by voiceless sounds (Tench,
2011). For instance, when uttering the formal received with thanks, you can feel that the sound
voiced fricative /ð/is realized as /θ/, that is, as a voiceless sound. The same devoicing feature is
also well attested when you pronounce the expression wedge sneakers.
Rule TWO: voiced plosives tend to be Devoiced when followed by voiceless sounds or silence.
When the voiced stop consonants /b/, /d/ and /g/ are realized before a voiceless sound,
they lose their voicing, most notably in connected speech (Tench, 2011). Thus, the consonants
/g/ and /b/ seem to be completely devoiced when produced in sentences like dog species and
PHONETICS 87
stab proof. Similarly, the voicing of the voiced stops tends to be devoiced when used at the final
position, as in stab, hid and frog.
Rule THREE: has ( or have)…. + to….
Similar to the lenis fricatives, affricates and stops, the voicing of the verbs has/have tend
to lose their voicing when followed by a fortis sound such the plosive alveolar /t/. The following
examples elucidate this devoicing pattern:
 She has to be present.
 It has tapped into…
 They have stolen….
Rule FOUR: Aspirated plosives + Approximants
Devoicing seems to be highly remarkable with aspirated plosive sounds which are
followed by approximants /l/, /r/, /w/ and /j/. Let us take the example of the words pray and
cute. Notice that, because the central approximants /r/ and /j/ are proceeded by the stop sounds
/p/ and /k/, their voicing quality vanishes and their articulation becomes fairly close to that of
the voiceless sounds.
Other rules on Devoicing:
There are other rules that constrain the devoicing of voiced consonants in the English
inventory system. Devoicing affects the glottal, fricative sound /h/ when followed by the palatal
approximant /j/, as in huge and humid. Likewise, a partially devoiced /m/ is realized after the
voiceless sound /s/ as in smack and smoke (Collins & Mees, 2013).
PHONETICS 88
Notes on Narrow Transcription of Devoicing:
It is worth noting that the transcription of devoiced consonants is indicated by a small

circle over the symbol. Thus, the devoicing of the second sound of the word huge is marked as
[ j̊ ] and the last sound of the word bag is marked as [ g̊ ] or [ g ].
̊
Task: Indicate the devoiced sounds in each of the following words and sentences (see Answer
Keys section).
Jazz club:…………………… queue:………………….. smooth:…………………….
dad:……………………. he has to be here :…………………….

Source: Tench, P. (2011). Transcribing the Sounds of English: A Phonetic Coursebook for
Words and Discourse. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. PAGE 64
PHONETICS 89
CONNECTED SPEECH
Lesson 28: Rhythm and Intonation

 Understand the meaning of Rhythm and Intonation
 Learn some basics rules and functions of Rhythm and Intonation
Rhythm:
'Jimmy’s 'bought a 'house near 'Glasgow.
A quick glance over the term Rhythm indicates that there is a repeated pattern in a given
event or an action. It is easy to notice a repeated pattern in your heartbeats rates or the
hummingbird’ wings beats per seconds. Now take a look at the sentence above and focus on
the stressed syllables (marked with red color). You will easily notice that there is a relatively
regular time as you move from one stressed syllable into another. This is simply because
English has what Roach (2009) calls the Stress-timed Rhythm. Rhythm refers to the
regularities detected between the stressed syllables in the connected speech. Collins and Mees
(2013) add that the amount of time between each stressed syllable is relatively the same,
regardless of whether the syllables in between are stressed or not.
Intonation:
When you listen to a recorded conversation between two native English speakers
discussing daily topics, you can easily notice the ups and downs in the tune and melody of each
utterance they utter. You can also notice that such raising and falling tones help you grasp the
conveyed messages, expressed feelings and indexed stances in each turn taking of the
conversation. In studies of Supra-segmental Phonology, this aspect of connected speech is

