Maersk Training Centre: Well Control Training Manual

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MAERSK TRAINING CENTRE A/S 03-13-01 CBI/NLN 01

ORIGINAL DATE REVIEWED BY ITEM
DRILLING SECTION 1/8/02 JNO/HES 0
SUBJECT: PREPARED BY CHAPTER PAGE
Well Control Training Manual JOA 00 1
MAERSK TRAINING CENTRE

Drilling Section
Copyright © Maersk Training Centre a/s.

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Well Control
Training Manual
M:\IWCF Surface\3\1\Section 5.doc © MTC

Table of content:
01 Pressure in the earth crust Page 007

01.01 Sedimentation
02.01 Compression
03.01 Pressure
04.01 Pressure in fluids
05.01 Pressure gradient
06.01 Abnormal/subnormal pressure
02 Pressure balance in the well bore Page 019

01.02 Pressure balance
02.02 Overbalance and underbalance
03.02 Lost circulation
04.02 Rate of penetration versus overbalance
05.02 Drilling break
06.02 Necessary overbalance
07.02 Trip margin
08.02 Riser margin
09.02 Relationship
10.02 Equivalent drilling fluid density
03 Dynamic pressure regime when circulating Page 028

01.03 Circulation of drilling fluid
02.03 Dynamic pressure in the well bore
04 Consideration with a closed in well Page 033

01.04 Closed in well
02.04 U-tube
05 Properties of gasses and gas laws Page 036

01.05 Drilling with underbalance
02.05 Properties of gas and gas laws
03.05 Expansion of gas
04.05 Formation strength
05.05 Leak-off test
06.05 Maximum allowable annular surface pressure
06 Drilling fluid volume and capacities Page 044

01.06 Calculating drilling fluid volume – capacities
02.06 Drilling fluid volume and capacities from tables
03.06 Surface to bit strokes & bit to surface strokes
04.06 Use of barite to increase drilling fluid volume
05.06 Volume increase due to barite addition


07 Wellbore kicks Page 053

01.07 Kick occurrences
02.07 Warning signals
03.07 Warning signals while drilling
04.07 Warning signals while tripping or making connection
05.07 Procedure for shutting in the well
06.07 Pressure after shut in
08 Circulating a kick out of the well bore Page 069

01.08 General points
02.08 Circulating out an influx using Driller’s Method
03.08 Wait and Weight Method or Engineer’s Method
04.08 The Concurrent Method
05.08 Advantages and disadvantages of the three methods
06.08 Pressure control schemes
09 Calculations of density and pressure gradient of an influx Page 094

02.09 Example
10 Lost circulation Page 097

01.10 General
02.10 Causes of lost circulation
03.10 Well control with partly lost circulation
04.10 Well control with total lost circulation
11 Volumetric wellcontrol and other Page 102

01.11 General
02.11 Volumetric Method – Specification required
03.11 Volumetric Method – Handling
04.11 Lubrication Technique
05.11 Volumetric Method – Example
06.11 Low Choke Method – Dynamic Kill
07.11 Bullheading
12 Kick with bit off bottom Page 113

01.12 Introduction
02.12 Stripping
03.12 Closing Procedures
04.12 Rig layout for combined stripping and volumetric method
05.12 Procedure
06.12 Snubbing


13 Gas cut drilling fluid Page 119

01.13 General
02.13 Causes of gas cut drilling fluid
03.13 Gas kicks in Oil Based Mud
04.13 Influx volume
14 Deviated and Horizontal well control Page 126

01.14 Introduction
02.14 Complications
03.14 Horizontal well control example
04.14 Wait and Weight Method
05.14 Driller’s Method
06.14 Horizontal well kill method
15 Pulling Pipe Page 138

01.15 Introduction
02.15 Pumping slug
03.15 Inadequate hole fill
04.15 Hole not taking correct amount of fluid
05.15 Hole not giving correct amount of fluid


Abbreviations:
A Area
Atm Atmosphere
BHA Bottom hole assembly
BHP Bottom hole pressure
BOP Blow out preventer
Cap Capacity
DC Drill collar
DP Drill pipe
EDC Equivalent circulating density
EFD Equivalent formation density
EOB End of build
FCP Final circulating pressure
FOSV Full opening safety valve
Ft Feet
G Pressure gradient psi/ft
Gal Gallons
GMD Gas migration distance
GMR Gas migration rate
GPM Gallons per minute
HCR High closing ratio
HPHT High Pressure/High Temperature
H2S Hydrogen sulfide
ICP Initial circulating pressure
ID Inside diameter
KMW Kill mud weight
KOP Kick off point
Lb Pounds
Lbs/ft Pounds per feet
LOT Leak off test
MAASP Maximum allowable annular surface pressure
MD Measured depth
MW Mud weight
MWF Final mud weight
OBM Oil base mud
OD Outside diameter
OH Open hole
OMW Original mud weight
P Pressure
PA Pressure annulus
Pc Pressure dynamic
PDP Pressure drill pipe
Pf Pressure formation (pore pressure)
Ph Pressure hydrostatic
PL Pressure loss
PPG Pound per gallon


PPM Part per million

PSI Pound per inch²
PWD Pressure while drilling
ROP Rate of penetration
RPM Rotation per minute
RRCP Reduced rate circulating pressure
SF Safety factor
SICP Shut in casing pressure
SIDPP Shut in drill pipe pressure
SPM Strokes per minute
SX Sacks
T Temperature
TVD True vertical depth
V Volume
WBM Water base mud
WOB Weight on bit


01 PRESSURE IN THE EARTHS CRUST

01.01 Sedimentation:
The theory behind the pressure being present in the different depths in the earth rock
formations are based on the historic development during millions of years where settling of
particles has taken place in the ocean.
Large and small rock particles are transported by rivers and streams, ice and wind and
deposited on the seabed offshore. In the sea several different chemical substances are
present which also separates from the water and sink to the seabed. Amongst others
carbonates, sulphates and chlorides are known to be dissolved in the seawater. Small
organisms which live in the sea has a life cyclus and when they die their solid remains also
sink to the seabed.
When this process continues during millions of years the layers of settling will obtain a
considerable thickness on the sea floor.
02.01 Compression:
The rock particles and solid matter will eventually become more and more compacted as
they bear more and more weight from the overlaying deposits. As this process continues the
water that is found between the rock particles will usually escape. However there will usually
be small cavities left between the particles, which contain the remaining water. These cavities
or void spaces make the rock formations more or less porous. A porous formation can
contain fluids, gas or hydrocarbons.
As compression and compaction continue during time, combined with thermal and chemical
processes the unconsolidated particles will eventually become rock formations within the
earth crust.
These sedimentary rock formations are generally porous, and the pores are filled with a fluid
or gas.
SHALE Porous/
impermeable
Porous/
SANDSTONE permeable
Tight and
SALT without pores
Fig 01


If communication between the cavities or pores in the formation is present this allows the fluid
to flow away and escape. Under certain conditions the formation fluid can become trapped. If
a porous fluid-bearing formation becomes covered with an impermeable layer of rock such as
a clay stone, the fluid becomes trapped.
03.01 Pressure
Before describing the conditions in which the formation fluids are found at different depths in
the rock formations the terms mass, density, force, energy and pressure will be
considered.
Mass
Mass is defined as the term for a quantity of matter. The unit of measurement that is used is
the pound.
Density
Density is an expression giving the mass of gas, fluid or solid matter in relationship to its
volume, E.I. mass per unit volume. Other means to express density is the term relative
density. By relative density is understood, the mass of a particular volume of substance
divided by the mass of an equal volume of fresh water. Due to the definition of the relative
density it remains dimensionless.
In this lecture mass in pounds, and volume in gallons is used, therefore the density is given in
pounds per gallon (ppg).
Force
When a mass hangs by a string, a force will keep the string in tension. The product of
gravitational acceleration and the mass causes the force itself.
Mass
Power
Fig 02


This force can be measured by a dynamometer, Fig. 03. This instrument consists of a spring.
One end is fixed and the other end shows on a scale how much gravity force is exerted.
Scale
Pointer
Fig 03
Force is expressed in the unit pounds-force, which is defined as follows.
One pound-force is the force, which will influence a body with a one pound mass when
subjected to a gravitational acceleration of 9.80665 m/s2.
The gravitational acceleration of 9.80665 m/s2 is present at latitude 45° North on the earth's
globe. Gravitational acceleration differs in various parts of the globe. This means that one
pound-force is not an equal value everywhere on the globe.
As an example the gravitational acceleration at the North Pole is equal to 9.831 m/s2, which
gives a force influence on a mass of one pound according to the following -
9,831
G = 1x = 1.0025 [ pounds ]
9,80665
At the equator the gravitational acceleration = 9,781 m/s2
The force influence on one pound mass becomes
9,781
G = 1x = 0,9974 [ pounds ]
9,80665
In practice this variation in gravitational acceleration is ignored and a one pound mass is
considered to exert a one pound-force influence.


Pressure
Pressure is defined in physics as force per area unit.
Force
Pressure =
Area unit
The total force, which acts on a plane, is divided by the area of the plane. The result is called
pressure.
The unit for force is pounds-force and the unit for area is square inch. Therefore the unit for
pressure will be:
Pounds
Pressure = [pounds per square inch ]
Square inch
M = 1 pound
G = 1 pound ( 45° latitude North )
M g = 9,80665 m/s2
A = 1 inch2
G
G 1
Pressure (P) = P x = = 1
A A 1
Fig 04
04.01 Pressure in fluids
Considering a vertical cylindrical volume of static fresh water with a cross-sectional area of
one inch2 and height of 10 ft, the pressure at the bottom of this cylinder can be calculated -
The fluids total volume is
1 in2 x 10 x 12 = 120 in3

10 ft
The density of fresh water is 8.34 ppg
8.34 x 7,48
1 inch
2 8.34 pounds per gallon = pounds / inch3
1728
Fig 05


The mass of the fluid column will be
pounds gallon 1 ft 3
M = 8.34 x 7,48 3
x 3
x 120 inch3 = 4,33 pounds
gallons ft 1728 inch
The pressure at the base of the fluid column is caused by gravitational acceleration that acts
on the fluid column divided by the fluid columns' cross sectional area.
4.33 pound
Ph = = 4.33 psi
1 inch 2
It is important to realise that the pressure at the bottom of a static fluid column is only
depending on the vertical height of the column and the density of the fluid.
05.01 Pressure gradient
Considering a porous and permeable rock formation in which the pores are filled with fresh
water (density 8.34 ppg).
It is now possible to calculate the pressure at 5000 feet depth -
4,33 x 5000
Ph = = 2165 psi
10
It is also possible to calculate the pressure increase that every foot of depth will represent.
2165
Pressure increase per ft = = 0.433 psi pr ft
5000
This quantity which represents pressure increase in psi/ft is named Pressure Gradient 8G.
When the pressure gradient for a fluid or gas is known it is easy to calculate the pressure at
any given depth.
From the shown example of freshwater (8.34 ppg) and pressure gradient (0.433 psi/ft) it is
possible to calculate the pressure gradient for a fluid or for a gas with a density of 1 ppg.
0,433
Pressure gradient for 1 ppg = = 0,052 psi / ft
8,34
With this new figure it is now possible to calculate the pressure gradient for any fluid or gas.
Pressure gradient = 0.052 x density in ppg
Example:
Calculate the pressure gradient for a fluid with the density 10.4 ppg.


Answer: 0.052 x 10.4 = 0.541 psi/ft
Calculate the pressure exerted from this fluid at a depth of 4000 ft -
Answer: 0.541 x 4000 = 2164 psi
Fig 06 shows different pressure gradients and illustrates how pressure increases with
depth-
DEPTH
0
1 Gas grad. 0.07 psi/ft
2 Oil grad. 0.30 psi/ft
3 Fresh W. grad 0.433 psi/ft
4 Salt W. grad 0.465 psi/ft
5 10 ppg grad. 0.52 psi/ft

2500
5000 PRESSURE
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Fig 06


06.01 Abnormal / Subnormal Pressure
So far it has been assumed that there is a direct proportional relation between formation
pressure and fluid density and true vertical depth from the surface.
That means that the formation fluid pressure is only affected by the fluid density and from the
true vertical depth.
The influence of the overlying rock formations has so far not been considered.
The reason is that in case of a permeable and porous formation system every single rock
particle rests upon or leans up against other particles just below and to the side of it.
Therefore the rock structure supports its own weight, and regardless of depth does not affect
the formation fluid pressure.
Artesian Well
NORMAL FORMATION
PRESSURE AT THE WELL
UNTILL BELOW THE CAP
ROCK
LAKE
When talking about artesian wells, we are
normally talking about water wells where
we have a porous sandstone witch has
communication to higher laying areas
creating abnormal pressure below a cap
rock.
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
FROM
FORMATION
WATER
COLUMN
POROUS SANDSTONE
BELOW CAP ROCK
Fig 07
Under compaction
Let us consider that at a particular period in a rock formations' development it was not
possible for the formation fluids to escape since an impermeable formation type placed on
top prevents this from happening. Therefore the rock particles can not be compacted and
consolidated sufficiently to carry the weight of the overlying rock. Since the fluid trapped in
between the particles could not escape the fluid will be exposed to compressing forces.
These forces result in an increased formation fluid pressure, which is abnormal at the given
depth. It can be realised that the trapped formation fluid has to carry the weight of the
overlaying formation, along with the formation rock in which it is trapped. In a situation such
as this the formation pressure will be greatly different from a calculated normal
pressure/depth forecast.
Example:
A formation at 5000 ft depth contains formation fluid. The formation fluid has
communication to the surface through porous and permeable formation rock. See fig.
08


Formation pressure at 5000 ft will be the fluid column pressure
Density for formation fluid = 8.95 ppg
Pressure gradient for formation fluid = 8.95 x O.052 = 0.465 psi/ft
Pf (Pressure of Formation) = 5000 x O.465 = 2325 psi
5000 ft 5000 ft
Impermeable
zone
2325 psi 5147 psi

Fig 08
If it is considered that this formation fluid was trapped in an earlier period in the sedimentary
process and therefore could not escape the later compaction process, it is possible that the
fluid may be exposed to the weight of the overlying rock mass.
Assuming formation fluid is 10% and an equivalent formation density of 21 ppg this results in
the following formation pressure -
P f = ( 0.1 x 5000 x 8.95 x 0.052) + (0.9 x 5000 x 21 x 0.052)
Pf = 5146.7 psi
This formation fluid is over-pressured or abnormal. Over-pressured formations are often

encountered with thick salt sediments and salt domes. Salt does not have the same structure
as normal rock formations. Salt is termed a "plastic" formation, which means that it is not
self-supporting, it can move and deform under pressure, and (this is not necessarily a rapid
process). When pressure is applied to a salt formation it behaves more as fluids rather than
as solid matter. The relative strength of salt is very low compared to other rock types.
Because of the salt's qualities the weight from the overlying formation including the weight of
the salt layers themselves will be transferred to the formation below the salt. The pressure in
the salt and in the formation below it will often have a pressure gradient of 1 psi/ft instead of
the normal pressure gradient for formation fluid, which is 0.465 psi/ft.


Abnormal pressures can also occur when an encapsulated and normal pressured formation
for the particular depth at a later stage in history with movements or surface erosion is
brought closer to the surface.
The particular formation in question can be found deeper or shallower in relation to its original
position. If it is the case that the formation pressure cannot adjust to its new depth it will hold
its original pressure.
Example:
If a sandstone formation at 4000 ft depth is considered it will have a normal pressure
of 1860 psi. On account of geological processes the area of sandstone becomes
isolated by impermeable rock. Through earth movements the formation moves to a
shallower depth of 2500 ft. In this situation the sandstone will retain it's original 1860
psi pore pressure but he surrounding formation has a pore pressure of 1160 psi.
Such an isolated zone is called a high-pressure zone or abnormal pressured zone.
It may as well be the case that the isolated sandstone by earth movements was brought
down to 5000 ft depth. The normal pressure for 5000 ft would be 2325 psi and the isolated
sandstone area with its 1860 psi would become a low-pressure or subnormal-pressured
zone.
2500 ft
4000 ft
1160 psi 5000 ft
1860 psi 1860 psi

1860 psi
2325 psi
1860 psi
Fig 09
Abnormal pressured formations can also develop because of differences in the contained
formation fluid and gas densities.
Figure 10 shows an anticline. An anticline is the geological term for an area of formations
which, due to earth movements has been pushed upwards to take a shape like a dome.
In the figure the anticline consists of porous sandstone which contains gas. A layer of
impermeable shale that prevents the gas from escaping caps the sandstone. The
formation surrounding the anticline has a pore content of salt water and a base depth of
5000 ft. The formation pressure is considered to be normal. Formation pressure of the salt
water bearing rock at 5000 ft will therefore be:


P f = 5000 x 0.465 = 2325 psi
3000 ft
Anticline 1395 psi

2125 psi
5000 ft
Sandstone Tight
Porous
with gas Shale
with
water
2325 psi
Fig 10
If the sandstone in the anticline contained salt water instead of gas, the formation pressure at
the very top of the anticline would be exactly the same as the formation just above.
Example:
Pf = 3000 x 0.465 = 1395 psi
The sandstone however is containing gas, which has a pressure gradient of 0.1 psi/ft. This
results in the pressure at top of the anticline to be substantially higher than the calculated
1395 psi for a salt-water formation.
The reason is that the hydrostatic pressure of gas within the anticline is much lower than the
corresponding hydrostatic pressure of salt water on the outside.
Pressure from the 2000 ft high gas column will be:
Ph = 2000 x 0.1 = 200 psi
Therefore the formation pressure at the very top of the anticline below the cap rock will be:
Pf = 2325 - 200 = 2125 psi
Formation structures of this type give a real problem if the formations above and/or below will
not withstand the 12.45 ppg hydrostatic pressure from the drilling fluid that is required to


balance the zone at 2000 ft. It may be necessary to set several casing strings in order to
isolate the pressure.
High-permeability limestone formations have small formation strength gradients, and lost
circulation may be the result when the bottom well pressure exceeds formation pressure by
as little as 200 psi. This value may be less than the dynamic pressure drop in the annulus or
less than a safe trip margin. Such conditions can be risky if insufficient information is
available.
Transition zones and under compacted shale
Wherever massive shale formations are found the risk for transition zones and high pressure
is present. This is caused by thick impermeable shale restricting the disposal of formation
fluid. Due to new sediments are settled on the seabed increasing weight load is exerted on
the shale from the formation above. The water, gas or oil trapped within the shale cannot
escape. The result is the development of abnormal pore pressures. The terminology under
compacted shales is used to indicate these circumstances.
A seal of harder rock often caps the top of the abnormal pressured shale. Just after the cap is
penetrated the Rate of Penetration (ROP) increases. The reason is that the shale is easier to
drill since the differential pressure between drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure and the
formation pressure decreases. A reduction in overbalance results in a faster drilling rate.
When the Driller maintains his drilling

parameters constant t.i. constant rotary
speed, constant weight on bit and constant
pump rate, the Rate of Penetration should
be constant as well, unless changes in the
drilled formation takes place. UNCONSOLIDATED
The indication of changes in the formation SHALE-DENSITY INCREASES WITH DEPTH - WATER ESCAPES
can therefore be observed by the Driller by
means of changes in Rate of Penetration. SAND WITH COMMUNICATION TO SURFACE
SHALE-DENSITY DECREASES WITH DEPTH-WATER ENCLOSED

To confirm whether the well is still in balance,
the Driller must stop and observe if the well
is static. The terminology for this operation is
"flow checking the well". ENCLOSED SAND LENS WITH FORMATION FLUID
Fig 11
Whenever thick shales are encountered it is important to be careful and expect abnormal
pressure in the formation. Shale related abnormal pressures can occur at any depth from
surface to very deep and is the most common reason for abnormal formation pressure.
Because the formation fluid in under compacted shale is unable to escape, a typical trend will
indicate that the cuttings density decrease with depth. The density decrease with depth can
indicate that abnormal pressure is encountered.


Surcharged formations by underground blowouts
A different reason for abnormal formation pressures are the result of previous blowouts
underground. Shallower sands can become charged as the result of an uncontrolled
underground blow out from an adjacent well or from a bad cement job. Even the well has
successfully been closed in on surface the pressure from the deeper zone can communicate
to the shallower sand reservoir.
When the next well is drilled the abnormal pressure is encountered at the much shallower
depth.
See Fig 12
UNDERGROUND
BLOWOUT
FAULT ZONE
Pf
Pf
Fig 12 Fig 13
Surcharged formations by natural causes
Shallow formations may also be surcharged by natural causes. This can be the result of a
fault in the formations. A fault gives a means of communication between deeper formations
with high pressure and shallower formations. The higher pressure escapes into the shallower
formation where an abnormal pressure will be the result.
See Fig 13.


02 PRESSURE BALANCE IN THE WELL BORE

01.02 Pressure balance
During drilling of a well the formation pressure must always be counter balanced by an equal
amount of pressure exerted from within the well. This is achieved by using a drilling fluid
having a sufficient density.
Drilling fluid which is a combination of different fluids and chemicals has several important
functions in the drilling process but a main function is the ability to give pressure balance in
the well.
The density of the fluid can be adjusted by adding high density material or by diluting by
water. It is in this way that balance and control of the formation pressure can be achieved.
02.02 Overbalance and underbalance
Underbalance is the term used when at a particular depth the formation pressure exceeds
the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid column. In this situation there is a risk
that fluid from the formation will intrude into the wellbore and begin to displace the drilling
fluid. On surface the drilling fluid returns rate will increase and later the active drilling fluid pits
will show a gain of fluid. If this sequence of events takes place in a well a kick is said to have
occurred.
The rate of influx is dependent on the degree of underbalance and on the formation's
permeability. To drill a well underbalanced is dangerous in most parts of the world and is
therefore usually not practised in oil well drilling.
However in certain areas where sufficient data are available it is practised anyway mainly
because drilling can take place with a high penetration rate.
03.02 Lost circulation
Overbalance in the well is present when the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure exerts a higher
pressure than the formation pressure. In this situation formation fluids cannot intrude into the
wellbore. The reverse can occur whereby drilling fluid will seep into the formation, and lost
circulation may be the result. This is not a desirable situation.
If drilling fluid seeps into the formation the formations' permeability becomes reduced. When
the overbalance becomes too large the formation will break allowing a large amount of the
drilling fluid to flow into the formation. This situation is called lost circulation.
When lost circulation has been the result a dangerous situation is created. The drilling fluid
level drops and hydrostatic pressure is lost. When hydrostatic pressure is lost the formation
pressure higher up becomes underbalanced which can result in a blow out.
04.02 Rate Of Penetration versus overbalance
The difference between the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid at the bottom of
the wellbore and the formation pressure is called the differential pressure. When the


hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid is higher than the formation pressure the
bottom hole pressure is in overbalance.
The relationship between differential pressure and Rate of Penetration shows that Rate of
Penetration increases when the differential pressure decreases. Penetration is given in feet
per minute and differential pressure in psi.
Ft/min
15
12
Rate of Penetration
4
3
psi
1000 2000 3000
P = Differential Pressure
Fig 14
The graph is interesting in several ways. Assume drilling with a differential pressure of 2430
psi in a particular formation with constant drilling parameters E.I. :
- Constant Weight on Bit
- Constant drilling fluid density
- Constant rotary RPM and
- Constant pump rate

it can be seen that the penetration rate is 4 ft per minute.


Without changing any other parameters imagine that the formation pressure increases by
980 psi. This results in a new differential pressure of 1450 psi and a corresponding increased
penetration rate to 6 ft per minute.
It is realised that when the differential pressure decreases the penetration rate will increase.
05.02 Drilling break
An increase in Rate of Penetration (ROP) with constant drilling parameters is called a drilling
break.
It should be known that a drilling break is an early warning of a kick. If the Driller reacts on the
observation by making a flow check the well may still be overbalanced with the pumps
stopped.
Even that an increase in Rate of Penetration may be caused by other factors than a change
in differential pressure, the Driller should always play safe and perform a flow check in order
to confirm that the well is in balance. A natural reaction must also be to inform the
supervisors of any drilling breaks.
06.02 Necessary overbalance
By means of the graph it is seen that to obtain the highest possible penetration rate the
degree of overbalance has to be as small as possible. In practice a sufficient overbalance
must be used to avoid kicks from taking place.
07.02 Trip margin
A situation that can bring the well in underbalance is when the drill string is pulled upwards
during a connection and when tripping the string out of the well. The lower part of the drill
string acts as a piston that results in reducing the pressure below the string when pulling
upwards.
When the pressure in the wellbore is reduced the formation fluids can enter the well
underneath the bit.
To what extent this occurs is dependent on:
- How quickly the drill string is pulled upwards
- The dimension of the wellbore
- Dimensions of the drill string
- The rheological characteristics of the drilling fluid
- Other factors like degree of balling of the Bottom Hole Assembly etc.
To prevent formation fluids from being swabbed into the wellbore caused by any of these
reasons in combination a necessary overbalance is used. This small degree of overbalance
is called a trip margin.


Formation
Strength
Formation Fluid
Pressure Density
Swab Surge
Pressure Pressure
Fig 15
Fig. 15 shows the conditions when drilling in normal pressure conditions. The tolerance area
(given by the area between the formation strength pressure and the formation pressure) is
relatively large.
When the drilling fluid density is adjusted to be in the centre of the area, there is only a small
risk for swabbing in connection with a trip. There is also allowance for a relatively large surge
pressure in excess of the hydrostatic pressure without risk for exceeding the formation
strength.
Surge pressure in the well is the result of lowering the drill string too quickly. The piston effect
results in increasing the pressure below the drill string.
Fig 16 and 17 shows different measurements taken with a PWD tool under “normal”
tripping conditions.
SWAB PRESSURE SURGE PRESSURE

Pulling Start End Pressure Running Pump Pump Pump
Speed EMW EMW Drop Speed Rate Rate Rate
(mins/stand (G) (G) psi (mins/stand 0 gpm 180 gpm 250 gpm
4 0.965 0.956 140 1 295 psi 651 psi 837 psi
5 0.964 0.956 124 2 124 psi 434 psi 636 psi
7 0.962 0.958 62 3 93 psi 356 psi 527 psi
8 0.962 0.960 31 4
Fig 16 Fig 17


08.02 Riser margin
When drilling takes place from floating rigs (semi-submersible and drill ship), there can be
several hundred feet of distance between the rig and the sea floor. The marine riser connects
the rig to the sea floor amongst other to allow returns to be taken to the rig. The drilling fluid
that is contained in the marine riser is contributing to balancing the formation pressure in the
well.
If a marine riser by accident or on purpose is disconnected from the wellhead at the seabed
the bottom hole pressure will be reduced. The reason is that the drilling fluid in the marine
riser from the well head to the bell nipple is removed and replaced by a shorter column of
seawater. An important factor is that the seawater has a lower density than the drilling fluid.
To prevent that the reduction in hydrostatic pressure leads to a kick and a blowout a
preparation must be made that will ensure that a sufficient overbalance in the well, even with
the marine riser disconnected. This overbalance is called a riser margin.
It is realised that there are many precautions to take into consideration, when deciding the
drilling fluid density to be used in a particular situation.


09.02 Relationship between hydrostatic pressure, drilling fluid density and true
vertical depth
Example:
Well depth TVD 6000 ft

Drilling fluid density 10.5 ppg
What is the hydrostatic bottom hole pressure?
Answer: Ph = 10.5 x 0.052 x 6000 = 3276 psi
It is required to increase the hydrostatic bottom hole pressure by 500 psi.
Which new drilling fluid density shall be used?
Answer: Ph = 3276 + 500 = 3776 psi
The new drilling fluid density will therefore be:

3776
MW = --------------------- = 12.1 ppg
6000 x 0.052
The increase in drilling fluid density will be:
∆MW = 12.1 - 10.5 = 1.6 ppg
With the new drilling fluid density drill to 9000 ft TVD and calculate the bottom hole pressure
at this depth?
Answer: Ph = 12.1 x 0.052 x 9000 = 5663 psi
What is the pressure gradient of this drilling fluid column?
Answer: G drilling fluid = 12.1 x 0.052 = 0.629 psi per foot
This can also be calculated a different way:
5665
Gmud = ------------------- = 0.629 psi per foot
9000
All results comes from utilising the formula:
Ph = TVDft x Drilling Fluid Densityppg x 0.052
0.052 is a constant, which represents the pressure gradient in psi per foot for a fluid density
equal to 1 ppg.


Pressure Gradient
G Drilling Fluid = Drilling Fluid Density ppg x 0.052 psi/ft


10.02 Equivalent drilling fluid Density.
Considering a well with a true vertical depth of 6000 ft full of drilling fluid that has a density of
11 ppg.
The well is closed-in at the surface with the Blow Out Preventer ( BOP ) and drilling fluid is
pumped slowly into the wellbore. Pressure at the top of the well will now increase to 900 psi.
See Fig 18
900 psi
Find what the bottom hole pressure in

the well will be?
It is seen that the pressure now consists of

two components.
- The hydrostatic pressure from the

drilling fluid (which changes with depth)
MW 11 ppg
- The static pressure at the surface
(which gives a constant extra pressure 6000 ft
at all depths in the well).
900 psi
900 psi
Fig 18
Hydrostatic pressure 11 x 0.052 x 6000 = 3430 psi

Closed-in pressure = 900 psi
Bottom hole pressure = 4330 psi
Which drilling fluid density must be used if the above bottom hole pressure shall be
maintained by using only hydrostatic pressure?
4330
MW = = 13.9 [ppg]
6000 x 0.052
The calculated drilling fluid density is called the equivalent drilling fluid density.


This means that the original 11.0 ppg drilling fluid must be replaced by a drilling fluid which
has a density of 13.9 ppg if the same bottom hole pressure shall be present without extra
pressure being applied at the top of the well.
Pressure in all depths in the well will be different in the two examples.
This can be confirmed by simple calculation.
What is the pressure at 3000 ft in the two examples?
Example with closed-in pressure on surface:
1. P h = 11 x 0.052x 3000 = 1716 psi

Applied Static Pressure = 900 psi
Total Pressure = 2616 psi
Example without closed-in pressure on surface:
2. P h = 13.9 x 0.052 x 3000 = 2168 psi
It must be realised that pressures throughout the well will be lower, if a particular bottom hole
pressure is achieved only by drilling fluid density, rather than using a lower drilling fluid
density combined with a static pressure applied at the surface.


03 Dynamic pressure regime when circulating

01.03 Circulation of Drilling Fluid
Whilst drilling the drilling fluid is continuously circulated to clean out the rock fragments
(cuttings) from underneath the bit whilst removing them up to the surface where they are
separated from the drilling fluid by the mud cleaning equipment.
To establish the circulation in the system it is required to have a dynamic fluid differential
pressure between certain areas in the system. This pressure difference represents a certain
energy that is used to overcome the resistance against fluid movement, resistance that is
existing in the system.
This resistance against fluid flow or friction as it is generally called in a hydraulic system is
largely dependent upon:
- The fluids' rheology (viscosity, density etc.)
- The fluids' velocity
- Type of flow regime ( laminar or turbulent)
If a fluid is pumped through an enclosed pipe system with a constant velocity the resistance
in the system depends on the flow area. Where the fluid flow meets diameter reductions, a
local increase in velocity is the result and therefore a greater friction. Conversely where the
flow meets a larger diameter the velocity will decrease and the friction will consequently also
decrease.
Recorded Pressure (psi)

1400 1320 1280 1220 1170 800 0
80 40 60 50 370 800
Pressure loss (psi)
Fig 19
Fig. 19. shows a circulating fluid system where the initial pressure at the pump is 1400 psi
and the final pressure is 0 psi at the flow line. It is seen that the 1400 psi represents the
energy required to overcome the friction that is present against the flow of the fluid in the
system. Large obstructions to flow give large pressure losses. By means of pressure gauges
placed in the system the pressure losses in the different parts of the system can be
monitored.


Applying these considerations to the circulation of drilling fluid the Fig. 20. shows a pipe
system in which the drilling fluid pump ( mud pump ) shall pump drilling fluid through. This
simplified pipe system consists of drill pipe, drill collars, bit nozzles and annulus. The drilling
fluid enters the top of the drill string with a pressure of 2200 psi. On the way down through
the string some of this pressure is lost depending on
- The dimensions of the drill pipe (Internal diameter)
- The characteristics of the drilling fluid.
DRILL COLLARS
ANNULUS
NATIONAL DRILL PIPE
PSI
BIT
P1
P3
P2
P4
P5
Fig 20
P1 = Pressure as drilling fluids enters the drill pipe (2200 psi)

P2 = Pressure as drilling fluid enters the drill collars (1900 psi)
P3 = Pressure as drilling fluid enters the bit nozzles (1700 psi)
P4 = Pressure as drilling fluids enters annulus (130 psi)
P5 = Pressure as drilling fluid enters the flow line ( 0 psi)
The largest pressure loss in the well system takes place when fluid flows through the bit
nozzles that have a relatively small flow-through area.
On the way towards the surface through the annulus, the pressure loss will be the lowest in
the system, because the friction is not at all large on account of the large cross-sectional area
of the annulus.
The pressure figures used in Fig. 20. are based on average calculations for a simple rotary
assembly, and they show that 94% of the total pressure loss occurs in the drill string and bit
nozzles.


The figures show that to circulate the drilling fluid from the bottom of the well up to the
surface it is only necessary to use approximately 6% of the total pump pressure. This
dynamic pressure will be transmitted to the bottom hole pressure.
When the pump is running and circulation takes place there will be a higher bottom hole
pressure than when the pump is stopped.
With the pumps stopped only hydrostatic pressure is present in the well to balance the
formation pressure.
02.03 Dynamic pressure in the wellbore ( Circulating Pressure)
Dynamic Pressure ( PC ) is dependent on three factors:
- Components in the flow system

(Flow area, length of drill string, nozzles size etc)
- The fluid characteristics ( Rheology )
- The flow rate

(SPM, liner size, pump efficiency etc)
Change in drilling fluid characteristics ( such as viscosity and gel-strength ) can change the
friction against flow in a system.
A fluid's flow resistance is largely depending on the drilling fluid density. In well control
calculations it is accepted that dynamic pressure loss is proportionally depending on drilling
fluid density.
MW 2
PC 2 = PC 1 x [psi]
MW 1
PC1 = Circulation pressure when drilling fluid density is MW1

PC2 = Circulation pressure when drilling fluid density is MW2
The expression for the relationship between circulation pressure and drilling fluid density has
proved to be realistic in most practical cases. See fig. 21.
PSI
High fluid dens
ity
Low fluid dens

ity
PC2
PC1
Fig 21


Example:
At 100 SPM the pump pressure is 1000 psi with a drilling fluid density of 10 ppg.
What would the pump pressure be at 100 SPM if the drilling fluid density was
increased to 12 ppg??
New pump pressure:
12
P C 2 = 1000 x = 1200 [psi]
10
To calculate the new pump pressure it is required to know the original pump pressure, which
is read just after the pump ( standpipe pressure ).
The third factor that affects the circulation pressure is the speed of the flow of drilling fluid.
This velocity of flow is directly related on the pump speed ( SPM = strokes per minute).
The relationship between pump speed and dynamic pressure can be expressed as:
1.86
æ SPM 2 ö
PC 2 = PC 1 x ç ÷
è SPM 1 ø
Where SPM is the number of strokes per minute in the two cases.
Example:
Circulation pressure is 1200 psi with 40 SPM.

What will the circulation pressure be if the pump speed was increased to 80 SPM?
Answer:
1.86
æ 80 ö
P C 2 = 1200 x ç ÷ = 4356 psi
è 40 ø
It is realised that if the pump speed is increased to twice its original value the dynamic
pressure will be increased almost fourfold. The graph in Fig. 22 illustrates this fact.
The power 1.86 is an experience figure, which is obtained from experiments. However in well
control calculations it is generally accepted to use the power 2 in stead of 1.86.


For well control calculations use the formula below:
2
æ SPM 2 ö
PC 2 = PC 1 x ç ÷
è SPM 1 ø
Pc
4000
3000
2000
1000
SPM
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fig 22
Fig. 23. shows circulation pressures and pressure losses between the drill string and annulus
with three different pump rates.
Pc
4000 80 spm
3000
60 spm
2000
40 spm
1000
Fig 23


04 CONSIDERATIONS WITH A CLOSED-IN WELL

01.04 Closed in well
Fig. 24 illustrates a wellbore with pressure gauges. The drill string consists of pipe connected
to each other, right down to the bottom of the well. Through the bit nozzles, the string is in
communication with the annulus. In principle this can represent two pipes, one inside the
other but there is only communication at the bottom of the well. On top of the well the BOP
equipment is installed. This equipment makes it possible to contain and close off the annulus
and its contents. Under the BOP a pressure gauge is installed which measures the surface
annulus/casing pressure.
On the top of the drill pipe after the pumps another gauge which measures drill pipe pressure
is installed. The two gauges are necessary to get an indication of down hole conditions.
PDP PDP PA
NATIONAL
PA
BOP
ANNULAR
DRILL STRING
DRILLSTRING
ANNULUS
A
DRILLCOLLAR
Fig 24 Fig 25
02.04 U-tube
A simplified and equal system can be represented by two tubes standing upright side-by-side
and connected at the bottom. The example is called a U-tube. See. Fig. 25.
The pressure in the same horizontal levels in the connected system is always the same if
fluid density is the same, when no circulation is taken place and no pressures are closed in
on the top on any of the two legs.
It is seen that the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of such a U-tube system, irrespective of
which leg of the U-tube column is considered will be equal. This is easily confirmed by a
simple calculation:


Example:
True vertical depth = 10000 ft

Drilling fluid Density = 10 ppg
Both drill pipe and annulus are open at the surface and the U-tube is in balance. Bottom hole
pressure Ph at the point A can be found either by the drill pipe or by the annulus when drilling
fluid density is uniform :
P h = Drilling Fluid Density ppg x 0.052 x True Vertical Depth ft [psi]
P h = 10 x 0.052 x 10000 = 5200 [psi]
If the BOP is closed on the annulus and the drilling fluid in the annulus is replaced with
saltwater
( 8.34 ppg ) the following can be calculated:
The internal contents of the string ( drill pipe and drill collar ) has not changed so PH at A is
still 5200, but the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus is only (Fig 26):
P ha = 8.34 x 0.052 x 10000 = 4337 psi

P a = 5200 - 4340 = 860 psi
PDP PA PDP PA
10 ppg 8.34 ppg 9 ppg

DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
10000 ft 10000 ft
8.34 ppg
A A
Fig 26 Fig 27


Example:
Considering the same well with the same bottom hole pressure, but now with 9 ppg drilling
fluid in the drill string and upper 7000 ft of annulus, while there remains saltwater in the lower
part of the annulus (Fig 27).
When PSIDP = Pressure ( Shut in drill pipe )
When PSIA = Pressure ( Shut in annulus )
P SIDP = 5200 - ( 9 x 0.052 x 10000 ) = 520 [psi]
P SIA = 5200 - ( 7000 x 9 x 0.052 + 3000 x 8.34 x 0.052 ) = 623 [psi]
The example represents a typical kick situation, where insufficient drilling fluid density has
resulted in a saltwater influx into the annulus. The influx has replaced a quantity of drilling
fluid. Notice that the drill pipe bottom hole pressure consists of two parts, first the PSIDP value
and secondly the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid. The annulus bottom hole pressure
consists of three parts. The PSIA value, the hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid and the
hydrostatic pressure of the saltwater.


05 PROPERTIES OF GASSES AND GAS LAWS

01.05 Drilling with Underbalance.
If drilling takes placed being underbalanced the risk of taking a kick is always present. The
influx resulting from a kick can be water, oil or gas.
When dealing with gas the drill crew must be aware that gas behaves differently than fluid.
02.05 Properties of gas and Gas Laws
A given mass of gas can be compressed or expanded, and as the volume changes the
pressure will do the same.
Boyles Law states that:

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
or
Pressure x Volume = Constant → See Fig 28
Fig 28
PRESSURE
15000
14000
13000
12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 VOLUME


This means that when a given volume V1 with an absolute pressure P1 is changed in
pressure or volume we get a new pressure P2 with a new volume V2.
Example:
V1 = 5 gal P1 = 170 psi

V2 = 3 gal
Calculate P2
P1 x V 1 = 170 x 5 = 283 [psi]

P1 x V 1 = P 2 x V 2 _ P 2 =
V2 3
It is important to know that gas expands if pressure is reduced.
Boyle’s Law is only true when the temperature is constant. If the temperature changes the
formula given below is used where → T = temperature
P1 x V 1 P x V2
= 2
T1 T2
It must be noted that the temperature to use is an absolute temperature which is given in
Kelvin degrees, (ºK ) for the Centigrade system.
If the Fahrenheit system is used the absolute temperature must be given in Rankin (ºR )
degrees.
ºK is obtained by addition of 273º to the temperature given in Centigrade ºC.
T ° K = t °C + 273
ºR is obtained by addition of 460º to the temperature given in Fahrenheit ºF.
T ° R = t ° F + 460
Example:
V1 = 12 gal P1 = 90 psi T1 = 20ºC

V2 = 12 gal T2 = 80ºC
P 1 x V 1 x T 2 90 x 12 x (273 + 80)
P2 = = = 108 [psi]
T1 xV 2 (273 + 20) x 12
Since V1 = V2 pressure increases only through temperature increase.