PHONETICS 90
termed Intonation, and it refers to “the distinctive use of patterns of pitch, or melody” (Crystal,
2008, p. 252). Said plainly, Intonation, depending on the intended message, may operate on
various patterns, such as falling, rising or fall-rise. Each intonation pattern plays a different role
in communication. For instance, falling intonation is usually used in wh-questions and
commands. Rising intonation is usually used in tag questions or in questions that can be
answered with yes or no (contingency questions). Fall-rise intonation is used in conditional
statements (e.g., if he accepted the deal, we would…), listing objects (e.g., I had a hot-dog,
soda and water) and also questions about choices (e.g., are you American or German?). Many
other patterns and functions of intonation can be found in Roach (2009), Collins and Mees
(2013
What is Intonation Important in daily Communication?
That intonation plays a significant role in daily interactions is crystal clear. With the
absence of intonation, you may feel puzzled and confused what the interlocutor is thinking
about, feeling or trying to communicate. Crystal (2008) notes that the functions of intonation
are manifold. First, intonation signals the grammatical structure of the sentence, such as
marking the ending of a sentences or tag questions. Also, the pitch levels play a significant role
in signaling the exact meaning of a given sentence. For instance, consider the difference
between the utterance “she is leaving, isn’t she? and “she is leaving, isn’t she?”. The former
utterance is a question (I am asking you whether she is leaving or not) whilst the latter utterance
means “I am telling you that she is leaving”. In many western communities, intonation plays a
significant role in indexing the sociocultural background of the speaker. Finally, intonation
patterns enable us, not solely to project our attitudes and emotions-anger, sarcasm-but also
understand the stances and feelings projected by speakers, such joking, confidence, certainty
(sure vs. unsure), excitement…etc
PHONETICS 91
Study Question: Explain, briefly, three functions of Intonation.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
………………………………………………….………………………………………………………
…….…………………………………………………………….………………………………………
…………………….…………………………………………………………….………………………
…………………………………….…
Online Resources:
Intonation in English (Video): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6aE4nceJt8
A Bibliography of Timing and Rhythm in Speech:
http://www.personal.reading.ac.uk/~llsroach/timing.pdf
How English learners can improve intonation (Website)
https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/how-english-learners-can-improve-intonation
University Press.
PHONETICS 92
Answer Keys
Lesson 1
Task: Write one example for each of the four ‘sounds-letters match’ discussed above.
1. / z /: synthesize & disease 2. < g >: pleasure & large
3 silent letters as in know 4 homophones as in eight and ate
Lesson 5
Task: Transcribe the following words:
baker: / beɪkə / dinner: / dɪnər / swift: / swɪft / sheep: / ʃiːp /
language: / læŋɡwɪdʒ / quiz : / kwɪz / thrive: / θraɪv / fit: / fɪt /
Lesson 6
Task 1: Mention three examples of allophones you know in English?
1. The aspiration in initial sound in the word paper
2. The dark l [ ɫ ] sound in the second sound of the word blood
3. Devoicing of the initial sound in the word dad
Task 2: Circle the words with the same vowel sound in each of the words set below.
a. Bake fate wait mute
b. Fight late light tight
c. Boat stupid moan dot
d. High lie date why
Lesson 11
Task 1: Say whether the words below contain short vowels or long vowels.
Foot: short hit: short goods: long above : short thought: long
certain: long hat: short pen: short weak: long