Example:
The formula, which relates to the properties of gasses, is here used in a practical example.
The well has a depth of 10000 ft and there is a swabbed gas bubble on bottom. The drilling
fluid density is 12.5. The well is open and in balance. Consequently no closed-in pressure at
the surface. The pressure in the gas is therefore equal to the hydrostatic pressure at 10000 ft
→ Ph.
Hydrostatic pressure Ph is 6500 psi.
If the BOP is closed and the gas is allowed to rise upwards ( migrate ), the gas volume will
not change and in accordance with the gas law the pressure will also remain unchanged.
Assuming the temperature is constant the gas would retain its original volume and pressure
all the way to the surface.
0 psi 3250 psi 6500 psi
PA PA PA
6500 psi
12.5 ppg
12.5 ppg
5000 ft
12.5 ppg
10000 ft 10000 ft
6500 psi
5000 ft
12.5 ppg
6500 psi
6500 psi 9750 psi 13000 psi
Fig 29
Considering that the gas has migrated halfway up the wellbore it will still have a pressure of
6500 psi. The pressure at surface ( annulus ) at this stage would be: (See Fig 29.)
P SIA = 6500 - 12.5 x 0.052 x 5000 = 3250 [psi]

Bottom hole pressure:
P bottom = 6500 + 12.5 x 0.052 x 5000 = 9750 [psi]


When the gas is allowed to rise all the way to the surface without expanding, the pressure at
the surface would be 6500 psi.
Bottom hole pressure would be:
P bottom = 6500 + 12.5 x 0.052 x 10000 = 13000 [psi]
This extreme pressure throughout the wellbore cannot be controlled, and it is not reasonable
to assume that the situation would develop all the way as described. The weakest point in the
wellbore is normally believed to be at the casing shoe level. When the pressure increases
above the strength at the weakest point the formation at that point will fracture. The risk for an
underground blow out is high.
A gas kick can never be allowed to migrate up through the annulus without expanding. A
skilled drill crew must take proper and timely action to avoid the dangerous situation that is
likely to occur.
In the given example the temperature influence neither the changed height due to annulus
geometry was taken into account since these factors only have a small influence in practice.
03.05 Expansion of Gas
Although some kicks are predominantly salt water or oil, at least some gas is usually present.
Because salt water and oil do not expand as pressure decreases, they are not as
troublesome as gas. It is important for the persons who control blowouts to understand the
behaviour of gas in a well.
The gas volume change as a result of pressure change is predictable, and this allows
calculation under illustrative conditions of changes in bottom well pressure as gas rises
through the drilling fluid. When the pressure of a given mass of gas is doubled, the volume is
halved. When the pressure is halved the volume is doubled. This relationship between
pressure and volume results in the greatest expansion of the gas in the upper part of the well.
See Fig 28.
Although gas-cut drilling fluid is one of the early indicators of abnormal pressure, minor gas-
cutting results in only a small reduction in the hydrostatic head. In a gas-cut column of drilling
fluid, the pressure increases rapidly with depth, so that the volume of gas scattered through
the well bore is very small, and reduces the overall drilling fluid density in the well very little.
A slug of gas in the bottom of a well is potentially dangerous, because it will expand greatly
when it rises or is pumped up. Under low pressure near the surface, it will displace a large
amount of drilling fluid from the well and consequently greatly reduce bottom hole pressure
giving risk for a blowout.
The safe handling of a gas kick requires knowledge about the principle of gas expansion and
consequently lowering the pressure in the gas bubble as it is circulated up through the
annulus in order to maintain the correct and constant bottom hole pressure. The theoretical
knowledge requires practice as well as knowledge about well control equipment.
When the gas in a well control situation is circulated to the surface and expanding, more
drilling fluid must be allowed to flow out of the annulus than is pumped into the drill pipe.
Thus, the pit level will increase.


The expected drilling fluid volume increase should be known prior to circulating out the kick.
This detail is discussed in the kick control section.
To control a correct and constant bottom hole pressure, the surface pressures are used as a
parameter for control. This is done by means of the choke in connection with a stroke counter
for the mud pumps, and simple recognised procedures.
04.05 Formation strength
From the previous examples it is realised that pressure throughout the wellbore increases
when gas rises up the annulus in a closed-in well. Gas must be circulated out of a well under
control. One of the most important limitations that should be known is the maximum pressure
the formation ( or weak point ) can withstand before it fractures and allows the drilling fluid to
flow into the formation.
If the formation strength is exceeded in a kick situation there is a high risk for an underground
blow-out and perhaps complete loss of control of the well.
The formation strength is recorded by means of a leak-off test.
05.05 Leak-off test
A leak-off test can be carried out in various ways. The aim is to find the surface annulus
pressure value for when the drilling fluid begins to seep into the formation, without at the
same time to cause an actual fracture of the formation. The less drilling fluid volume that is
pumped into the formation, the less damage there is caused to the formation. After the test
the formation should easily heal again as a result of the drilling fluid's wall building effect.
A leak-off test is carried out just after casing has been set and cemented.
A leak-off test may be conducted as follows:
Between 10 and 30 feet is drilled below the casing shoe to expose virgin hole.
The well is circulated to obtain a representative and accurately known drilling fluid density in
the well.
The well is closed-in and drilling fluid is pumped into the well at a very slow rate.
The cement pump is generally used since they have a smaller displacement and thus are
easier to control and are fitted with very accurate low pressure gauges.
Accurately measured volumes are pumped into the well, one barrel in this example, until an
increase in casing pressure is registered. At this point pumping is stopped for about one
minute, until the surface annulus pressure has stabilised. When no pressure decrease is
observed the pressure is plotted on a graph paper. The pumping is resumed and the same
volume is again pumped. The pumps are stopped and the new pressure is plotted after it has
stabilised. This procedure is repeated until it is observed that the pressure increase per
volume portion is no longer proportional.
This is easy seen on the plotted graph at the point where the straight line begins to bend.
The pressure on the graph where this happens is the annulus surface leak-off pressure. See
Fig. 30.


PRESSURE DEPTH PRESSURE

ANNULUS
1100
1000
900
800
* * *
700 *
* S
600 * H
* O
500 * E
400 *
* P
300 * R
200 * V E
100 * O S
* L S
U U
M Ph Max R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415 Pshoe
E E
Fig 30
The leak-off test should be interrupted at this point. If the pumping is continued the pressure
will decrease as a result of an increasing amount of drilling fluid which is injected into the
formation. Furthermore the formation strength will be reduced. It has been proven that a
leak-off test performed too far has damaged the formation. In that case a second leak-off test
will indicate a lower formation strength.
Fig. 30 shows the results from a leak-off test carried out after casing has been cemented at
3000 ft. Drilling fluid density was 9.6 ppg. The leak-off pressure is seen to be 720 psi. The
combined pressure the casing shoe is exposed to is the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid and the surface leak off pressure and this combined pressure becomes the maximum
allowable shoe pressure at any given time.
Calculate the maximum allowable pressure at the casing shoe:
Answer:
P shoe = 9.6 x 0.052 x 3000 + 720 = 2218 [psi]
When we know the maximum allowable shoe pressure, we are able to calculate the
equivalent drilling fluid density or maximum allowable drilling fluid density


2218
Equivalent drilling fluid density = = 14.22 [ppg]
3000 x 0.052
06.05 Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure ( MAASP )
MAASP means the highest surface pressure that can be allowed at the top of the casing in
excess of hydrostatic pressure that is likely to causes losses at the shoe formation if
exceeded. There are three factors that decide the Initial MAASP.
- The maximum pressure that the surface equipment can handle
- The maximum pressure the casing can handle
- The maximum pressure that the formation at the casing shoe ( or weak point ) can
handle.
In most cases it is the formation strength at the casing shoe that is the deciding factor, and
Initial MAASP is then given from the leak-off test which has previously been described.
As the maximum allowable shoe pressure remains constant the hydrostatic pressure
inside the casing is the determine factor for the MAASP at any given time-See Fig 31
MAASP = Maximum Allowable Shoe Pressure – Pressure Hydrostatic Inside Casing
Ph MAASP
DOWN
DOWN
= =
MAASP
UP
Ph
UP
Fig 31
As illustrated in Fig 31 the MAASP will increase if pressure hydrostatic inside the casing
decrease for whatever reason and visa versa.


One important issue when circulating out a kick is to monitor the Initial MAASP value. If the
Initial MAASP is approached before the kick is circulated into the casing the responsible rig
management must take safe action. It may be impossible to avoid exceeding the Initial
MAASP, but the competent and responsible management may decide to evacuate the rig for
non-essential personnel until the situation has proven to be safe.
Once the influx is inside the casing the initial value can be exceeded.
We will look on how MAASP behave during circulating out a kick later in chapter 08.


06 DRILLING FLUID VOLUME AND CAPACITIES

In routine operations as well as during well control operations it is necessary to know the total
drilling fluid volume and the volume for the individual sections in the circulating system.
How much volume does the drill string contain and what is the volume in the different parts of
the annulus?
These questions can easily be answered if the dimensions of the different components in the
drill string and annulus are known. There are two ways to find the different capacities and
volumes:
- By calculating the volumes
- By reading tables
01.06 Calculating drilling fluid Volume - Capacities
The internal capacity of drill pipe and drill collars is calculated based on formulas for
cylinders.
For a cylinder with a diameter d (inches) and a height of 1 foot the volume will be:
V=Axh
p x d2x h
V= [ ft 3 /ft]
4 x 144
1 ft 1 ft2 = 144 in2

1 ft3 = 0.1781 bbl
Then:
p x d 2 x 0.1781 d
2
V = = bbl / ft
4 x 144 1029.4
Fig 32
Calculations of annular capacities are basically calculations of a hollow cylinder, or the

difference between two cylinders, - one inside the other.
For a hollow cylinder with an outside diameter OD in and inside diameter ID in and a height
of 1 ft the following formula can be derived -


2 2 2 2
OD ID OD - ID
ID V ann = - = [ bbl / ft ]
1029.4 1029.4 1029.4
The total inside or outside capacity for a certain length of

pipe can be worked out by multiplying the capacity in bbl/ft
by the length in ft. The result is the capacity in bbl.
1 ft
Example:
Wellbore inside diameter = casing id = 9-7/8 in

Vertical depth = 5.000 ft
OD Drill pipe 5"OD & 4-1/4"ID = 4.600 ft

Drill collars 7"OD & 2-13/16”ID = 400 ft
Fig 33
Internal capacities drill pipe:
2
(4 1 / 4)
V drill pipe = = 0,01754 bbl / ft
1029,4
Total Volume of drill pipe = 0.01754 x 4600 = 80.68 bbl
Internal capacities drill collars:

2
(2 13 / 16)
V drill collar = = 0,00768 bbl / ft
1029,4
Total Volume drill collars = 0.00768 x 400 = 3.07 bbl
Annulus Capacities:
(9 7 / 8 )2 - 52
V drill pipe = = 0,0704 bbl / ft
1029,4
Total Volume between casing and drill pipe = 0.0704 x 4600 = 323.84 bbl
(9 7 / 8 )2 - 7 2
V drill collar = = 0,04713 bbl / ft
1029,4
Total Volume between casing and drill collars = 0.04713 x 400 = 18.85 bbl


02.06 Drilling fluid Volume and Capacities from Tables
It is common practice to use tables that give capacities in bbl/ft or litre/meter for different
sizes of pipe and casing. These tables are made taking into consideration the physical outline
of the pipes
( tool-joint etc. ).
Tables of this kind can be found in different Data Handbooks or in the Drilling Data
Handbook
( DDH ) sixth edition 1991. Section D “Capacities and Annular Volumes” and section G
“Pumping and Pressure Losses”.
All the tables in DDH is in SI-units, but at the bottom of each table a conversion factor is
found in order to convert to oil-field units.
Fig 34
Fig. 34 shows an example of a well and drill string.
Drill Pipe
Internal capacity of drill pipe: ( table D7 ) 5” - 19.5 lbs/ft
10000 ft
10000 ft of 5" Drill-pipe , 19.5 lbs/ft, Grade G-105.
Reading in table: 9.05 l/m,(9.05 x 0.00192 = bbl/ft)
9.05 x 0.00192bbl/ft x 10000ft = 173.76 bbl
Internal capacity of drill collars: ( table D8 ) Casing 9-7/8”

- 47 lbs/ft
500 ft of 7"OD x 2 13/16"ID Drill collar 7500 ft
Reading in table: 4.01 l/m,(4.01 x 0.00192 = bbl/ft)
( 4.01 x 0.00192 )bbl / ft x 500 ft = 3.85 bbl

Open Hole
- 8-5/8”
Total internal capacity of drill string:
3000 ft
173.76 + 3.85 = 177.61 bbl
Volume between drill pipe and casing: ( table D14 ) Drill Collar
7” x 2-13/16”
7500 ft of Casing 9-5/8”, 47 lbs/ft 500 ft
Reading in table: 24.9 l/m, (24.9 x 0.00192 = bbl/ft)
(24.9 x 0.00192)bbl / ft x 7500 ft = 358.56 bbl
Volume between drill pipe and Open-Hole: ( table D12 )
2500 ft of 8-5/8” Open-Hole

(24.4 x 0.00192)bbb / ft x 2500 ft = 117.12 bbl
Volume between drill collars and Open-Hole: (table D11 )
500 ft of 8-5/8” Open-Hole


(12.9 x 0.00192)bbl / ft x 500 ft = 12.38 bbl
Total capacity of annulus: 558.56 + 117.12 + 12.38 = 688.06 bbl
By making the above calculations the exact quantities of drilling fluid contained in the different
parts of the well is known.
03.06 Surface-to-Bit Strokes & Bit-to-Surface Strokes
The exact number of strokes required to pump from the surface through the drill string to the
bit, is known as surface-to-bit strokes.
The number of pump strokes required to pump from the bottom of the well to the surface, is
known as bit-to-surface strokes.
These values can be calculated when the pump displacement per stroke is known. Pump
displacement can be found in the DDH Section G table G6.
Given:
National pump 12-P-160. w/ 6" liners. The number 12 represents the stroke length in
inches. Volumetric efficiency 97 %.
From the table is read 16.68 l/stroke with volumetric efficiency of 100 %. At the bottom
of the table a conversion factor is found to convert into bbl.
16.68 x 0.264
= 0.1048 bbl / stroke
42
With 97 % efficiency the pump output would be:
0.1048 x 97
= 0.1017 bbl / stroke
100
By using the capacity figures in fig. 34 we can now calculate surface-to-bit strokes as follows:
Total inside volume of drillstring

= Strokes
Mud pump output per stroke
Surface-to-bit strokes
Respectively bit-to-surface strokes is now calculated.
177.61
Surface ® bit strokes = = 1746 strokes
Bit-to-surface strokes 0.1017


Total annulus capacity

= Strokes
Mud pump output per stroke
688.06
Bit ® surface strokes: = 6765 strokes
0.1017
The circulating time required is controlled by the speed of the drilling fluid pump. In case of a
pump speed of 30 strokes per minute ( SPM ) the result would be:
1746
Surface ® bit time = = 58.2 minutes
30
6765
Bit ® surface time = = 225.5 minutes
30
Another volume that is often necessary to know is the bit-to-shoe time and the corresponding
pump strokes.
Considering fig. 34 it can be seen that:
117.12 + 12.38
Bit ® shoe strokes = = 1273 strokes
0.1017
Therefore:
1273
Bit ® shoe time (at 30 SPM) = = 42.4 minutes
30


04.06 Use of Barite to Increase the Drilling fluid Density
The theoretic and actual quantity of barite used to effect a drilling fluid density increase can
be calculated beforehand by using the initial drilling fluid density MW ( ppg ) and the drilling
fluid density required MWf ( PPG ) (final drilling fluid density). The units will be number of 100
lb sacks per 100 bbl of drilling fluid.
Example:
An active drilling fluid system contains 900 bbl of drilling fluid with a weight of 10.5
ppg. We want to increase this density to 13.5 ppg by adding barite. How many sacks
will be used?
100 lb Sacks 100 lb Sacks

MWf - MWi Theoretical MWf Actual
0 9 0
1 10
100
100
2 11
200 200
3 12
4 300 13 300
5 14 400
400
500
6 500 15
600
7 16 700
600
800
8 700 17
900
800 1000
9 18
900 1200
10 19 1400
Fig 35
l. In the homograph fig 35 a straight line is drawn on the scale from 13.5 ppg MWf (final
drilling fluid density) to 3.0 ppg on the scale to get MWf - MWi(final drilling fluid density
minus initial drilling fluid density).
The scale reads 204 sacks per 100 bbl on the scale for theoretical use of 100 lb
sacks.
2. By taking the point on the scale for theoretical use where the first line crosses (i.e. 204
sacks) and by drawing a horizontal line across to the scale for actual use from this


point, the actual true value is seen to be 224 sacks (100 lb sacks) per 100 bbl of
drilling fluid to effect the desired increase.
3. Therefore
900
224 x = 2016 sacks
100
2016 sacks in the 900 bbl system is required to increase the drilling fluid weight to the
desired level.
The theoretical quantity of sacks per 100 bbl of drilling fluid can be calculated by the following
expression:
MW f - MW i
S = 1490 x
35,5 - MW f
where S = theoretical number of 100 lb sacks of barite

MWf = final drilling fluid weight (ppg)
MWi = initial drilling fluid weight ((ppg)
35.5 = the calculated density of barite is considered to be 35.5 ppg.
It is always necessary to use more barite than the theoretical quantity because of hydration,
variations in barite density and volume increases because of addition of other material.
05.06 Volume increase due to Barite Addition
The volume increase (in barrels per 100 bbl of drilling fluid in the system) can also be
calculated by initial drilling fluid weight MWi (ppg.) and final drilling fluid weight MWf (ppg.).
Example: An active drilling fluid system contains 900 bbl of drilling fluid with a weight of 10.5
ppg. We want to raise this weight up to 13.5 ppg. by adding barite.
How much volume increase will we have in the system?
1. In the homograph fig. 36 we draw a straight line between 13.5 ppg. on the scale for
MWf and 3.0 ppg. on the scale for MWf - MWi, and we notice where this line crosses
the Pivot Line.
2. Where our first line crosses the Pivot Line we draw a horizontal line across to the
scale for volume increase and we can read-off that there will occur a 22.5 bbl per 100
bbl increase in drilling fluid volume.


Volume
MWf - MWi MWf Increase
0 9 0
1 10
10
2 11
3 12 20
2
1
4 13 30
5 14 40
50
6 15
PIV
60
OT
7 16 70
LIN
80
E
8 17 90
100
9 18
120
10 19 140
Fig 36
3.
900
22.5 x = 202,5 bbls increase Î volume
100
Therefore total volume = 900 + 202.5 = 1103 bbl after completion of weight increase.
The volume increase can be calculated with the help of the following expression:
MW f - MW i
V = 155 x C x
35.5 - MW f
where
V = the volume increase (bbl/100 bbl)
C = factor for extra barite, based on MW


MWf = final drilling fluid weight (ppg.)
MWi = initial drilling fluid weight (ppg.)
This expression assumes that 1.5 gallons of water are used per sack of barite to replace
water lost on account of hydration, and a dry barite volume factor of 14.9 sacks per bbl.


07 WELLBORE KICKS
01.07 Kick Occurrences
A kick can occur when the formation pressure becomes higher than the hydrostatic pressure
that the drilling fluid column is exerting in the wellbore. The influx of fluid or gas into the
wellbore further reduces the hydrostatic pressure, which results in increased flow at the
surface and therefore further influx from the formation. The influx into the well bore shall
therefore be stopped as rapidly as possible by closing-in the well.
There are two normal reasons why the formation pressure can exceed the hydrostatic
pressure in the wellbore:
1. Pore pressure or formation pressure increase more rapidly than drilling fluid weight
2. The drilling fluid weight is sufficient to balance the formation when the well is full of
drilling fluid, but when the height of the drilling fluid column is reduced for some reason
hydrostatic pressure is reduced.
A kick (influx) can be caused by any of the following:
1. Insufficient drilling fluid weight
2. Failure to keep well full of drilling fluid
3. Swabbing
4. Lost circulation
5. Drilling fluid cut by gas or water
6. Abnormal pressure zones
1. Insufficient Drilling Fluid Weight
This should seldom be the cause of a kick in development wells where formation pressures
are known. At a wildcat well where the pressures of the formation are partly unknown the
danger for insufficient drilling fluid weight is much greater.
In Normal Pressured Formations the pressure gradient is taken as 0.465 psi/ft. of depth. This
is the figure for salt water having a salinity of about 100,000 parts per million (ppm). The
drilling fluid density required to balance this pressure would be approx. 9 ppg.
It must be remembered that the overbalance increases with depth if the formation pressure
gradient remains constant. See Fig 37.


Hole Mud Formation Over

Depth Column Pressure Balance
Pressure 0.465psi/ft Pressure
10 ppg
5.000 2600 2325 275

ft psi psi psi
DEPTH
10.000 5200 4650 550 Pf Ph
ft psi psi psi
15.000 7800 6975 825

ft psi psi psi
Overbalance pressure increases with depth PRESSURE

O/B
Fig 37
2. Failure to Keep Well Full of Drilling fluid
This particular cause of well kicks is one, which should never happen today, but it still does.
When a stand of drill pipe is pulled from the well, the volume of the metal pulled must be
replaced with drilling fluid. If this is not done, the level of the drilling fluid in the well will drop.
Since the bottom hole hydrostatic pressure is the product of the drilling fluid density multiplied
by the height of the column, the bottom hole hydrostatic pressure will reduce if the height of
the column is reduced. If this reduction in height is appreciable, the bottom well hydrostatic
pressure may be reduced to such an extent that the safety margin may be taken away and
the well may kick.
Different measurements can indicate if the proper amount of drilling fluid is pumped into the
well. One possibility is a pit volume monitoring, but large pits will not show small changes;
these can best be seen in trip tanks. This is one or more high tanks with a little cross-section,
where a little change in volume is easy to see. It should be near the rig floor and calibrated so
the Driller can easily see and compare the volumes pumped into the well versus steel pulled
out.
Another possibility is that the Driller by help of a stroke counter can check the amount of
drilling fluid pumped into the well from the pits.
Fig 38 384 ft
Example: 500 ft
If, while pulling out of a well at 8000'
carrying 200 psi hydrostatic overbalance
with 10 ppg. drilling fluid, the drilling fluid
DEPTH
level was allowed to drop to 384 ft. below

the surface, the well would be just on balance. Pf Ph
If the level was allowed to drop to 500 ft. a

kick would develop. See Fig 38
384 x 10 X ,052 = 200 psi = balance

500 x 10 x ,052 = 260 psi = 60 psi underbalance PRESSURE U/B O/B


3. Swabbing
Several things can cause swabbing:
a. Balled bit
b. Pulling pipe too fast
c. Poor drilling fluid properties
d. Heaving or swelling formations
a. Balled Bit (or Stabilisers, Reamers, or Drill Collars)

- When pipe is pulled it acts somewhat like a piston or swab, more so if a bit or other
bottom assembly member is balled up. This pulls all or most of the fluid up the well,
directly reducing the hydrostatic head on the formation. If the well is almost at balance,
only a few feet swabbed can result in a kick, or potential blowout.
b. Pulling Pipe too fast - This piston action is enhanced when pipe is pulled too fast.
The rig supervisor should be sure that the pipe is pulled slowly of bottom for a
reasonable distance. However, the well should be watched closely at all times to be
sure it is taken the correct amount of fluid. Fig 39 show recommended pulling speed
w/16.9 ppg mud in the wellbore.
c. Drilling fluid Properties - Swabbing problems are compounded by poor drilling fluid
proper-ties, such as high viscosity and gels. Drilling fluid in this condition tends to cling
to the drill pipe as it moves up or down the well, causing swabbing coming out and lost
circulation going in. Fig 39
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
Sec. Pr Stand
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

BIT DEPTH


d. Heaving or Swelling Formations - Swabbing can result if the formations exposed

either heave or swell, effectively reducing the diameter of the well and clearance
around the bit or stabilisers. In these regions even a clean bit acts like a balled bit or
stabiliser.
Normal good practices to prevent or minimise swabbing are aimed at keeping the drilling fluid
in good condition, pulling the pipe at a reasonable speed, and using some type of effective
lubricant drilling fluid additive to reduce balling. Additives such as blown asphalt, gelsonite,
detergent, and EP additives are effective in many cases. Good hydraulics will often help
clean a balled-up bit or bottom well assembly.
If the well does swab, in spite of best practices, the pipe should be run back to bottom
immediately, the drilling fluid circulated out, and its weight increased before making the trip.
Sometimes a short trip is made to see if the well actually swabs when several stands of pipe
are pulled.
4. Loss of Circulation
Following can cause loss of circulation:
a. High drilling fluid weight

b. Going into well too fast
c. Underground blowouts
d. Pressure due to annular circulating friction
a. High Drilling fluid Weight - If the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid exceeds the
fracture gradient of the weakest exposed formation, circulation is lost and the fluid
level in the well drops. This reduces the effective hydrostatic head acting against the
formations that did not break down. If the drilling fluid level falls far enough to reduce
the bottom hole pressure below the formation pressure, the well will begin flowing.
Thus, it is important to avoid losing circulation. Should returns cease, loss of
hydrostatic head can be minimised by immediately pumping measured volumes of
water into the well. Measuring the volumes will enable the drilling supervisor to
calculate what density of drilling fluid the formation will support without fracturing.
b. Going into well too fast - Loss of circulation can also result from too rapid lowering of
the drill string. This is similar to swabbing, only in reverse; the piston action forces the
drilling fluid into the weakest formation. This problem is compounded if the string has a
float in it and the pipe is large compared to the well. Particular discretion is required
when running pipe into a well having exposed weaker formations and heavy drilling
fluid to counter high formation pressure. Fig 40 show recommended running speed
w/16.9 ppg mud in the wellbore.
c. Underground Blowouts - Loss of circulation due to any cause can create a condition
known as an underground blow out. This results when the hydrostatic head at a
permeable, exposed formations drops below the formation pressure. Fluids then
produce into the well and flow uncontrolled into the zone that has broken down. The
situation can be very difficult to control, and the well is usually lost below the formation


300
280
260
240
220
200
180
Sec. Pr Stand
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000
BIT DEPTH
Fig 40
that is broken down. It is therefore important that loss of circulation is avoided.
d. Pressure due to Annular Circulating Friction - Another item to be considered when

drilling with a heavy drilling fluid near the fracture gradient of the formation is the
pressure added by circulating friction. This can be quite large, particularly in small
wells with large drill pipe, stabilisers, or large drill pipe rubbers inside the protective
casing. It is sometimes necessary to reduce the pumping rate to lower the circulating
pressure.
5. Cut by Gas or Water.
a. Drilling fluid cut by Gas: Gas cutting of the drilling fluid need not always indicate that
kick has occurred. When a porous gas zone is drilled the gas in the pores of the
cuttings will be released as the cuttings approach the surface. This will happen despite
the fact that a good 200 psi overbalance is carried in drilling fluid column density.
Provided the drilling fluid viscosity and gel strength is low, this is no problem and the
drilling fluid can easily be degassed at the surface and go back into circulation at full
density. If this gas is not released at the surface and is allowed to continually recycle,
problems will crop up. When in doubt stop the pump and observe the well for flow.
b. Drilling fluid Cut by Water: If drilling fluid density is reduced by the addition of water
there must be a corresponding rise, equal to the amount influx, in the drilling fluid pits.
Therefore, this should seldom happen. If it does, the pit level and flow rate indicators
are not functioning.


6. Abnormal Pressure
Usually a formation with such pressures gives enough warning that proper steps can be
taken. Once these zones are detected, it is normally possible to drill into them a reasonable
distance while raising the drilling fluid weight as necessary to control gas entry. However,
when pressure due to drilling fluid weight approaches the fracture gradient of the highest
exposed formation, it is good practice to set casing. Failure to do this has been the cause of
many underground blowouts and lost or junked wells.
02.07 Warning Signals
It is impossible for a blowout to occur under normal conditions without warning of its
development. The wellbore and the drilling fluid system is a closed circulation system, and
any influx from the formation into the system will show up in the form of increasing returns
from the annulus and an increase of total drilling fluid volume in the surface system (drilling
fluid tanks).
Often while drilling we can get indications at the surface that we are entering a transition
zone, that is to say a zone where pressure increases slowly because of the formations
relatively slow change of compaction, but sometimes such formations are difficult to interpret.
Normally we will have many clear indications of increasing formation pressure before a kick
occurs.
The following points show the indications that we can often receive at the surface before or
when a kick has occurred:
1. While drilling:
a. Drilling rate increase - drilling breaks
b. Gas in return drilling fluid - gas-cut drilling fluid
c. Chlorides in return drilling fluid - salt water cut drilling fluid
d. Change in the density of cuttings
e. Change in the size of cuttings
f. Fall in circulation pressure
g. Temperature increase in return drilling fluid
h. Increase in R.P.M. (rotary speed)
i. Increase in flow from the wellbore
j. Increase in volume in drilling fluid pits (pit gain)
2. While tripping or while making connections:
a. Increase in flow from the wellbore

b. Trip gas
c. Connection gas
d. Well-fill after a trip
e. "Tight" well on connections
f. Wellbore not taking the correct amount of drilling fluid to compensate for
pipe taken out.


03.07 Warning Signals While Drilling
a. An increase in penetration rate can often be a sign of drilling into a softer formation.
Pump pressure can also change because the drilling fluid is simply cleaning out the
cuttings under the bit better than previously. These two examples are not of course
signals that a kick is about to occur.
We discussed earlier also that penetration rate is also dependent upon differential
pressure. An increase in penetration rate can also indicate, therefore, that differential
pressure is known to be reduced and there is danger of taking a kick. An increase in
penetration rate must always be noted and acted upon.
The bit must be picked up off bottom, the
drilling fluid pumps must be stopped, and
the well must be checked for flow. 2 4 6 8 10 12
12:00
A drilling break is a sudden change in
penetration rate from a low to a higher 12:15
value. This sudden change in penetration
can vary considerably depending upon 12:30
the actual formation type. In some cases 12:45
a "break" can be from between 10 ft. to
50 ft./hour, in others maybe only 5 ft. to 13:00
10 ft./hour. In all cases where drilling is
conducted in areas that are unknown 13:15
or where high pressures are expected,
after a relatively long period of slow 13:30
drilling is followed by faster drilling, no
13:45
more than between 2 to 4 feet should
be drilled before the pumps are shut down 14:00
and the well checked for flow. See Fig 41
14:15
A negative drilling break could also be a
warning sign that a cap rock is being
penetrated and possible higher pressure
is contained in the formation below the cap rock. Fig 41
b. Background gas increases quite suddenly if the bit penetrates a zone of higher pore
pressure. This background gas is not gas that intrudes into the wellbore from the
formation but gas which is contained between the wellbore cuttings. If this gas has a
high pore pressure it will expand considerably on the way up to the surface and may
make up 50% of the drilling fluid volume. Such a situation is not so critical if it is
properly treated.
This gas is removed from the drilling fluid at the surface with the help of a “Degasser”.
If the drilling fluid is not properly degassed before it is pumped back down the well the
hydrostatic pressure in the well will be lowered and the chance for a kick to occur is
possibly. On the other hand, gas in the return drilling fluid could mean that there
actually exists an underbalance in the well and gas is intruding. In such a case this is
a real kick situation and the necessary steps to contain it must be made immediately.

c. The chloride content in drilling fluid, ( fresh-water based drilling fluid ) will normally
increase when high-pressure zones are penetrated. However, this increase is
impossible to notice when salt-water based drilling fluid, or drilling fluid with high
chloride content, is in use. This indication, therefore is not reliable enough on its own
to be of any use to us in indicating high pressure zones.
d. The density of rock formation will nearly always be reduced if it is associated with a
high pressure zone. This is because it will have a greater porosity. This is a good
indicator if it is possible to examine different cuttings at the shale shaker, and with the
help of S.P.M. and annulus capacity decide from which depth they originate.
e. The size of the cuttings often suddenly change when a high-pressure zone is
penetrated, they can become long and splintery in shape.
f. Changes in pump pressure are a direct result of changing resistance (friction) in the
drilling fluid, if formation fluids or gas penetrate the wellbore and intermingle with the
drilling fluid. However, it will only be a small part of the drilling fluid in the annulus that
becomes affected in this way.
Pump pressure will normally fall if a kick occurs, as part of the drilling fluid in the
wellbore becomes lighter through reduction in weight and viscosity. If the kick is a gas
kick it is possible that the gas forces its way up the annulus of its own accord and
pushes the drilling fluid ahead of it. This will cause large pressure fluctuations.
STROKES
STROKES
110 112
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
165.5 162.5
Fig 42
A reduction in pump pressure can in some cases give an increase in pump speed.
This occurs because of the decreased load on the pump. However, some rigs have
drilling fluid pumps that are self-regulating, which is to say that regardless of what
loads are imposed on the pumps they will automatically use less or more energy and
maintain a constant pre-determined speed. See Fig 42
We should also be aware that pressure reductions can occur through reasons other
than kick situations, such as washouts in the drill string etc.


g. Flow line (return drilling fluid) temperature often increases when a high pressure zone
is penetrated, but although this has been observed in many places throughout the
world it is not a particularly trustworthy indication on its own. Drilling fluid temperature
can often increase when caustic soda and barite are added, well geometry can also
cause temperature increases (higher drilling fluid velocities). A clear and uniform
temperature increase that could possibly indicate a formation with a high pressure is
best seen when shown graphically in detail.
h. Rotary table speed (R.P.M.) often increases when a high pressure zone is penetrated.
This is because the formation is breaking up easier and, therefore, offering less
resistance to the bit.
i. Increasing flow at the flow-line is immediately the first signal that a kick is occurring.
This indication is called a “positive kick indicator” and require no flow check, but an
immediately shut in of the well to minimise the size of the influx. See Fig 43
Fig 43
j. An increase in pit volume will always occur when fluid or gas enters the wellbore,
because a proportional amount of drilling fluid is displaced out of the well and into the
drilling fluid pits. Any unexplained pit gain is a sure sign of a kick and is also called a
“positive kick indicator” where the necessary precaution and steps must be carried
out immediately.


04.07 Warning Signals While Tripping or Making Connections
a. If drilling fluid returns are observed at the flow-line when the pumps are not running
this is a certain sign that formation fluids are flowing into the wellbore. Therefore, the
annulus becomes underbalanced and drilling fluid is displaced into the drilling fluid
pits. See Fig 43
Pf Pf
DEPTH
DEPTH
Ph Ph+Pl Ph
PRESSURE PRESSURE
Pl annulus
Fig 43
b. Trip gas, which is gas that permeates into the wellbore during a trip, will normally
increase when a high-pressure zone is penetrated, and drilling fluid weight is not
increased to counter balance this. This trip gas is measured by a gas detector at the
flow-line that continuously monitors the drilling fluid and will be seen as a peek on the
chart during first circulation bottoms up after a trip. Trip gas alone is not a reliable kick
indicator.
c. Connection gas is the name given to the gas which penetrates into the wellbore when
circulation is stopped and a new length of pipe added to the drill-string. This
connection gas will always increase as a rule when a high pressure zone is
penetrated. Connection gas is also monitored by the gas censor at the flow line and is
normally not a problem as long the gas is removed from the drilling fluid and not re-
circulated. To avoid reducing pressure hydrostatic in the annulus more that one slug of
connection gas should not be circulated out at any given time.
d. Well-fill after a trip accompanied by an increase in trip gas can indicate high pressure,
but can also be caused by other factors such as poor drilling fluid qualities, swelling
formations and incorrect well-filling procedures so therefore it is unreliable in itself as
an indicator.
e. "Tight" well, which is when the formation closes back in on the drill string, can occur
when connections are made and can indicate high pressure. This condition can also
warn us that there is a danger of the drill string becoming stuck ( sometimes
permanently ).


f. When the drill string is pulled out of the well the volume of steel which it comprises
must be replaced by equivalent volume of drilling fluid, this is achieved by pumping
measured amounts of drilling fluid into the well as the drill string is removed. The well
shall at all times be kept full of drilling fluid. The amount of drilling fluid needed to fill
the well on a trip must be calculated before-hand and the amount used on the trip
must be identical, if the amount becomes dissimilar the reasons must immediately be
found. This quantity is usually checked every 5 stands. If the well is taking too small
an amount of drilling fluid, formation fluids are intruding into the wellbore, and if the
well is taking too much drilling fluid, drilling fluid is flowing into the formation, both
situations are highly dangerous and must be controlled.
05.07 Procedure for Shutting in the Well
If we are drilling ahead and for any reason we have cause to think that a kick may be
developing, the well must immediately be checked for flow. If there is no flow and everything
is in order we go back to drilling. If the well is flowing, we shut the well in either using a soft
shut-in or a hard shut-in procedure.
Soft Shut-in Procedure:
1. Pick-up from bottom and position drill string, shut down mud pumps and rotation.
Flow check. Well flowing.
2. Open hydraulic side outlet choke valve.
3. Close BOP (Ram or Annular preventer).
4. Close adjustable hydraulic choke.
5. Record SIDPP – SICP – Pit Gain.
Hard Shut-in Procedure:
1. Pick-up from bottom and position drill string, shut down mud pumps and rotation.
Flow check. Well flowing.
2. Close BOP (Ram or Annular preventer).
3. Open hydraulic side outlet choke valve.
4. Record SIDPP – SICP – Pit Gain.
If it is a positive kick indication that is observed keep in mind that no flow check is
carried out, but the well is shut in instantly.
Remembering what has been said about MAASP, we must observe the casing pressure as it
begins to rise and ensure that it does not exceed the pre-determined MAASP value.


Now that the well is shut-in, the pressure in bottom of the well will soon come into balance
with the formation pressure.
The different between the two existing methods to close the well in is that the Hard Shut-in
Procedure reduces the amount of influx into the wellbore with resulting lesser annulus
pressure and surface pressure when circulating out the kick.
The purposes of the shut-in procedure are to:
1. Stop the influx into the wellbore.
2. Provide a safe rig environment.
3. Start kill procedures.
The purpose of raising the bit from bottom of the well are to get:
a. Less chance to get stuck.
b. Easier to get free if stuck ( you can go up or down ).
c. The Kelly cock is above rotary table. (if Kelly is used)
d. Ram type preventer can be used when it is secured that there is not a tool joint
opposite this.
e. The Kelly can be removed.
f. After killing drill pipe wire line tools can be run in.


06.07 Pressure after Shut In
Fig. 44 and 45 show the situation just after the well is shut in. On account of the influx in the
bottom of the well there can now be read pressure on the standpipe (PSIDPP) and pressure on
the casing (PSICP). The cause for the kick is an increase in the formation pressure PF .
PSIDPP
NATIONAL
PSICP PSICP
BOP PSIDPP
Gradient
of mud
D
E
P
T
PSIDPP PSICP H PH PH
+ +
Gradient
PHDP PHA of influx
Drill Pipe Annulus
PF PF
PRESSURE
Pf Fig 45
Fig 44
This new pressure will be the sum of the hydrostatic pressure from the column of drilling fluid
in the drill pipe PHDP and the pressure on standpipe ( PSIDPP ). The new pressure of the
formation will also be the sum of the hydrostatic pressure from the column of drilling fluid-gas
in annulus ( PHA ) and the pressure on the casing ( PSICP ).
PHDP + PSIDPP = PF = PHA + PSICP
The pressure reading on the standpipe PSIDPP alone will be determined by the pressure of the
formation ( PF ). The pressure reading on the casing ( PSICP ) will be determined by both the
pressure of the formation and the amount of gas, which is flowed into the wellbore. Gas has a
pressure gradient of @ 0,17 psi/ft. Drilling fluid with a weight of 10 ppg has a pressure
gradient of 0,52 psi/ft. From this is showed the more gas flowed into the wellbore, the lower
hydrostatic pressure PHA from the column of drilling fluid-gas, as PF = PHA + PSICP. Fig 45
shows this connection from 3 different quantities of influx.


PSIDPP and PSICP are gauges connected to the bottom of the well via the drilling fluid. They
can be used to calculate the kill drilling fluid density for a kick or to see how much pressure a
formation can stand before losing circulation, such as with a leak off test.
For well control the PSIDPP is used to calculate the kill drilling fluid density required for
killing a well with a certain influx. The drill pipe is full of clean and homogeneous drilling fluid
newly treated from the pits. To know how much to increase the drilling fluid density to kill a
well, it is necessary to know how much the original drilling fluid density to begin with is so the
PSIDPP is used. The annulus or casing has cuttings and gas or salt water in it, so it is much
harder to determine an accurate drilling fluid weight increase from it.
The calculation of kill drilling fluid weight is made as follows:
P sidpp
Kill MW = + MW 1
TVD x 0,052
Where:
Kill MW = the drilling fluid density required balancing the pressure in the formation.
PSIDPP = the read back pressure on the standpipe after the well is shut in and the
pressure stabilised.
TVD = the true vertical depth of the well.
0,052 = a constant which tells how much the hydrostatic pressure will be changed for
every feet fluid column at a fluid with a density equal to 1 PPG.
MW1 = Original drilling fluid density while drilling.
Fig. 46 shows how to figure the drilling fluid density increase from PSIDPP out from a Chart:
PSICP can together with PSIDPP be used to calculate the pressure gradient (density) for the
influx by using the following formulae:
SICP —SIDPP (psi)

Gradient of influx (psi/ft) = MW x 0.052 — --------------------------------
Height Influx(TVD) ft
Kick Size
Height of Influx along hole = ------------------------------
Annular Volume


Increase required to balance a kick (lb/gal)

SIDPP SIDPP x 19.2
Lb/galincrease = -------------------- = ------------------
Depth x 0.052 Depth
SIDPP
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1000 1.9 3.8 5.8 7.7 9.6 11.5 13.5 15.7 17.3 19.2
2000 1.0 1.9 2.9 3.8 4.8 5.8 6.7 7.7 8.6 9.6
0.6 1.3 1.9 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4
3000
0.5 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.8 4.3 4.8
4000
5000 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.8
6000 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.2
0.3 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8
7000
0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4
8000
D 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
E 9000
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
P 10000
T 11000 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
H 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6
12000
0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
13000
0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4
14000
0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3
15000
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2
16000
Fig 46
Rising Pressures after Shut-in:
Often the drill pipe and casing pressures do not stop, but continue to rise. This could be due
to:
1. Low permeability
2. Percolation of gas up through the drilling fluid
Low Permeability: If the permeability of the formation in the kick zone is low, then the influx
will come slowly. There will go some time before the influx can create a pressure in the top of
the drill string and the annulus respectively, which added to the hydrostatic pressure can
balance the pressure in the formation. You must therefore wait until the pressures have
stabilised before the accurate PSIDPP and PSICP can be read.
Percolation: If the slowly rising pressure is due to gas percolating up the well the pressure
does not represent reservoir pressure, but is due to the low density of the gas. On account of
this, the gas will raise up through the drilling fluid without expansion. If this situation is
handled properly it will cause no major problems. How the situation must be handled is
mentioned in section ????? in relation to the volumetric method.
Low or no Pressures on Standpipe (PSIDPP)

Low pressure: If there is no PSIDPP after the well is Shut-in following could be the reason:
1. The gauges are broken, malfunctioning or shut off.

2. There is a float in the drill pipe.
3. The well is in balance.
4. The drill string is plugged.
If there is no float install in the drill string, check the gauges on the standpipe manifold to see
that this is not the problem. Change gauges as required after isolation to obtain SIDPP.
Float in the drill pipe:
If there is a float in the drill string the SIDPP may be zero.