Task 2: Write five words that contain long vowels (see Answer Keys section)
1. smooth
2. dark
3. moon
4. arm
5. thought
Lesson 12
Task 1: Identify the diphthong for each the words below.
Fair: / eə / here: / hɪə / mate: / eɪ / boil: / ɔɪ / down: / aʊ /
PHONETICS 93
bow: / əʊ / brown: / aʊ / cure: / ʊə / blow: / əʊ / stone: / əʊ /
Task 2: Indicate the type of diphthong for each the following terms.
Example: Fate: closing diphthong
1. Slow: closing diphthong
2. Fight: closing diphthong
3. Wave : closing diphthong
4. Case : closing diphthong
Task 3: Provide one example for each of the diphthongs below.
a. / ɪə / here ( UK)
b. /ʊə / cure ( UK)
c. /əʊ / boat
Lesson 13
Task: Identify the triphthong in each of the following words:
loyal /ɔɪə/ fire /aɪə/
hour /aʊə/ tower /aʊə/
Lesson 14
Tasks: Describe the middle sound of each word in terms of roundedness, frontness and
closeness.
1. Back: unrounded, front and open
2. Bit : unrounded, front and close
3. Voice : the dipthong / ɔɪ/ glides from the rounded, back and half close position to the
unrounded, front and close vowel
4. Hat: unrounded, front and open
Lesson 15
Task 1: Transcribe the initial sound in each of the following words.
1. Paper /p /
2. Tasks /t /
3. Filter /f /
4. Think / θ/
5. Those / ð/
6. Gauge /g /
Task 2: Transcribe the last vowel sound in each of the following words.
6. later : /……/ r
7. bath /……/ θ
8. please /……/ z
9. box /……/ ks
10. huge /……/ dʒ
PHONETICS 94
Lesson 16
Tasks: List the six main parts of the tongue.
1. Tip (or Apex)
2. Blade
3. Front
4. Center
5. Back
6. Root
Lesson 17
Task: State the place of articulation for each initial sound of the words below.
Word Place of Articulation Word Place of Articulation
Phone Labio-dental Sleep alveolar
Road alveolar Humid Glottal
Wake Labio-velar Clock velar
Lesson 18
Tasks: Identify the manner of articulation for each final sound of the words below.
Word Manner of Articulation
Lake PLOSIVE
Spoon NASAL
Above FRICATIVE
Covid PLOSIVE
Bill APPROXIMANT
Lesson 19
Task: Indicate whether the following words contain Fortis or Lenis sounds
b. Seat fortis/ b. vow lenis/ c. fat fortis/ d. rough fortis/ e. aloof fortis/
f. twitter fortis/ g. wrath fortis/ h. remark lenis/ i. arrive lenis/ j. watertight fortis/
k. throne lenis/ l. blame lenis/
Lesson 21
Task: Make minimal pairs in English by changing the initial consonant in these
words.
a. Sit: bit
b. Lit : kit
c. Late : fate
d. Boat: vote
e. Kit: sit
PHONETICS 95
Lesson 22
Task 1: Transcribe the following words, making sure you add all the diacritics you learned in
the course.
5. Pitch: [pʰɪtʃ ]
6. Fake: [feɪk ̥̚ ]
7. Paper: [ˈpʰeɪp)ər ]
8. Dog: [dʰɒɡ ̥̚ ]
Task 2: Transcribe narrowly the following words and make sure you add the necessary
diacritics.
5. Stuck: [stʌk ̥̚ ]
6. Juzz club: [dʒæz ̊ klʌb ]
7. Dad: [dæd ̊ ]
8. Talk: [tʰɔːk ̥̚ ]
Lesson 23
Task 1: Identify the number of syllables in each of the following words.
4. Cake: 1
5. Language: 2
6. teacher: 2
Tasks 2: Say whether each of the words below contain an open or closed syllable.
4. tea: open
5. bat: closed
6. fees: closed
Lesson 24
Task: Write down three examples for each of the cluster combinations below.
a. / skr / : scream, screw, screen
b. / srt /: stream, strands, strainer
c. / sp / spot, spoon, speak
Lesson 25
Task: Write four examples of Diphthongized sounds (a) and Monophthongized sounds (b)
used by native speakers of English dialects in the USA.
1. Tea (a) 2. Time (b)…………………………
3 bee (a) 4 same (b)………………………….
Lesson 26
Task 1: Choose the correct answer (X)
Word Pre-fortis Pre-lenis Word Pre-fortis Pre-lenis
Wheat X Head X
Wide X Tide X
PHONETICS 96
State X Peace X
Seed X Hat X
White X What X
Rough X wave X
Task 2: Transcribe the following words phonetically:

1. Kit [kɪ˘t]
2. Flood [f ɫ ʌd ……]
3. Sue [suː]
4. Knot [nɒ˘t] (UK) [nɑˑt] (US)
Lesson 27
[dʒæz ̊ klʌb ] [kj ̊uː ] [sm ̊uː ð]
[dæd ]̊ [ˈhi: ˈhæz ̊ tu bi hɪə]
PHONETICS 97
References:
Carr, Philip (2013). English Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction (2nd Ed.) UK: Wiley-
Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Campbell-Kibler, K. (2008). I'll be the judge of that: Diversity in social perceptions of (ING).
Language in Society, 37(5), 637-659. doi:10.1017/S0047404508080974
O’Grady, W & Archibald, J. (2015). Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction (8th
Ed). Toronto, Canada: Pearson
Pike, K.L. (1947). Phonemics: A technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. USA:
University of Michigan
University Press.
Websites:
https://teachmeanatomy.info/neck/viscera/larynx/organ/
https://www.informedhealth.org/how-does-the-larynx-work.html
PHONETICS 98

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MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF L’ARBI BEN M’HIDI

FACULTY OF ARTS AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES

PHONETICS: A COURSE FOR

Dr. Haroun Melgani

introduction to phonetics and phonology, the anatomy of speech production, vowels’

classifications, description of consonants, to the major allophonic variations of vowels and

their knowledge and understanding of phonetics and phonology.

and syllabic division.

advancement of other areas of research-e.g, speech therapy, language teaching,

sociolinguistics-on the other.

Assessment and Evaluation

their answers and assess their understanding in the classroom.

suprasegmental phonetic aspects as well as the basic phonological processes. In essence,

learners are expected to develop the following skills and abilities:

and contributions to the other scientific disciplines

many English words

and learn some basic phonological processes

 Learners will be able to make distinctions between place of articulation, manner

of articulation and force of articulation

 Learners will be able to differentiate between the different types of voice

 Learners will learn the relationship between phonemes and allophones

 Learners will be able to identify some basic allophonic processes such as

Devoicing, Pre-fortis clipping and Intonation.

TD tests: 50 % (20 points)

3. Session Duration: 90 minutes

Table 3. English Consonants and their Voicing Types …..…….……..……..…..……..… 50

Table 4. Manners of Articulation …..…….……..…..…..……..……..……..…..……..……. 63

Table 6. The Phoneme (t) and its Various Allophones …..……..……..……..…..……..…… 68

Table 7. Diacritics used in the Allophonic Transcription of Sounds …..……..……..…….. 64

Table 8. Possible Combinations with more than two Consonants…..……..……..…….. 81

Table 9. Examples of Monophthongization and Diphthongization in English Dialects…..… 83

Figure 9. Breathy Voice. …..……..……..……..…..……..……..………..……..…… 31

Figure 26. Diagram demonstrating Pre-fortis clipping of the diphthong [ əʊ ]. ….. 84

RP: Received Prononciation

CVs: Cardinal Vowel System

Lesson 1: Writing, spelling and pronunciation

 Identify the connection between writing and sound articulation;

 Identify the three basic types of letters-sound correspondence

Sounds and letters Correspondence:

another. Italian language is an epitome of one-sound-one-letter correspondence, that is, the

Types of sounds-letters match:

What is the difference between homophone and homograph?

Homework Assignment (Out-Of-Class Activities):

Source: Knight, RA. (2012). Phonetics: A Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. PAGE 13 & 14

The pronunciation dictionary: https://forvo.com/

Video Illustrations: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IerM7dTQN4

people. In brief, speaking lies at the heart of all human interactions.

Phonetics and Auditory Phonetics (see course 3).

Phonetics and other Fields:

Psychology and Accent Coaching, require a sufficient background knowledge in phonetics

and linguistic anthologists participate in regular workshop trainings in phonetics in order to

What is meant by Phonetics?

Homework Assignment (Out-Of-Class Activities):

The English Phonetics and Phonology Glossary (pdf):

Video Illustrations: Phonetics ( Overview)

O’Grady, W & Archibald, J. (2015). Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction (8th

After studying this course, students will be able to:

 Understand the three main branches of phonetics

the field of Phonetics.

production, or articulation. Any phonetician or a student of phonetics specialized in this

many softwares and applications, such as PRAAT, Audacity and WASP.