Some floats have a 3/16" hole drilled through the float witch will allow the pressure to build up
slowly on the drill pipe site.
If the float valve provides a complete shut off there are several ways to check for the true
shut in pressure.
1. Pump as slowly as possible (3 to 5 SPM) until the casing pressure starts to rise. Then
stop pumping. The pressure after the pump stops should be PSIDPP.
2. Slowly bring the pump up to kill rate holding casing pressure constant. The circulating
drill pipe pressure is identical to the ICP (initial circulating pressure). The PSIDPP can
now be calculated using the formula below:
PSIDPP = Circulating drill pipe pressure – Pre-recorded kill rate pressure.


08 CIRCULATING A KICK OUT OF THE WELLBORE

It can be seen by the calculations in chapter 02 of this book, that the bottom hole pressure in
a well shut in will be balanced by the hydrostatic pressure (both annulus and drill string) and
pressure at the surface (casing and standpipe pressure). As long as this bottom hole
pressure is held constant no more formation fluid/gas can intrude into the wellbore. If the
bottom hole pressure is allowed to fall below the formation pressure, a fresh influx will enter
the wellbore and we will have to deal with a second kick. If the bottom hole pressure is
increased too much there is a possibility to break down the formation resulting in losses and
further complications to the well control problem.
To get the influx out of the well, drilling fluid is pumped down the drill string. This displaces
the influx higher and higher up the annulus until it reaches the surface where it is vented out
of the wellbore via the choke. This can be achieved by holding the bottom hole pressure
constant during circulation (i.e. the bottom hole pressure that was registered when the well
was shut in).
How can it be known at the surface that bottom well pressure is being held constant,
under circulation?
We can deduce that if there is no change in the height of the drilling fluid column or drilling
fluid properties and, furthermore, no change in the pressure at the surface acting on the
drilling fluid column there will not be any change in bottom hole pressure.
Therefore we have the possibility of observing changes in the bottom hole pressure by way of
the gauges installed respectively on the standpipe and casing.
If the bit is at the bottom of the well it is normal practice to use the standpipe (drill string)
pressure as a bottom hole pressure indicator. If the drilling fluid weight in the drill string
remains constant, a constant standpipe pressure will indicate a constant bottom hole
pressure.
Well Killing Methods:
There are several methods recognised within the industry to control formation pressure while
circulate out a kick and the primary object regardless of method is to keep constant bottom
hole pressure.
Driller’s Method.
Wait and Weight Method.
Concurrent Method.


02.08 Circulating out an Influx using the Driller's Method
This method is also called the "Constant Drill-Pipe Pressure Method" and consists of two
steps. First step is to circulate the kick out of the wellbore without changing the drilling fluid
density. Second step is to displace the original drilling fluid out of the well bore with heavier
drilling fluid (Kill Mud) which will exert enough hydrostatic pressure to balance the formation
pressure.
After taken an influx and shutting in the well pressure will build up on the standpipe and
casing gauges because of the hydrostatic underbalance (drilling fluid weight too low to
balance formation pressure).
This pressure is known as "Shut In Drill pipe Pressure" PSIDPP. As long as the drill string
contains drilling fluid of the original weight, PSIDPP will always exist as an extra pressure
registered at the surface required to balance formation pressure.
When the influx is circulated out, the pump will have to overcome the PSIDPP + the friction
losses in the circulating system at the desire pump rate. The friction losses in the circulating
system has been determined previously when checking the RRCP ( Reduced Rate
Circulating Pressure) and the only changes to the bottom hole pressure balance is the
increase due to friction losses in the annulus which is considered to be very small and
therefore not taking into consideration when circulating out the influx.
Where and when is the value for RRCP found?
RRCP is the friction loss in the system at a decided pump speed (reduced pump rate). These
pressures are noted at several different reduced pump rates, for example at 20, 30, and 40
SPM and the pressure is recorded on the remote choke panel and noted on the pre-recorded
kill sheet.
The RRCP is normally recorded at the beginning of each shift. Other factors could require the
RRCP to be recorded more frequently such as:
Change in drilling fluid properties.

Change in drill string configuration.
Very fast drilling.
The pump pressure is called Initial Circulation Pressure ICP and is registered on the
standpipe gauge on the remote choke panel. To reach the ICP while keeping constant
bottom hole pressure the pumps are slowly brought up to desired reduced rate while keeping
casing pressure constant by manipulating the choke. At the desire pump rate the drill pipe
pressure is identical to the ICP.
ICP = RRCP + SIDPP


What happens to the casing pressure as an influx is circulated out of the wellbore?
If the influx is fluid (water or oil), the casing pressure will remain constant until the influx
begins to vent at the choke.
If the influx is gas, the gas must be allowed to expand as it rises up through the annulus, to
ensure that bottom hole pressure does not increase. In this situation more drilling fluid is
displaced out of the wellbore through the choke than pumped into the well. Therefore the
drilling fluid pit level will increase. This also means that when the height of the drilling fluid
column in the annulus is reduced and the column of gas increased loss of hydrostatic
pressure takes place, but increasing casing pressure compensates for this loss. The
expansion of gas depends of the drilling fluid properties and type. See Fig 47.
1500
FLUID INFLUX
GAS IN WATER BASE DRILLING FLUID
1400
GAS IN OIL BASE DRILLING FLUID
1300
1200
1100
CASING PRESSURE
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200 SICP
SIDPP
100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

STROKES - BIT TO SURFACE
Fig 47
To ensure that bottom well pressure does not change as a kick is being circulated out
standpipe pressure must remain constant all the time.
When the influx is circulated out the pump can be stopped and the well closed.
Standpipe pressure and casing pressure will now be the same value (PSIDPP) due to that both
the drill pipe and the annulus is filled with a homogeneous column of original drilling fluid and
no further influx has taken place.
The next step consists of replacing the original drilling fluid with a heavier drilling fluid (KMW)
that will create sufficient hydrostatic pressure to balance the formation pressure.


The drill string is filled gradually with heavy drilling fluid and therefore its hydrostatic pressure
will change. The drill pipe pressure must be allowed to decrease and can for that reason not
be held constant, but as long as the heavy drilling fluid is confined inside the drill string there
will be no change of drilling fluid in the annulus and therefore no change in pressure either.
So casing pressure is held constant until the heavy drilling fluid has reached the bit. The new
standpipe pressure observed at this stage is the final circulating pressure (FCP) and held
constant until the annulus is full of heavy drilling fluid. If the new drilling fluid is the correct
weight the well should now be "killed" (dead) and standpipe and casing pressure should be
zero when pumps are stopped.
KMW
FCP = RRCP x ------------------
OMW
Drillers Method 1st Circulation:
Well Kick Data:
Hole size 8½ in
Hole depth TVD/MD 11536 ft
Casing (9 5/8 in) TVD/MD 9875 ft
Drill pipe 5 in capacity 0.01741 bbl/ft
Heavy Wall pipe 5 in 600 ft
Capacity 0.00874 bbl/ft
Drill collars 6¼ in 880 ft
Capacity open hole x collars 0.03221 bbl/ft
Capacity open hole x drill pipe/HWDP 0.04470 bbl/ft
Capacity casing x drill pipe 0.04891 bbl/ft
Fracture fluid density at the casing shoe 16.9 ppg
SIDPP 530 psi
SICP 700 psi
Mud pumps displacement 0.1019 bbl/strk.
Slow Circulating Rate Pressure at 30 SPM 650 psi
Pit gain 10.0 bbl
With the following date given the kill sheet can be filled out and the necessary information be
required to kill the well:
Internal strokes from surface to bit: 1812 strokes

Total annulus from bit to surface: 5360 strokes
Open hole from bit to shoe: 620 strokes
Kill fluid density: 14.9 ppg
Initial circulation pressure 1180 psi
Final circulation pressure: 692 psi
Initial MAASP with drilling fluid density: 1489 psi
New MAASP with kill fluid density: 1027 psi
Influx gradient 0.178 psi/ft
Height of influx around DC 310 ft
Height of influx around DP 204 ft


PDP PA PDP PA
DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
OMW OMW
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
OMW
OMW
Shoe Shoe
GAS
BHP GAS BHP
Fig 48 Fig 49
Situation Fig 48 shows the start of circulation. The standpipe pressure is equal to PSIDPP
plus RRCP(Reduced Rate Circulating Pressure). The pressure at the casing head Pa is equal
to PSICP .
While keeping constant casing pressure the pumps are slowly brought up to slow
circulating rate, in this case 30 SPM. When the pumps are running at 30 SPM and
pressures have stabilized the ICP pressure on the drill pipe gauge is keep constant.
ICP = SIDPP + RRCP

530 psi + 650 psi = 1180 psi
Shoe pressure = Phshoe + SICP
7189 psi + 700 psi = 7889 psi
MAASP = Max Shoe Pressure - Phshoe
8678 psi - 7189 psi = 1489 psi
Situation Fig 49 shows the gas circulated a way up the annulus.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept constant while gas is being pumped up through the open hole
section and the top of the gas bubble reach the shoe. The gas is expanding allowing the
pressure inside bubble to decrease.
Casing pressure increasing due to the expanding gas is displacing drilling fluid.
CSG P = BHP - (Phmud + Phgas) 775 psi
Shoe pressure is increasing with same value as the casing pressure.
Shoe P = Phshoe + Csg P 7964 psi
MAASP remains constant due to no change in Ph inside the casing.
MAASP = Max Shoe Pressure - Phshoe 1489 psi


PDP PA PDP PA
GAS
DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
OMW OMW
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
OMW
OMW
GAS
Shoe Shoe
BHP BHP
Fig 50 Fig 51
Situation Fig 50 shows the gas circulated inside the casing.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept constant while gas is being pumped from the open hole section
until all the gas is inside the casing so the open hole section is displaced to original drilling
fluid. The gas is expanding allowing the pressure inside bubble to decrease.
Shoe pressure is constantly decreasing from gas reach the shoe until all gas is inside
casing.
Shoe P = BHP - Phopen hole 7718 psi
MAASP start increasing from the first gas enters the casing due to change in Ph inside the
casing.
Situation Fig 51 shows the gas at the choke.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept constant while gas is being pumped up inside the casing and
the top of the gas bubble reach the choke. The gas is expanding allowing the pressure
inside bubble to decrease.
Casing pressure increasing due to the expanding gas is displacing drilling fluid and when
top of the gas bubble reach the choke casing pressure is increased to max.
Shoe pressure remains constant from the moment all gas is inside the casing.


MAASP increasing with the same value as the Csg P due to change in Ph inside the
casing and will reach max value when gas at choke.
PDP PA
DRILL STRING
OMW
ANNULUS
OMW
Shoe
BHP
Fig 52
Situation Fig 52 shows that all the gas is now circulated out.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept constant while gas is being pumped out of the well through the
choke.
Casing pressure decreasing while drilling fluid is displacing gas in the well bore and will
reach SIDPP when all the gas is out of the well.
CSG P = BHP - Phmud 530 psi
Shoe pressure remains constant while the gas is displaced from the well bore due to no
change in Phopen hole.
MAASP decreasing with same value as the Casing Pressure and will reach initial MAASP
when the annulus is displaced to original drilling fluid.


Drillers Method 2nd Circulation:
PDP PA PDP PA
DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
OMW OMW
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
OMW
KMW
Shoe Shoe
BHP BHP
Fig 53 Fig 54
Situation Fig 53 shows the kill fluid is being pumped to the rig floor.
Kill mud is being mixed to 14.9 ppg and 2nd circulation is started.
Casing pressure is kept constant while kill fluid fills the drill string.
Drillpipe pressure decreasing while kill fluid fills the drill string.
DP P = RRCP + (BHP - Phmud)
Shoe pressure remains constant while kill mud fills the drill string due to no change in
Phopen hole.
MAASP remains constant while kill mud fills the drill string.
Situation Fig 54 shows that kill fluid has reached the bit.
Kill fluid reach the bit.
Casing pressure is kept constant while kill fluid fills the drill string.
Drillpipe pressure decreasing while kill fluid fills the drill string and when kill fluid reach the
bit pressure is FCP or RRCP w/14.9 ppg mud.
DP P = RRCP w/14.9 ppg 692 psi


Shoe pressure remains constant while kill mud fills the drill string due to no change in
Phopen hole.
MAASP remains constant while kill mud fills the drill string.
PDP PA PDP PA
DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
OMW
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
KMW
KMW
KMW
Shoe Shoe
BHP BHP
Fig 55 Fig 56
Situation Fig 55 shows that kill fluid is on its way up the annulus.
Kill fluid at shoe.
Drillpipe pressure is kept constant while kill fluid displaces original mud in annulus.
Casing pressure decreasing as kill fluid moves up the annulus to the shoe.
Shoe pressure decreasing as kill fluid moves up the annulus to the shoe with same value
as the decrease in Csg P.
MAASP remains constant while kill fluid moves up the annulus to the shoe.
Situation Fig 56 shows that the kill fluid has reach the choke.
Kill fluid at the choke.
Drillpipe pressure is kept constant while kill fluid displaces original mud in annulus.


Casing pressure decreasing as kill fluid moves up the annulus and will reach 0 psi when
kill fluid reach the choke.
Shoe pressure remains constant while kill fluid is displacing original mud inside the casing
due to no change in Ph open hole.
MAASP decreasing as kill fluid is displacing original mud inside the casing with same
value as the drop in casing pressure.
DRILL PIPE PRESSURE CASING PRESSURE
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
PRESSURE
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000

STROKES
Fig 57
Fig 57 shows the pressure relationships between drill pipe and casing.
Drill Pipe Pressure 1st circulation:

Drill Pipe Pressure constant while displacing annulus to original drilling fluid and
removing gas from well bore.
Drill Pipe Pressure 2nd circulation:

Drill Pipe Pressure decreasing to FCP will kill fluid fills the drill string and then
constant while kill fluid displaces original mud in annulus.
Casing Pressure 1st circulation:

Casing Pressure constantly increasing until gas reach choke.
Casing pressure decreasing to SIDPP while gas is displaced from the well bore.


Casing Pressure 2nd circulation:

Casing Pressure constant while kill fluid fills the drill string and then decreasing
while kill fluid displace original mud in annulus.
Shoe Pressure 1st circulation:

Increase with SICP when taking influx.
Increase while gas is moving up in the open hole section.
Decrease while gas enters the casing.
Constant after open hole has been displaced to drilling fluid.
Shoe Pressure 2nd circulation:

Shoe pressure constant while kill fluid fills the drill string.
Shoe pressure decreasing while kill fluid displaces original mud in open hole.
Shoe pressure constant while kill fluid displaces original mud inside casing.
MAASP Pressure 1st circulation:

Constant while gas is moving up open hole section.
Increase quickly while gas is entering casing.
Increase slowly with same value as Csg P while gas moves up inside casing.
Decreasing to initial value while gas is displaced from the well bore.
MAASP Pressure 2nd circulation:

MAASP constant while kill fluid fills the drill string.
MAASP constant while kill fluid displaces original mud in open hole.
MAASP decreasing while kill fluid displace original mud inside casing with same
value as the decrease in casing pressure.


03.08 Wait and Weight Method or Engineer's Method
This method is also called the "balance method" and is described below.
The well is shut in and pressure values are observed. The drilling fluid is increased to the
weight necessary to kill the well. While keeping constant casing pressure the pumps are
slowly brought up to slow circulating rate and when running at the desire rate the drill pipe
pressure is the ICP.
The primary objective while killing the well is to keep constant BHP, but as the heavy drilling
fluid fills the drill string the ICP cannot be held constant due to the change in hydrostatic
head. In the annulus the gas expands as it rises, so therefore casing pressure cannot be held
constant either.
However, the choke can be manipulated in such a way that standpipe pressure can be
gradually decreased as the heavy drilling fluid is pumped down the drill string. How much and
how often it is decreased can be decided in the following way.
Like the Driller's Method we begin to circulate with a standpipe pressure equal to PSIDPP +
RRCP and when the drill string is full of heavy drilling fluid the pressure will be equal to the
new RRCP with heavy drilling fluid inside the string or FCP. This change in standpipe
pressure occurs over a certain period of time that depends on the total number of strokes it
takes to pump the drill string full of heavy drilling fluid. (Surface-to-bit).
The easiest way is to represent this graphically. The following graph will show standpipe
pressure changes in relation to pump strokes combined with a table that shows the new
standpipe pressure for every 100 strokes. See Fig 58
The figures used for the graph and table apply to example in Driller’s Method and W&W
Method.
Pressure change per 100 strokes is calculated in the following way:
(ICP – FCP) x 100

∆P/100 strk = -----------------------------
Surface to bit strokes
Using the previous example we will get:
(1180 – 692) x 100

∆P/100 strk = ----------------------------- = 27psi/100 strk
1812
Circulation of the heavy drilling fluid from surface-to-bit can now proceed by regulating the
choke after the table, so the bottom-hole pressure will remain constant.


As soon as the drill string is full of heavy drilling fluid (after 1812 strokes) no change will occur
of drilling fluid density and drilling fluid column in the drill string, which means that standpipe
pressure (692 psi) can be held constant for the rest of circulation.
PRESSURE
0 1180
100 1153
200 1126
1100
300 1099
400 1072
500 1045
900
600 1018
700 991
800 964
700
900 937
1000 910
1100 883
500
1200 856
1300 829
1400 802
300
1500 775
1600 748
1700 721
1800 694 100
1812 692
STROKES
500 1000 1500 2000
Fig 58
When killing a kick by the Weight and Wait Method, there are four phases that are described
below.
Phase 1. Mix the required kill fluid immediately. When the kill fluid is ready, start pumping
and open choke slowly while the pump is brought up to speed holding casing
pressure constant at this initial start-up. As the drill string is gradually filled with
kill fluid, circulation pressure is regulated with the choke to follow the values of
the curve, until the calculated FCP with kill fluid at the bit is reached. (At this
stage the drill pipe should be dead).
Phase 2. Continue pumping until the gas is at the choke keeping constant drill pipe
pressure.
Phase 3. Continue pumping until all the gas is out. At this stage the annulus will be full of
kill fluid, minus the capacity of the drill string which is light drilling fluid.
Phase 4. Continue pumping until the annulus is full of heavy drilling fluid. At this stage
the well should be dead.


Wait and Weight Method:
Well Kick Data:
Hole size 8½ in
Hole depth TVD/MD 11536 ft
Casing (9 5/8 in) TVD/MD 9875 ft
Drill pipe 5 in capacity 0.01741 bbl/ft
Heavy Wall pipe 5 in 600 ft
Drill collars 6¼ in 880 ft
Capacity open hole x collars 0.03221 bbl/ft
Capacity open hole x drill pipe/HWDP 0.04470 bbl/ft
Capacity casing x drill pipe 0.04891 bbl/ft
Fracture fluid density at the casing shoe 16.9 ppg
SIDPP 530 psi
SICP 700 psi
Mud pumps displacement 0.1019 bbl/strk.
Slow Circulating Rate Pressure at 30 SPM 650 psi
Pit gain 10.0 bbl
With the following date given the kill sheet can be filled out and the necessary information be
required to kill the well:
Internal strokes from surface to bit: 1812 strokes

Total annulus from bit to surface: 5360 strokes
Open hole from bit to shoe: 620 strokes
Kill fluid density: 14.9 ppg
Initial circulation pressure 1180 psi
Final circulation pressure: 692 psi
Initial MAASP with drilling fluid density: 1489 psi
New MAASP with kill fluid density: 1027 psi
Pressure drop/100 strk 27 psi/100 strk
Influx gradient 0.178 psi/ft
Height of influx around DC 310 ft
Height of influx around DP 204 ft
Situation Fig 59 shows the start of circulation. The standpipe pressure is equal to PSIDPP
plus RRCP (Reduced Rate Circulation Pressure). The pressure at the casing head Pa is
equal to PSICp.
While keeping constant casing pressure the pumps are slowly brought up to slow
circulating rate, in this case 30 SPM. When the pumps are running at 30 SPM and
pressures have stabilized change to ICP and then keep DP pressure on schedule.
ICP = SIDPP + RRCP

530 psi + 650 psi = 1180 psi
Shoe pressure = Phshoe + SICP
7189 psi + 700 psi = 7889 psi
MAASP = Max Shoe Pressure - Phshoe
8678 psi - 7189 psi = 1489 psi


PDP PA PDP PA
KMW
DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
OMW OMW
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
OMW
OMW
Shoe Shoe
GAS
BHP GAS BHP
Fig 59 Fig 60
Situation Fig 60 shows kill fluid fills the drill string while gas is circulated a way up the
annulus.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept on schedule while gas is being pumped up through the open
hole section and the top of the gas bubble reach the shoe. The gas is expanding allowing
the pressure inside bubble to decrease.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept on schedule with 27 psi drop per 100 strokes pumped.
DP P = ICP - (470 x 27) 1053 psi
100
Shoe pressure is increasing with same value as the casing pressure and reach max. value
when gas reaches the shoe.
Shoe P = Phshoe + Csg P 7964 psi
MAASP remains constant due to no change in Ph inside the casing.
Situation Fig 61 shows kill fluid fills the drill string while gas is circulated inside the casing.
The gas is expanding allowing the pressure inside bubble to decrease.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept on schedule with 27 psi drop per 100 strokes pumped.
DP P = ICP - (620 x 27) 1013 psi
100


PDP PA PDP PA
KMW
OMW
DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
OMW
GAS
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
KMW
GAS
OMW
Shoe Shoe
OMW
BHP BHP
Fig 61 Fig 62
Shoe pressure is decreasing while gas moves from below the shoe until all gas inside the
casing.
MAASP start increasing from the first gas enters the casing due to change in Ph inside the
casing.
Situation Fig 62 shows kill fluid has filled the drill string.
Drill Pipe Pressure is kept on schedule with 27 psi drop per 100 strokes pumped and
reach FCP when kill fluid at bit.
DP P = ICP - (1812 x 27) 692 psi
100
Shoe pressure constant due to no change in Phopen hole
casing.
Situation Fig 63 shows kill fluid has displaced the top of the gas to the choke.


Drill Pipe Pressure constant at FCP after kill fluid reach the bit.
DP P = FCP 692 psi
Casing pressure increasing due to the expanding gas is displacing drilling fluid, but slower
due to kill fluid is displacing original mud.
CSG P = BHP - (Phmud + Phgas + Phkill mud) 1278 psi
Shoe pressure remains constant after kill fluid enter casing due to no change in Phopen hole.
casing.
PDP PA PDP PA
GAS OMW
OMW
DRILL STRING
DRILL STRING
ANNULUS
ANNULUS
KMW
KMW
KMW
Shoe Shoe
KMW
BHP BHP
Fig 63 Fig 64
Situation Fig 64 shows kill fluid has displaced all the gas out of the well bore.
Drill Pipe Pressure constant at FCP after kill fluid reaches the bit.
DP P = FCP 692 psi
Casing pressure decreasing while gas is displaced out of the well bore.
CSG P = BHP - (Phmud + Phkill mud) 180 psi
MAASP decreasing while gas is displaced out of the well bore.
Situation Fig 65 shows kill fluid has displaced the remaining original drilling fluid out of the
wellbore.
Drill Pipe Pressure constant at FCP after kill fluid reaches the bit.

DP P = FCP 692 psi
Casing pressure decreasing to 0 psi while kill fluid displaces original mud out of the well
bore.
CSG P = BHP - Phkill mud 0 psi
MAASP decreasing while kill fluid displace original mud out of the well bore.
PDP PA
DRILL STRING
ANNULUS
KMW
KMW
Shoe
BHP
Fig 65
Fig 66 shows the pressure relationships between drill pipe and casing.
Drill Pipe Pressure:

Drill Pipe Pressure decreasing from ICP to FCP while kill fluid fills the drill string.
Drill Pipe Pressure constant at FCP the remaining circulating time.
Casing Pressure:
Casing pressure constantly increasing until gas reach the choke.
Casing pressure decrease rapidly while gas is displaced from the well bore.
Casing pressure decreasing to 0 psi while original mud is displaced with kill fluid.
Shoe Pressure:
Increase while gas is moving up in the open hole section.
Decrease while gas enters the casing.
Constant until kill fluid reaches the bit.
Decrease while kill fluid is moving up the open hole section.
Constant after open hole has been displaced to kill fluid.
MAASP Pressure:
Constant while gas is moving up in the open hole section.
Increase rapidly while gas enters the casing.
Increase until gas reaches the choke.


Decrease rapidly while gas is displaced from the well bore.

Decrease while original mud is displaced with kill fluid.


DRILL PIPE PRESSURE CASING PRESSURE
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
PRESSURE
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

STROKES
Fig 66
Annular pressure will fall to 0 PSI as soon as heavy drilling fluid appears at the choke.
When this is observed the well should be dead. A flow check can now be made.
If no flow is observed the blow-out preventer can be opened, and the drilling fluid can be
circulated and conditioned as necessary, a trip margin can be added if it was not added to
the kill drilling fluid at the start of the operation. Tripping or drilling can now take place again.


04.08 The Concurrent Method
This is the most complicated of the three methods and its main value lies in the fact that the
killing operation can be started as soon as the closed in pressures etc. have been recorded.
Instead of waiting until the surface drilling fluid has all been weighted up to the kill drilling fluid
weight, circulation at the reduced rate is started and the drilling fluid weight is increased while
circulating.
The rate of increase will depend on the mixing facilities available on the rig. The complication
here is that the drill pipe can be filled with fluids of different densities, making calculation of
the bottom well hydrostatic pressure difficult. However, provided adequate supervision is
available on the rig this could be the most effective way of killing a kick.
Procedure for Concurrent Method
When all the kick information has been recorded, open up the pump slowly while adjusting
the choke until the initial circulating pressure has been reached at the reduced circulating
rate. The drilling fluid should he weighted up at the maximum rate available with the rig
equipment and, as the drilling fluid weight changes in the suction tank the choke operator is
informed. He checks the pump strokes gone when the new drilling fluid weight starts on his
chart, similarly with each change of drilling fluid weight, adjusting his choke pressure to suit
the new drill pipe conditions as pre-recorded on his surface to bit graph.
When the final kill drilling fluid reaches the bit the final circulating pressure will be reached
and from this point onwards the pressure should be kept constant until the operation is
completed.


05.08 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Three Methods
The Driller's Method is the simplest. The only calculations required is the kill drilling fluid
weight, the capacity of the drill pipe and the capacity of the annulus. While circulating out the
kick the drill pipe pressure is kept constant by regulating the choke. On the second circulation
while the kill drilling fluid is filling the drill pipe, the annulus pressure is kept constant. When
the drill pipe is full of kill drilling fluid control is switched back to the drill pipe while the annulus
is being killed.
The Wait and Weight Method on the other hand, requires the added calculation of the pump
strokes required to fill the drill pipe and the subsequent reduction in circulating pressure as
the pipe is filled.
The Concurrent Method has the added complication of possibly two or more drilling fluid
weights being present in the drill pipe at the same time.
Fig. 66 shows a comparison of casing pressures under killing according to the used method.
DRILLER’s METHOD WAIT and WEIGHT METHOD CONCURRENT METHOD
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
PRESSURE
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

STROKES
Fig 66


ADVANTAGES & DISADVANGES

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Simplest to teach and Higher casing shoe pressure if

DRILLER’S
understand. long open hole section (gas
METHOD kick).
Very few calculations.
Higher annular pressure (gas
In case of saltwater the kick).
contaminant is moved out
quickly to prevent sand settling Takes two circulations.
around drilling assembly
WAIT and WEIGHT Lowest casing pressure. Requires the longest non-
circulating time while mixing
METHOD
Lowest casing shoe pressure. heavy mud.
Less lost circulation (if not over Pipe could stick due to settling
killed). of sand, shale, anhydrite or salt
while not circulating.
Killed with one circulation if
influx doesn’t string out in Requires a little more
washed out sections of the arithmetic.
hole.
CONCURRENT Minimum of non-circulating Arithmetic is more complicated.

time.
METHOD
Requires more on-choke
Excellent for large increases in circulating time.
mud weight (underbalanced
drilling) Higher casing and casing shoe
pressure than Wait and Weight
Mud condition (viscosity and Method.
gels) can be maintained along
with mud weight.
Less casing pressure than

Driller’s Method.
Can easily be switched to Wait

and Weight Method.


06.08 PRESSURE CONTROL SCHEMES
General
When a kick occurs there are a lot of facts to record and analyse. These facts are recorded in
a so-called work sheet, a pre-planned scheme. These work sheets, when completed will give
us a complete picture of the conditions and calculations in a kick situation. These work sheets
can differ greatly from company to company but they all have the same basic content.
Contents of Work Sheets
A work sheet will contain, in one way or another the following facts:
Information that is Previously Known
Equipment:
Drill string: Dimensions, capacity, etc.

Drill collars: Inner and outer measurements, length, etc.
Bit diameter:
Casing: Dimensions, depth measure and true vertical, capacity, etc.
Open Hole: Total measured depth, true vertical depth.
Pumps:
Normal circulation rate and pressure.

Reduced Rate Circulating Pressure.
Pump output per stroke.
Facts after the Well is Shut In
Standpipe pressure (SIDPP).

Annulus pressure (SICP).
Pit level increase (kick gain).
Calculations
By using the previous mentioned work sheet (Kill Sheet) all required calculations to circulate
out a kick on a safe manner is easily done. See Fig 67
Surface to bit strokes.

Bit to surface strokes.
Bit to shoe strokes.
Kill mud weight.
Initial Circulating Pressure.
Final Circulating Pressure.


Fig 67


Fig 67a


09 CALCULATIONS OF DENSITY AND PRESSURE GRADIENT OF AN

INFLUX
01.09 General
It is always important to analyse what the influx actually is when a kick is taken into the
wellbore. It can be decided what the influx is (gas, oil or water) by making a calculation with
height and pressure.
The height of the influx is easy enough to find by the measured pit gain at the surface (bbl)
and the annulus capacity that is already known in bbl/ft.
kick gain (bbls)

hi = = (ft.)
annulus capacity (bbls/ft.)
If we call the depth of the well H, drilling fluid weight MWm, we can work out the different
pressures in the annulus and drill string and furthermore bottom hole pressure (formation
pressure). See Fig 68.
SIDPP SICP
H - Hi
DRILL STRING
OMW
ANNULUS
OMW
Shoe
Hi
BHP INFLUX
H x MWm x 0.052 + SIDPP = Pf = (H-Hi) x MWm x 0.052 + Hi x Wi x 0.052 + SICP
Fig 68
Pressure from drill string == Formation Pressure == Pressure from annulus
H x MWm x 0.052 + SIDPP == F.P. == (H – Hi) x MWm x 0.052 + Hi x Wi x 0.052 + SICP
Hi : Height of influx Wi : Density of influx


The equation can now be reduced to the following formula:
P sidp - P sia
Wi= + MW m
hi x 0,052
As the influx is either gas, oil, water or a mixture of same the density of the influx is
lower than the drilling fluid with result that SICP is greater than SIDPP the formula can
be expressed as follow:
P sia - P sidp
W i = MW m - (ppg)
hi x 0,052
When knowing the density of the influx pressure gradient can then be calculated as follows:
Gi = Wi x 0,052 psi/ft
or in the following way:
P sia - P sidp
Gi = Gm - psi / ft
hi
02.09 Examples
Example #1:
Influx 25 bbl.
OH – DC capacity 0.042 bbl/ft
Drilling fluid density 15 ppg
TVD 7600 ft
SIDPP 265 psi
SICP 660 psi
Height of Influx:
25 (bbl)
hi = = 595 ft.
0.042 (bbl / ft)
Gradient of Influx:
660 - 265
G i = 15 x0.052 - psi / ft = 0.116 psi/ft
595
Comparing the pressure gradient with table Fig 06 it can be seen that the influx is gas
or a mixture of gas/oil.
Example #2:
Same as example #1 except that SICP is 450 psi.


Gradient of influx:
450 - 265
G i = 15 x0.052 - psi / ft = 0.469 psi/ft
595
Comparing the pressure gradient with table Fig 06 it can be seen that the influx is
water.
We should be aware that there could be margin in these calculations of error. The accurate
annular or DC-OH capacity is not known due to wash out etc. and the results are therefore
quite unsure and shall not be used for anything else than to get a rough index of what the
influx is. The circulation of a kick is also not dependent on what the influx is. Therefore this
particular calculation is not relied upon to any great extent. At the same time it can be
advantageous to know whether it is a gas kick or oil/water kick that we have to deal with.
If it is a gas kick we can be prepared for the high casing pressure and pit volume increase
towards the last stage of circulation, which will not occur if the influx is a fluid.
The pressure gradients for influx are as noted below.
Between 0.47 to 0.52 psi/ft. the influx is saltwater. if the influx is less than 0.16 psi/ft. the influx
is gas. Between 0.31 and 0.42 psi/ft. the influx should be oil, but it could also be a mixture.
See Fig 06.
If we are in doubt about the result, treat the kick as a gas kick, and in this way the most
dangerous situation will be expected.


10 Lost circulation
01.10 General
Lost circulation is one of the most serious problems that occur in rotary drilling. Lost
circulation is defined as loss of drilling fluid into the formation, which can be total. As most
wells are drilled there is experienced a lesser or greater loss of drilling fluid to the formation.
Lost circulation is both expensive and time-consuming (price of drilling fluid and lost rig time).
In connection with well killing operations lost circulation is extremely dangerous. See Fig 69.
Losses can best be described as unintentional transfer of fluid from the borehole
into the formation.
When describing losses, the duration for which they

occur needs to be taken into account, e.g. a 10 bbl
loss that stops after 5 min, should not be reported
as 120 bbl/hr losses! It should also be recognised
that the rate of losses will change under static or
dynamic conditions.
The description of losses can differ from operator to operator but

falls into the following categories:
a. No losses - less than 2 bbl/hour.
b. Seepage Losses - between 2 and 5 bbl/hour.
c. Partial Losses - between 5 and 50 bbl/hour.
d. Severe Losses - greater than 50 bbl/hour.
e. Complete Losses - unable to maintain a fluid level
at surface with the desired mud weight, regardless off
pumping rate
f. Static Losses - The losses that occur when the
well is not being circulated and the drill string is stationery.
g. Dynamic Losses - The losses that occur when the well
is being circulated, or the drill string creating surge pressure.
Fig 69
When a kick occurs and the well is shut in, the drill pipe pressure informs us of the extra
pressure required balancing the formation. The problem is that when the well is shut in it is
difficult to decide if in fact lost circulation has, or is occurring. The biggest problem is therefore
the uncertainties.
02.10 Causes of lost circulation
The three most common causes that lost circulation arise in connection with a kick.
l. Bad cementing job.
2. Caused formation breakdowns.
3. Fissured and Fractured Formations.


Bad cementing job
One of the most common causes of lost circulation in a kick situation is a bad cement job at
the base of the last casing string. Most operators insist that the cement is pressure tested
after drilling the shoe, to test its strength and bond to the casing. The test pressure shall take
into account the highest drilling fluid weight that is to be used in the next phase of drilling or
shall follow legal requirements. A bad cement job is dangerous because it can allow gas to
escape up the side of the casing to the surface. Large gas blowouts have occurred in oilfields
because of this.
Formation breakdown
This cause of lost circulation is most common. The breakdown can be caused by large
pressure fluctuations, the use of drilling fluid that is too heavy or from blowout conditions. In
most cases after the pressure falls the breakdown in the formation will close itself up in a
relatively short time. Such a formation breakdown often occurs around the casing shoe and in
effect is exactly the same as a bad cement job.
Fractured and fissured formations
In hard formations fractures and fissures can be the cause of serious lost circulation
problems. It can be difficult to stop these formations taking drilling fluid. In many cases these
kind of formations are the actual reservoir beds, and the pressure which is used to balance
the reservoir is often very close to the pressure that will cause breakdown and resultant lost
circulation.
03.10 Well control with partly lost circulation
In most cases the first sign that lost circulation is occurring is a fall in the drilling fluid pit level.
Fig 70 and Fig 71 shows the relationships in such a situation.

PIT LEVEL
PDP
NATIONAL
1100 PA
BOP
900
700
500
LOST CIRCULATION
300
WEAK
FORMATION
100
TIME
Fig 70
Fig 71 LOST
CIRCULATION


Fig. 70 shows a graph of pit. The solid line shows how the pit level changes during a gas kick,
from when the kick is taken to when it is killed. The dotted line could show how the pit level
will change if part-lost circulation occurs while killing a gas kick.
Fig. 71 shows the situation in the well. The gas is circulated a way up the annulus and breaks
out of the wellbore into a relatively weak zone. This zone cannot withstand the pressure of the
choke combined with the hydrostatic pressure, and therefore drilling fluid will flow into the
formation. If the fluid column falls under circulation, there are several methods that can be
used to combat this problem, and are as follows:
l. If the lost volume is not too great and the drilling fluid volume can be made up by
mixing new drilling fluid, go ahead. The pressure on the weak zone will decrease as
the gas bubble passes upwards. The problem solves itself.
When circulating with part-lost circulation the pressure at the choke will be the highest
casing pressure that the formation can withstand. Every 30 minutes the choke is
closed partly so the pressure in the well bore increases 100 psi. If the annular pressure
does not increase, open the choke to the same setting as before and continue
circulating out the influx. If the well bore pressure increases check for similar increase
on the drill pipe pressure. If the drill pipe pressure does not increase, open the choke
to the same setting as before and continue circulating out the influx. If both the drill
pipe and annulus pressure increases the losses are decreasing and the formation is
healing itself. If so shut the well in and record the new SIDPP:
2. Stop the pump and close in the well. Give the well from 30 minutes to 4 hours to heal
itself up. Hold SIDPP constant by regulating the choke. If the casing pressure rises by
more that 100 psi continue to circulate out the influx.
3. Decide on a lower circulation rate and a new initial circulation pressure.
Consider the well as being closed in and proceed as follows:
a. By manipulating the choke keep casing pressure constant while the pumps are
brought up to the new lower circulating rate.
b. Adjust the choke until the annular pressure is the same as when the well was
shut in (this method not good for sub-sea wellheads). Proceed accordingly now
that a new initial circulation pressure of drill pipe is known.
4. Mix a pill of lost-circulation material of a type, which will be effective on the formation in
question. Normally lost circulation material is more effective in hard formations and
less effective in softer plastic formations.
5. If the losses continue after the above-mentioned solution has been tried a barite or
barite/diesel plug can be pumped in attempt to seal off the weak zone.


04.10 Well control with total lost circulation
Standard blowout control procedure cannot be used if the well cannot be circulated. With total
lost-circulation gas can rise up to the surface, but there is also the danger of an underground
blowout. The only way to solve the problem is first to stop loss of drilling fluid to the formation
so the well can be killed with the help of standard procedure.
l. Barite Plug:
The best solution with a gas kick is to try and plug the gas zone with a barite
plug and proceed to seal the lost circulation zone. In the meantime it is possible
that there can occur a high speed underground flow of formation fluid/gas into
the weak zone. This flow could possibly wash away the barite plug, so to try to
prevent this a plug as large as 300 ft in height should be used. See Fig 72.
BARITE PLUG MIXTURE for 300 ft.
180
15”
100
0s
xB
arit
160 e - 15
0 lb
P ho
sph
140 ate
12-1/4”
Water in bbl.
120 700
sx Bari
For a te - 1
17-1 00 lb
/2 ” ho Pho
100 le us sph
e tw ate
ice t
he m
9-7/8” ix fo
ra 12-1
80 425 sx /4” h
Barite ole
- 50 lb
8-3/4” Phosp
hate
60 335 sx B
7-7/8” ari te - 50 lb
Phospha
270 sx B te
ari te - 35 lb
40 Phospha
6-1/2” 185 sx Barite te
- 25 lb Phosph
ate
20
15 16 17 18 19
Mud Weight -lb/gal
Fig 72
Mixing procedure for barite plug:
Add water, the Phosphate and finally Barite.

Adjust pH to 9.0 using Caustic Soda.
Use fresh clean water only.


2. Gunk Plug:
A gunk plug is a plug consisting of bentonite mixed with diesel fuel and is a
very fast solidifying plug that is especially effective for water flows. The plug will
not start to become stiff until it comes into contact with water, so there is no
danger of premature setting. When the plug is pumped down in the bottom of
the well the diesel is washed away from the solids, which begin to set as they
come into contact with the water. A large plug shall be used, about 300 ft. in
height. An oil plug shall be pumped before and after the gunk plug to prevent
contamination of the plug with drilling fluid to avoid premature swelling of the
bentonite. For gunk plugs in Oil Based drilling fluid Geltone II (MI product
name) or similar is used. See Fig 73.
Prior to pumping gunk plugs all lines must be flush and cleaned.
GUNK MIX for 300 ft COLUMN

HOLE SIZE DIESEL OIL BENTONITE TOTAL VOLUME
inch bbl sacks bbl
6-1/2” 9 27 12
7-7/8” 13 40 18
8-3/4” 14 49 22
9-7/8” 20 62 28
12-1/4” 33 98 44
15” 50 150 66
17-1/2” 66 200 89
Fig 73
A thick mixture of rough lost circulation material can sometimes be pumped

down the annulus via the kill line, to seal off the thief zone.
HALLIBURTON
PA
Fig. 74 illustrates the conditions in the well with KILL LINE

BOP
regard to the pumping of a plug to contain the

Lost
kick zone, and illustrates also the manner in Circulation
which lost-circulation material is pumped down Material
into the weak zone.
WEAK
FORMATION
PLUG
Fig 74 INFLUX


11 VOLUMETRIC WELL CONTROL.

01.11 General
Volumetric Method is used, if gas or gaseous influxes for one or another reason cannot be
circulated out.
Examples of such a situation can be:
- Prior to pumping kill fluid with conventional method.
- Pipe off bottom.
- Drill string or bit plugged.
- Drill string out of hole.
- Wash out in the drill string.
- If drill string have been cut and left in hole.
- Repairs to pumps or other equipment failure such that normal kill procedure cannot be
exercised.
When the gas bubble is down hole, the Volumetric Method can be used to allow the
bubble to expand while it migrates up the hole, keeping bottom hole pressure constant.
The basic of this method is the knowledge that every bbl of fluid gives a certain bottom
hole pressure. This pressure can be measured in psi/bbl by dividing the fluid gradient psi/ft
with annular volume in bbl/ft or the volume of the well bore in bbl/ft if there is no drill string
in the hole.
As the gas migrates up the annulus, the annular capacity usually changes. It is therefore
necessary to estimate the location of the gas, calculate the correct annular volume and
control the casing pressure accordingly. In general with pipe in the hole casing/drill pipe
capacity is used due to this is the longest section the gas has to migrate.
The amounts of fluid which are to be bled off or pumped (lubricated) into the well, must be
measured precisely enabling us to have exact control of pressure in the well bore.
A migration rate exceeding 1000 ft/h (300 m/h) makes the Volumetric Method a fair
alternative, but keep in mind that recent research has show that gas is able to migrate as
fast as 10.000 ft an hour under ideal condition even in highly deviated wells.
02.11 Volumetric Method -

Specification required
1. Closing the well

When the well is shut-in, take accurate readings of the shut-in casing pressure (SICP) and
pit gain. Make note of the time when readings are taken.
An increase in closed-in pressures confirms that the influx is gas and migration is taking
place.
2. Estimating the migration rate

When a gas influx is taken, the large density difference between gas and drilling fluid will
cause the gas bubble to migrate up the hole. As gas migrates, without expansion being
permitted, pressure throughout the wellbore increases.


The velocity of gas-migration depends on hole size, gas and fluid densities, fluid viscosity
and whether gas influx is one big bubble, or distributed as many smaller bubbles. A
common rule of thumb is to assume a gas migration velocity of between 500 ft to 1000 ft
per hour. If oil base drilling fluid is in use, gas migration may be limited by solubility or
gas/oil miscibility effect. The following discussion of gas migration applies to water base
drilling fluid only.
The distance that gas has migrated and the rate of migration may be estimated as follows
See Fig 75:
300 psi
PA
P2 - P1
GMD = --------------------------
MWG
12.5 ppg
GMD
GMR = --------------------------
10000 ft T 2 - T1
Where: GMD = Gas migration distance

MWG = Mud gradient
P1 = Surface pressure at time T1
P2 = Surface pressure at time T2
GMR = Gas migration rate ( feet per hour)
T1 = Time 1 (hour)
T2 = Time 2 (hour)
GAS
6500 psi
Fig 75
03.11 Volumetric Method -

Handling
1. Shut the well in and record the initial shut-in casing pressure SICP, Pit Gain and Initial
Shut-in Time.
2. Allow the casing pressure to increase by approx. 100 psi (P1) above the original shut-in
pressure for safety factor. The safety factor is used because the pressure will always
fluctuate a little depending on the man at the choke, so by using a safety factor we
make certain that the bottom hole pressure does not drop below the formation pressure
so further influx is taken into the wellbore.
P2 = SICP + P1


3. Allow a new pressure increase 50-100 psi (P3), but do not exceed the fracture pressure
at the casing shoe. This pressure is called working range and will determine the
amount of fluid in the well bore that represents this pressure.
P4 = SICPP + P1 + P3 = P2 + P3
4. Calculate the migration distance, corresponding to P3.
P3
GMD = ------------
MWG
5. Calculate the volume of fluid corresponding to the pressure increase, i.e. volume to
bleed off (Vm).
P3 x Cap
Vm = Cap x h = --------------
MWG
Cap = Hole capacity refers to the capacity directly above the bubble. In practice it is
usually acceptable to use capacity of the casing below BOP’s for the following
reasons:
Open hole capacity is generally close to casing capacity.
Only small volumes of fluid are bleed from the well, when the bubble is in open
hole. Most of the increase in surface pressure and associated fluid occurs as
gas approaches surface, where hole capacity is known accurately.
6. As the annulus pressure increases above P4 bleed of the calculated volume (Vm)
gradually maintaining the pressure P4 at the choke.
7. After having bleed off the calculated volume (Vm), let the pressure build up to P5:
P5 = P4 + P3
8. Repeat points 6 and 7 until casing pressure stabilises as the gas reaches the surface.
9. As gas is bled out of the hole the bottom hole pressure will decrease. Additional fluid
should be pumped (lubricated) back into the well bore to maintain a constant bottom hole
pressure to prevent an additional kick.
04.11 Lubrication Technique
This method is used to reduce the casing pressure when gas is at the surface so that
another operation such as stripping or snubbing can be performed.
1. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure, which will be exerted by a certain volume of drilling
fluid in the annulus. If we use the same working range as before the volume will be the
same.

2. Slowly pump the given volume of fluid into annulus through the kill line. Allow the fluid
to ”fall” through the gas (by gravity). Low yield point fluids are preferable. A small
pressure increase (∆P) may occur due to compression of the gas bubble.
3. Bleed gas from annulus until the surface pressure is reduced by an amount equal to
the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid pumped in.
Do not bleed off drilling fluid.
If the annulus pressure increases during ”pumping in” procedure, the amount of this
increase (∆P) should be bled off in addition to the pressure bled for hydrostatic
pressure increase. If drilling fluid starts coming back shut-in the choke and wait for the
gas to percolate to the surface before continuing to bleed off.
4. Repeat this procedure until all gas has been bled off or the desired surface pressure
reached.
Lubrication
During the pumping and gas bleeding, it will usually be necessary to decrease the
volume of fluid to be pumped before the gas is bled of completely.
This is because the annular volume occupied by the gas decreases with each
pumping and bleeding sequence.
If the Volumetric Method is going to be used it is important that we have the right
equipment and drills have been carried out with all the crews. See Fig 76.
5 BOP 1
HALLIBURTON
PA
2
KILL LINE
1. Accurate pressure gauge

on annulus side.
2. Adjustable choke (manual).

3
3. Trip or strip tank with
4
accurate measurement.
4. Pump to empty strip/trip tank. PUMP

GAS
5. HP pump with accurate
displacement tanks.
Fig 76


05.11 Volumetric Method-

Example
Casing: TVD/MD 5.000 ft - 9-5/8” - 47lb/ft - N-80 - Cap. 0.073 bbl/ft

Hole: TVD/MD 10.000 ft - 8-1/2” - Cap. 0.070 bbl/ft
EFD/Leak off: 17.5 ppg MW: 10 ppg Pit V: 600 bbl
1. Shut in data:
SICP: 243 psi Pit gain: 3 bbl
2. Overbalance(SF): (P1 = Approx 100 psi)
P2 = SICP + P1 P2 = 243 + 100 = 343 psi
3. Pressure increase: (P3 = Approx 50 psi)
P4 = P2 +P3 P4 = 343 + 50 = 393 psi
2. Height of gas in Annulus corresponding to P3
P3 50
H = ------------ H = ----------- = 96 ft
MWG 10x0.052
5. Volume to be bled off
Vm = Cap x H Vm = 0.07 x 96 = 6.73 bbl Fig 77
BOP
HALLIBURTON Vm
PA
P3
Vm
6
KILL LINE P3
Vm
5
P3
3 Vm
4 Pa
P3
6 GAS 2
P1
1
5 GAS S
I
C
4 GAS P
BLEED OFF LUBRICATE
3 GAS
P3
2 GAS
1 GAS
P1 BHP


1. Influx into the wellbore and SICP recorded to 243 psi.
2. The gas bubble is allowed to percolate without expansion increasing the annulus and
BHP with the safety factor (P1)100 psi to P2.
3. The gas bubble is allowed to percolate further without expansion increasing the
annulus and BHP with the working range (P3) 50 psi to P4.
P4 = 243 + 100 + 50 = 393 psi
4. While keeping 393 psi on the annulus 6.73 bbl of drilling fluid is bleed off allowing the
gas bubble to percolate and expand. While bleeding off the 6.73 bbl the BHP pressure
will decrease 50 psi (P3).
5. After first bleed off, the well is shut in and the gas bubble is allowed to percolate
further without expansion increasing the annulus pressure and BHP with the working
range (P3) 50 psi to P5.
P5 = 243 + 100 + 50 + 50 = 443 psi
While keeping 443 psi on the annulus 6.73 bbl of drilling fluid is bleed off allowing the
6. After second bleed off, the well is shut in and the gas bubble is allowed to percolate
further without expansion increasing the annulus pressure and BHP with the working
range (P3) 50 psi to P6.
P6 = 243 + 100 + 50 + 50 + 50 = 493 psi
While keeping 493 psi on the annulus 6.73 bbl of drilling fluid is bleed off allowing the
By continue this procedure the gas is brought to surface and the operation is reversed so
6.73 bbl of drilling fluid is lubricated into the well bore after witch (P3) 50 psi + ∆P is bleed off.
See Fig 77.
Fig 78 shows a work sheet to be used to keep control when using the Volumetric Method
and Fig 79 illustrate the pressures in the wellbore while using the Volumetric Method.


Worksheet for the Volumetric Method

Pit volume increase Psi/bbl Pressure inc. Original pressure New pressure Total pit Time
Vm P3 P4 volume
Fig 78
PRESSURE
Gas bubble pressure
Bottom hole pressure
Annular pressure
Drill pipe pressure
BLEED OFF LUBRICATE
TIME
Fig 79


06.11 Low Choke Method -

Dynamic Kill
This method of well control is occasionally proposed for handling shallow gas kicks. If it is
anticipated that shutting-in a kick will result in surface pressure above the maximum
allowable, the well is allowed to flow through the choke (and kill) line and surface pressure
is maintained slightly below the maximum allowable value. In this way the rate of influx
may be sufficiently slowed to allow well control to be regained by circulating kill fluid down
the drill string.
There may be circumstances under which this technique can be implemented
successfully, however there are inherent dangers. Initially bottom hole pressure is
maintained at a value below the kicking formation pressure and inflow will therefore
continue. The continued influx will reduce bottom hole pressure further as the annulus is
unloaded. Only if kill fluid can be circulated into the annulus at a sufficient rate to
overcome this unloading effect and increase the bottom hole pressure will well control be
regained.
The low choke method is an attempt to out run a kicking well, and should not be
attempted except for handling shallow gas kicks.
07.11 Bullheading
Bullheading is generally recommended in the following circumstances:

1. If a kick is taken with the drill string far off bottom, or with no pipe in the hole. With the
pipe close to bottom, stripping in should be considered. The decision to strip, as well
as the stripping procedure, must allow for the effects displacing the influx up-hole and
for the effect of gas migration. If the upward force (closed in pressure multiplied by the
cross-sectional area of the closed-end drill pipe) exceeds the string weight, it will not
be possible to strip in.
2. If the influx has the potential for containing H2S.
3. If circulating the kick out could result in excessive gas rates through the well control
system.
4. If the influx is very large, resulting in excessive surface pressures.
After shutting in the well on a potential kick, the decision of whether to bullhead or
circulate out the kick must be made very quickly after considering the following
subjects.
See Fig 80
1. Stabilised SIDPP and SICP – Do the pressures stabilise very quickly, indicating a kick
from a high permeability formation? Is gas migration evident?
2. Influx volume and fluid type.
3. What are the estimated fracture pressure gradients for the shales and any exposed
sand(s) in the open hole? How do they relate to the shoe strength (LOT)? How are
shales and sands distributed in the open hole? Is fracturing the hole (with potentially
‘charged’ formations) an acceptable consequence?


4. Pressure limitations of pumping equipment, wellhead equipment, and casing shoe

tests.
SICP SIDPP SICP SIDPP
HALLIBURTON HALLIBURTON
SICP SICP
BOP BOP
KILL LINE KILL LINE
GAS BULL
INFLUX HEADING
INFLUX
Fig 80
5. If a gas influx is suspected (shut in pressure continues to rise indicating migrating gas
in water base system), pumping rate for bullheading must be fast enough to exceed
the rate of gas migration. If pump pressures increase instead of decreasing, this is an
indication that the pumping (injection) rate is too slow to be successful. This can be a
problem in a large diameter hole.
6. The possibility of breaking down the formation of long open hole sections beyond the
last casing shoe rather than the producing formation. This could provoke the
development of an underground blowout.
Bullheading Procedure
1. Ensure that sufficient fluid of the current weight is available for the operation and
that the line to the kill pump suction is clear.
2. Line up BOP and choke manifold to pump down lower kill line. Pressure test the
surface equipment to above the maximum injection pressure.
3. Start the bullheading operation at a sufficiently slow rate such that the volume
versus rate relationship can be monitored. Attempt to keep the rate constant during
the operation and plot up volume versus rate as per leak off graph. Allow for the
compressibility of the drilling fluid as the pressure is brought up to the injection
pressure.
4. As bullheading continues, the surface pressures should theoretically decrease as
lower density influx is displaced by higher density fluid. Surface pressures should

be monitored and plotted at regular intervals to check that the influx is being
bullheaded away. If the injection pressure does not fall it may be as a result of fluid
being injected into a formation above the influx. See Fig 81
The injection pressure may increase during the operation as the permeability of the
reservoir is damaged. If the injection pressure approaches the maximum allowable
surface pressure, stop the pumps and allow the pressure to stabilise. Recommence
at a slower rate keeping within the maximum pressure limitations.
If it becomes impossible to bullhead without exceeding maximum pressure
limitations i.e. fracture pressure, the decision to continue bullheading operations in
excess of this pressure will depend upon the volume of the remaining influx and the
position of the bit in the hole.
5. Once the calculated volume of influx has been bullheaded back to the formation,
bleed off trapped pressure and shut in the well to monitor drill pipe and casing
pressures.
If the shut-in pressures have fallen, then it is a fair assumption that the operation
has been partially successful. It should be remembered that if the kick was taken
whilst drilling. It is unlikely that the drill pipe and casing pressures will read the same
due to the dissemination of the influx in the fluid.
6. If bullheading was seen to be successful, then it should be continued until the drill
pipe and casing pressure are similar. The subsequent well kill operation to secure
the well will depend on how the kick was taken.
- If the influx was taken whilst drilling, then the well can be killed using the wait
and weight method utilising the original shut in pressure information.
- If the pipe is off-bottom, then it will be necessary to strip back to bottom using
standard stripping procedures. A circulation should then be performed,
maintaining constant bottom hole pressure, to clear the hole of disseminated
gas.
7. If the procedure is not seen to be successful, then consideration will have to be
given to:
- Stripping back to bottom if necessary and circulating out the influx at a rate
dependent on its size and the limitations of the surface equipment.
- Beginning operations leading to the suspension of the well.


1300
Formation Strength
1100
900
1
700 2
Pump Pressure
500
3
300
100
Volume pumped
Fig 81
1: Bullheading taking place over the influx with plugging of the formation taking place.
2: Bullheading taking place over the influx.
3: Bullheading influx into the formation as pump pressure reduces.


12 Kick with bit off bottom
01.12 Introduction
During drilling, completion and work-over operations it sometimes becomes
necessary to trip tubular through the BOP’s under pressure. The procedures
used are called Stripping and Snubbing.
Stripping: This procedure is used when the pipe weight is sufficient to overcome the
upward force created by well pressure acting on the cross-sectional area of
the pipe.
Snubbing: This procedure is used when the pipe weight is not sufficient to overcome the
upward force created by well pressure on the cross-sectional area of the
pipe. In this case an external force must be applied to move the pipe through
the BOP’s.
02.12 Stripping
Stripping is an emergency well control procedure. It requires good planning, proper

training of personnel and careful execution.
The primary objective of the stripping operation shall be to maintain a constant bottom hole
pressure, thus preventing a build up of excessive wellbore pressures or influx from
exposed permeable zones.
The following are guidelines for carrying out a successful stripping operation:
1. Pressure control is based on a volume balance. This means that for every barrel of
pipe stripped into the hole, a barrel of mud must be bled off. Since it is necessary to
install an Inside BOP before stripping, total displacement must be considered,
including both pipe displacement and internal capacity.
2. Mud bled from the annulus must be accurately measured in order to maintain the
correct volume balance.
3. Annulus pressure should not be constant while stripping pipe into the hole. It should
gradually increase as the pipe is stripped into the lower density kick fluid. This is
due to the increased length or height of the influx fluid in the annulus and the
resultant loss of hydrostatic pressure.
4. When stripping through the annular preventer, the closing pressure on the
preventer must be adjusted to allow a small amount of leakage to lubricate and
reduce wear on the sealing element. The mud, which is allowed to leak past the
annular preventer, should be measured along with the mud bled through the
adjustable choke.
5. Drill pipe with casing wear protectors should never be stripped through the annular
preventer, because excess friction and wear would be generated due to the rubber
to rubber contact.
6. If stripping is to be carried out with two sets of pipe rams, then a side outlet is
required between the rams. This is necessary to enable the pressure to be
equalised, before opening the rams. Opening rams without equalising the pressure
will shorten the life of the sealing element and create excessive pressure surge in


the BOP. Pressure from the well must not be used to equalise the pressure across
the rams.
The objective in all stripping operations is to maintain a constant bottom hole
pressure, slightly greater than the formation pressure, throughout the entire
operation.
03.12 Closing Procedures
Stripping procedures must be adjusted to suit the well conditions and the equipment,
which is available. A specific procedure should be developed for each situation.
The following guidelines provide a basis for the design of detailed procedures closing in
the well on a kick, with pipe off bottom and stripping back to bottom:
To avoid excessive surface pressures, the correct closing in procedure as outlined should
be adopted, i.e. Close in the well at the first indication of flow.
1. Install a FOSV on the drill pipe, in the open position.

2. Close the FOSV.
3. Close the annular preventer.
4. Open the HCR valve.
5. Close the automatic choke (if not already closed).
6. Make up Topdrive.
7. Open the FOSV.
8. Record and monitor the drill pipe and the casing pressure.
Ensure that the above steps are executed as quickly as possible.

The Gray IBOP can be installed when ready to strip in.
04.12 Rig layout for combined stripping and volumetric method
In general, the annular preventer is used for stripping pipe into or out of the hole. The annular
preventer allows the use of one preventer and permits the tool joints to pass through the
packing
ACCUMULATOR
BOTTLE
PRECHARGE @ 400 PSI
ANNULAR
OPEN PREVENTER
BALL VALVE
CLOSE
Fig 82


element without creating excessive pressure surge in the well bore. To minimise the wear,
the pipe should be well lubricated with grease and closing pressure applied to the annular
preventer kept to a minimum. A surge bottle should be installed as close to the annular
preventer as possible. See Fig 82.
Regardless of the method used to strip pipe into the hole and enable effective pressure
control, it is very important to measure all of the fluid that comes out of the well bore.
Formation fluid that has entered the well bore may be gas and during stripping operation
migration may take place, so it is essential that rigs are suitably rigged-up to immediately
implement the volumetric method. See Fig 83.
1. Annular preventer. See Fig 82 2
2. Accurate pressure gauge.

1
3
3. Adjustable choke.
4. Piping from choke manifold to

4
trip tank.
5. Calibrated trip tank.

5
6. Calibrated stripping tank.
Fig 83
05.12 Procedure
1: After closing in the well, determine the influx volume and record pressures at two
minute intervals. After closed in pressures have stabilised; further record pressures
at five minute intervals.
2: Determine a convenient working pressure increment Pw
3: Convert the working pressure Pw of say 50 psi into an equivalent working volume V
in the OH/DC annulus (the volume of fluid to be used for volumetric control steps).
See Fig 84.
PW x Cap
V = Cap x h = --------------
MWG


Fig 84 Fig 85
H2
Expansion
of gas influx H1
V
4: Determine the extra back pressure Ps to compensate for the loss of hydrostatic
pressure as the bit and drill collars are run into the influx. If the influx is assumed to
be in the open hole beneath the bit, an increase in surface pressure will be required
to maintain BHP above Pf when this event occurs. It is unknown when the extra
back pressure will be required since the exact position of the influx is unknown; it is
therefore advisable to adopt a suitable safety factor from the very start of the
stripping operation.
Since overbalance (trip margin) will exist in nearly all wells which kick during round
tripping, it is not possible to use closed in annulus pressure SICP to make an
accurate estimate of the magnitude of the influx and thus the additional back
pressure required to compensate for the previous mentioned loss of hydrostatic
head. It is therefore essential to accurately measure the influx volume gained at
surface, and by application of a factor based on the ratio open hole to DC/OH
annulus, calculate the expected loss of hydrostatic head as the DC’s enter the
influx. See Fig 85.
(Mud Gradient - Influx Gradient) x Influx Volume

Ps = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
DC/OH Capacity
5: Adjust the closing pressure on the annular preventer to a minimum, but avoid
leakage. Whilst reducing closing pressure check continuously for flow.
6: Allow annulus pressure to build up to PCHOKE whilst stripping the first stand.
PCHOKE = SICP + PS + PW
Where SICP = Initial closed in annulus pressure before second build
up.


PS =
Allowance for the loss of hydrostatic head as DC’s enter
the influx.
PW = Working pressure increment. See Note #1
7: Maintain PCHOKE constant whilst further stripping pipe.
The volume increase due to closed end displacement of drill pipe is purged
into the trip tank and after stripping the entire stand bleed off into the
stripping tank the volume equal to the closed end displacement of one stand.
The increase in the trip tank volume is due to the expansion of the gas influx
only and reflects the loss of hydrostatic head in the well.
See Note #2
8: Avoid excessive surge pressures by adjusting the pipe lowering rate to allow
chokeman to maintain PCHOKE constant.
Pchoke + Pw= Pchoke1
9: Maintain PCHOKE constant at the above
value until a volume of mud V bbl has
accumulated in the trip tank while simul-
taneously strip pipe in the hole.
10: When the additional mud volume V bbl

has accumulated in the trip tank (at
constant choke pressure), PCHOKE is V Pw
allowed to increase again by value PW
and now becomes PCHOKE1.
PCHOKE1 = PCHOKE + PW
See Fig 86 Expansion
of gas influx
11: Fill each stand run and file off any sharp
edges or tong marks from the pipe body
and tool joints. Coat drill pipe with grease
prior to stripping in the hole. Fig 86
12: By repeating this cycle, as often as necessary gas is able to percolate upwards and
expand while a nearby constant BHP is maintained.
13: Values of pressure and volume should be recorded in table throughout the stripping
exercise.
With the bit on bottom the well can be killed using the “Driller’s Method” first circulation, but
first ensure that the entire string is full of mud.


Note 1:
A length of the first stand will be stripped against the closed in well until the required
stripping choke pressure, PCHOKE, has been reached. Only the remainder of the stand,
which is stripped at constant choke pressure, should be considered when bleeding off the
closed end displacement volume.
For example, if the required PCHOKE is reached after stripping two singles of the first stand,
only one third of the closed end displacement volume should be bled off into the stripping
tank. The same principle will of course apply when PW increment are added.
Note 2:
Should, during the stripping operation, bottom hole pressure inadvertantly drop below
formation pressure (BHP < PF), a second influx will take place. The method makes
allowance for this eventuality and re-established the required PCHOKE by overcompensating
for the loss of hydrostatic pressure caused by the new influx. This is achieved
automatically due to the manner in which PW has been calculated. PW compensates for
loss of hydrostatic pressure assumed opposite the DC’s. A second influx will enter in the
open hole section resulting in a volume gain at surface, where it will be interpreted as a
volumetric step. The well will be closed in and PCHOKE allowed to increase by PW. The
effect, of course, will be to overcompensate the underbalance that existed in the well. In
other words it is impossible to loose hydrostatic control of the well since the method is self
correcting.
06.12 Snubbing
Snubbing involves moving pipe in and out of a well under pressure, while maintaining
constant bottom hole pressure. The operation is very similar to stripping except that the
pipe will not move into the well under its own weight and must be forced in through
application of external force at the surface. Snubbing operations are much more
dangerous than stripping operations and always involve the use of specialised equipment
and personnel.
Two types of snubbing system are generally employed namely mechanical snubbing units
and hydraulic snubbing units. Mechanical snubbing units require the use of the drilling rig’s
hoisting system, while hydraulic snubbing units are self contained.


13 Gas Cut Drilling Fluid

01.13 General
Gas cut drilling fluid is the term used when the drilling fluid contains a percentage of gas in the
form of small bubbles, when it returns to the surface. Generally gas cut drilling fluid does not
decrease the hydrostatic pressure so much as to cause underbalance/kick situations. This is
because the gas content in the drilling fluid is mostly compressed, except very close to the
surface. Every atmosphere (14.7 psi) reduces the gas volume by half. Therefore the drilling
fluid weight considerably reduces the volume of the gas.
If the volume of the gas in the drilling fluid is very small the reduction in bottom well pressure
will also be very small. Fig. 87 shows a typical example of pressure reduction bottom well
caused by gas cutting of drilling fluid.
20
10% cut
10
9 25% cut
18 ppg - 16.2 ppg
8
10 ppg - 9 ppg
.5 ppg
ppg
DEPTH in 1000ft
33.3% cut
ppg
7
6
ppg
g
10 ppg - 7.5
- 12 pp
- 6.66
18 ppg - 13
ppg
50% cut
5
-5
-9
pg
10 ppg
18 ppg
4
pg
10 p
p
18
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
DECREASE IN BHP (psi)
Fig 87
It is very important to understand that the gas expanding as it nears the immediate surface
causes almost all the bottom well pressure reduction. Therefore flow line drilling fluid weight
can be very low in some cases.
02.13 Causes of gas cut drilling fluid
Gas cut drilling fluid can occur because of three reasons:


1. When a gas bearing formation is penetrated the cuttings will always release an amount
of gas into the drilling fluid. This will be the first gas to register at the surface, and is a
positive indication that a gas bearing formation has been penetrated. This type of gas
will not cause a drilling fluid weight reduction, but if there is any doubt, pick up the drill
string, shut down the drilling fluid pumps and check for flow.
2. Another cause of gas cut drilling fluid is that some formations with a very low
permeability have a pore pressure, which is bigger than the hydrostatic pressure from
the drilling fluid column.
So long as the drilling fluid is circulated there is a small overbalance in the well
because of pressure loss in the annulus. When circulation is stopped a small
underbalance will occur, ant this causes varying amounts of gas to intrude into the
wellbore. This often occurs when the pumps are shut down during a connection or
during a trip and these conditions are respectively called Trip Gas and Connection
Gas.
3. The third cause of gas cut drilling fluid can be a washout in the wellbore. This washout
or cavity acts as a trap for old gas cut drilling fluid which is picked up by the drilling fluid
at a later period in time and transported to the surface.
Calculations to estimate the change in hydrostatic pressure caused by gas cut drilling
fluid
Reduction of bottom well pressure caused by gas cut drilling fluid can be calculated by using
the following formula:
∆ P = 2.3 x N x Log BHP
∆P = Reduction in pressure in physical atmospheres where 1 ATM = 14.7 psi.
N = Original MW – Gascut MW
Gascut MW
BHP = Bottom hole pressure in physical ATM.
Example: Well depth 12.000 ft

OMW 14 ppg
GMW 7 ppg
P = 2.3 x ----------- 12.000 x 0.052 x 14 = 6.37 ATM

14 - 7 x log------------------------------- 94 psi
7 14.7
The pressure in the well (bottom well) is therefore reduced by 94 PSI which answers to a
change in drilling fluid weight of 0.15 ppg.


A more practical and precise method for calculating bottom hole pressure reduction is
reached by using the volumetric method. The volumetric method is used in the following way.
The volume increase in the drilling fluid tanks that has flowed back due to gas cut drilling fluid
is measured.
This figure can be used to calculate the change in hydrostatic pressure in psi/bbl units by the
following formula:
∆P= ∆ Pit volume x (0.052 x OMW)

Annular capacity at surface
Fig 87 shows that even with a flow line weight reduction of 50% through gas cutting, bottom
hole pressure is not seriously affected, as the reduction is less than the change that is caused
through pressure loss in the annulus.
Although pressure reductions from gas cut seldom cause underbalance, there are other
factors that can lead to dangerous situations. Foremost gas cut drilling fluid is an indication of
(possible) low drilling fluid weights, and pump effectiveness can be seriously reduced by gas
cut drilling fluid.
If drilling fluid becomes seriously gas cut the pump output is seriously decreased, that can
lead to a following fall in annulus pressure loss, fall in bottom hole pressure and therefore risk
of influx and blowout.
It is therefore most important that gas cut drilling fluid is de-gassed (gas content extracted)
before it is pumped down hole again.
It may be that he most common fault in connection with gas cut drilling fluid is the tendency to
maintain the original drilling fluid weight with barite without removing all the gas from the
drilling fluid. When a moderate gas cutting gives a relatively small change in hydrostatic
pressure, it is possible that addition of barite to increase drilling fluid weight can lead, in
extreme cases, to lost circulation.


03.13 Gas Kicks in Oil Based Mud
Early detection of gas kicks in oil based mud is of particular importance. The
behaviour of hydrocarbon gases in an oil based drilling fluid is fundamentally different from
their behaviour in a water based drilling fluid. These differences must be understood to
allow safe handling procedures to be followed.
The solubility of methane in diesel oil is approximately 100 times greater than in
water, and therefore comparatively large gas flows (10 MMSCFD) can be taken into
solution when circulating an oil based drilling fluid. The volume of the resulting solution is
approximately equal to the sum of the gas and oil components, and therefore an influx will
result in both a pit gain and an increase in return flow rate, as for a water based fluid.
As shown in Fig 88 the expansion of a gas in oil solution, with decreasing pressure, is
different from the expansion of the gas that occurs when a water based fluid is in use.
0 Diesel alone 0
2.000 2.000
4% Methane in diesel
PRESSURE (PSI)
PRESSURE (PSI)
Methane alone
4.000 4.000
6.000 6.000
8.000 8.000
10.000 10.000
1 10 100 1 10 100
RELATIVE VOLUME RELATIVE VOLUME
Fig 88
When a water-based fluid is in use, gas expansion occurs continuously, and the kick is
therefore comparatively easy to detect. With an oil based mud there is negligible
expansion until the solution reaches the bubble point, but at pressures below the
bubble point the expansion is very rapid.
The bubble point can be very difficult to determine due to a lot of unknown factors, but Fig
89 shows a typical phase equilibrium.
Zone A: For pressure above the bubble point line and below the critical temperature
the material in the reservoir is a liquid.
Zone B: For pressure above the dew point line the material in the reservoir is gas.
Zone C: For material outside the dew line the material is always gas.
Zone D: For material within the phase envelope the material is a 2 phase equilibrium
mixture of free gas and its associated liquid.


Zone A Zone B Zone C
LIQUID 3
7000 FREE GAS
1
Critical
6000 Point
Dew
PRESSURE PSI
Poin
Lin
2-Phase Zone D 10%
t Lin
t
oin
25%
le P
e
40% 4
bb
2
Bu
0
- 200 400 800
TEMPERATURE F
Fig 89
If a hydrocarbon liquid at point 1 is expanded down line from 1 to 2, the pressure reach the
bubble point line and the liquid starts to evaporate (boil) and bubbles of gas appear within
the liquid. As the expansion proceeds more gas is produced at the expense of liquid.
If hydrocarbon gas at point 3 is expanded down a line to point 4, the pressure is reduced
to the dew point line and droplets of liquid starts to appear in the gas (the gas condenses).
As the expansion proceeds, more liquid is produced at the expense of gas.


04.13 Influx volume
In all previous calculations in well control we have presumed that the measured pit gain
after shutting in the well was equal to the size of influx in the well bore. This prediction is
due to that liquid is incompressible, witch is in fact not quit right.
When performing a leak off test a certain amount of fluid is required to obtain pressure in
the well bore. The greater the annular capacity is and the higher pressure applied the
more volume has to be pumped into the well bore.
This pressure/volume effect will also be applicable when looking on the size of an influx
into the wellbore. As we drill deeper and longer the annular capacity is greatly increased
and compression of the fluid has to be taking into consideration to determine if the
handling capacity of our surface equipment is sufficient.
Fig 90 shows the compressibility of a water base drilling fluid system:
Applied Barrels of Water-base drilling fluid pressurised

pressure 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
500 0.75 0.90 1.05 1.20 1.35 1.50 1.65 1.80 1.95 2.10 2.25
1000 1.50 1.80 2.10 2.40 2.70 3.00 3.30 3.60 3.90 4.20 4.50
1500 2.25 2.70 3.15 3.60 4.05 4.50 4.95 5.40 5.85 6.30 6.75
2000 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00 6.60 7.20 7.80 8.40 9.00
2500 3.75 4.50 5.25 6.00 6.75 7.50 8.25 9.00 9.75 10.50 11.25
3000 4.50 5.40 6.30 7.20 8.10 9.00 9.90 10.80 11.90 12.60 13.50
3500 5.25 6.30 7.35 8.40 9.45 10.50 11.55 12.60 13.65 14.70 15.75
4000 6.00 7.20 8.40 9.60 10.80 12.00 13.20 14.40 15.60 16.80 18.00
Fig 90
Example:
A 10 bbl measured influx in a water base drilling fluid system of 1400 bbl and a
SIDPP of 1000 psi.
Influx to handle on surface: 10 bbl + 4.20 bbl = 14.20 bbl
This means that the 10 bbl influx measured as pit level increase is actual a 14.20 bbl
influx, witch means that the volume of gas we have to handle on surface is 42% higher
than expected.
When drilling with oil base drilling fluid the problem increases considerably and especially
in the HPHT wells we are drilling to day we have to take this fluid compression seriously
when evaluating handling method of an influx into the well bore. See Fig 91.


Example:
A 10 bbl measured influx in an oil base drilling fluid system of 1400 bbl and a SIDPP
of 1000 psi.
Influx to handle on surface: 10 bbl + 7.00 bbl = 17.00 bbl
Applied Barrels of Oil-Base drilling fluid pressurised

pressure 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
500 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75
1000 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50
1500 3.75 4.50 5.25 6.00 6.75 7.50 8.25 9.00 9.75 10.50 11.25
2000 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00
2500 6.25 7.50 8.75 10.00 11.25 12.50 13.75 15.00 16.25 17.50 18.75
3000 7.50 9.00 10.50 12.00 13.50 15.00 16.50 18.00 19.50 21.00 22.50
3500 8.75 10.50 12.25 14.00 15.75 17.50 19.25 21.00 22.75 24.50 26.25
4000 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00 26.00 28.00 30.00
Fig 91
This means that the 10 bbl influx measured as pit level increase is actual a 17.00 bbl
influx, witch means that the volume of gas we have to handle on surface is 70% higher
than expected.


14 Deviated and Horizontal Well Control
01.14 Introduction
From its early beginnings in the 1920s when it was regarded as a “black art”, directional
and horizontal drilling has evolved to the point where it can truly be regarded as a science,
although not always an exact science. The offshore and onshore drilling industry is
founded on directional and horizontal drilling. Without the use of directional drilling
techniques, it would not be economical to produce oil from most offshore fields.
Improvements in directional drilling tools and techniques coupled with advances in
production techniques have led to a steady increase in the production of wells drilled
directionally and horizontal rather than vertically. As the search for oil and gas extends into
ever more hostile and demanding environments, this trend will continue.
This also means that normal well control practice used in vertical wells have to altered to
meet the new demand for deviated/horizontal well control. The true vertical depth of the
wells drilled to day is getting less while the measured depth is increasing making it harder
to control bottom hole pressure and ensure that the influx is circulated out.
The normal preferred method in circulating out an influx is the “Wait and Weight” witch
means that the increasing hydrostatic pressure causes the drill pipe pressure to fall when
circulating kill fluid from surface to bit. Pump strokes represent a certain measured length
of fluid in the drill pipe. In a vertical well, the measured length of the fluid is the same as
the vertical length of the fluid. In a deviated well, the vertical length of the fluid is less than
the measured length of the fluid. This means that the pressure will drop less in a deviated
well than in a vertical well per stroke. By calculating an average pressure drop across both
the vertical and deviated sections of the well, the pressure will drop too slowly in the
vertical section of the well. This means that by using our regular kill sheet in a deviated or
horizontal well we tend to overpressure the well, which can lead to stuck pipe and lost
circulation. These problems not only exist in deviated wells, but can also be created in
vertical wells.
We will have a look on a few pressure developments while circulating out an influx using
the “Wait and Weight” method.
In a drill string with different size tubular (tapered

string) the internal diameter change witch means
5 bbl Ph H that 5 bbl drilling fluid in a 5” drill pipe does not
create the same column height as if the 5 bbl was
contained in a 3-1/2” drill pipe.
This means that the hydrostatic pressure created
when pumping kill fluid through the 5” drill pipe
per stroke is less than through a 3-1/2” drill pipe.
This requires that the pump pressure must be
Ph reduced faster per pump stroke in smaller size
5 bbl H
pipe. See Fig 92.
Fig 92


ICP
With a tapered string in the well bore

using the “Wait and Weight” method the
red dotted line represent the theoretical
pressure graph when circulating kill fluid to
the bit from ICP to FCP.
The blue line represents the true pressure
graph to follow using “Wait and Weight”
method.
By using the theoretical pressure graph it
can be seen that while kill fluid is
circulated to the bit the well is in
underbalance creating further influx into
the well bore with resulting higher annulus
pressures. See Fig 93.
FCP
Fig 93
ICP
In a deviated well with a uniform string

graph to follow using the “Wait and
Weight” method.
can be seen that while kill fluid is
circulated to the bit the well is in
overbalance witch can lead to further
FCP
serious well control problems like lost
circulation that again can lead to
underground blow-out. See Fig 94.
Fig 94


ICP
In a “S” shaped well with a uniform string

graph to follow using the “Wait and
Weight” method.
can be seen that the well is first in
overbalance witch can result in losses and
then later the well becomes
underbalanced taken in more influx with
resulting higher annulus pressures. See
FCP Fig 95.
Fig 95
ICP
FCP
Fig 96
In a horizontal well with a uniform string using the “Wait and Weight” method the red
dotted line represent the theoretical pressure graph when circulating kill fluid to the bit from
ICP to FCP.
The blue line represents the true pressure graph to follow using the “Wait and Weight”
method.
By using the theoretical pressure graph it can be seen that while kill fluid is circulated to
the bit the well is in extreme overbalance witch can lead to serious additional well control
problems. See Fig 96.
By using the deviated well control sheet the true pressure graph can be calculated.








02.14 Complications
When taking a gas influx into a horizontal well bore some associated problems might be
encountered and have to be taking into consideration.
The density of the gas is lower than the density of

the drilling fluid with the result that the gas will
accumulate in the top of the well bore in the
horizontal section. See Fig 97.
Fig 97
When a gas influx is taken in the
horizontal part of the well bore it
can be hard to detect. The gas
will not percolate and expand
before it reaches the deviated
section. An undetected swabbed
gas kick in a horizontal section
can be dangerous due to that no
surface pressure will be
observed and the first indication
will take place when new tubular
are run into the well bore or
circulation is resumed. See Fig
98.
Fig 98
Open hole sections are not
looking like a gun barrel due to
that there will be angle deviations,
hole enlargement and the well can
be inverted with the result that gas
influx in horizontal section will be
accumulated in these pockets. To
be able to flush the gas out of the
Fig 99 well bore the annular velocity must
be so high gas moves in the
horizontal section. See Fig 99.
Attempt to circulate gas out of the
horizontal section with RRCP will
not be successful due to the flow is
laminar and the high density kill
fluid will have a tendency to flow
along the lower part of the well
bore. See Fig 100.
Fig 100
A gas kick taking in a horizontal well section is most likely due to drilling through a fault
with the result that there is a great chance for losses at the same time due to the
difference in formation pressure.


03.14 Horizontal well control example
Hole size 8-3/4”

Hole TVD 6130 ft
Hole MD 16330 ft
KOP MD/TVD 4200 ft
EOB TVD 5470 ft
EOB MD 6178 ft
Csg 10-3/4” TVD 6200 ft
Csg 10-3/4” MD 8200 ft
BHA 80 ft
DP cap. 0.01755bbl/ft
DC cap 0.0066 bbl/ft
OH/DC cap 0.03014 bbl/ft
OH/DP cap 0.04896 bbl/ft
Csg/DP cap 0.07373 bbl/ft
SIDPP 410 psi
KOP SHOE
SICP 450 psi
TVD/MD 4200 ft
Influx volume 8.2 bbl
RRCP 450 psi
EOB TD
TVD 5470 ft TVD 6130 ft
MD 6178 ft MD 16330 ft
Fig 101
By using the example in Fig 101 the kill sheet can be filled out and the following
capacity/stroke data be obtained:
Internal Surface to KOP 73.7 bbl 703 stks
KOP to EOB 34.7 bbl 331 stks
EOB to BHA 176,8 bbl 1687 stks
BHA 0.5 bbl 5 stks
External BHA/OH 2.4 bbl 23 stks
DP/OH 394.1 bbl 3760 stks
DP/Csg 604.6 bbl 5769 stks
Calculations:
Calculate the required kill fluid density: (A)
SIDPP
KMW = OMW + ----------------- 410
= 14.3 + ------------------ = 15.6 ppg
TVD x 0.052 6130 x 0.052


Calculate initial circulation pressure: (B)
ICP = RRCP + SIDPP = 450 + 410 = 860 psi
Calculate final circulating pressure: (C)
KMW = 450 x -----------

FCP = RRCP x ------------ 15.6 = 491 psi
OMW 14.3
Calculate dynamic pressure loss at kick off point: (D)
RRCP at KOP = RRCP + (FCP - RRCP) xKOPmd 4200 = 461 psi

---------- = 450 + (491 - 450) x -----------
TDmd 16330
Calculate remaining SIDPP at kick off point: (E)

SIDPP at KOP = SIDPP - (KMW - OMW) x 0.052 x KOPtvd = 410 - (15.6 - 14.3) x 0.052 x 4200 = 126 psi
Calculate circulating pressure at kick off point: (F)

CP at KOP = (D) + (E) = 461 + 126 = 587 psi
Calculate dynamic pressure loss at end of build: (G)
RRCP at EOB = RRCP + (FCP - RRCP) xEOBmd 6178 = 466 psi

---------- = 450 + (491 - 450) x -----------
TDmd 16330
Calculate remaining SIDPP at end of build: (H)

SIDPP at EOB = SIDPP - (KMW - OMW) x 0.052 x EOBtvd = 410 - (15.6 - 14.3) x 0.052 x 5470 = 40 psi
Calculate circulating pressure at end of build: (I)
CP at EOB = (G) + (H) = 466 + 40 = 506 psi
Calculate pressure drop per 100 strk from surface to KOP:

(B - F) x 100
Pdrop = -------------------------- (860 - 587) x 100 = 38 psi
= ------------------------
strokes 703
Calculate pressure drop per 100 strk from KOP to EOB:
(F - I) x 100
Pdrop = -------------------------- = (587 - 506) x 100 = 24 psi
------------------------
strokes 331
Calculate pressure drop per 100 strk from EOB to TD:
(I - C) x 100
Pdrop = -------------------------- = (506 - 491) x 100 = 1 psi
------------------------
strokes 1692


04.14 Wait and Weight Method
The “Wait and Weight” method is also called the “balance method” witch means that the
kill fluid is pumped to the bit holding BHP constant by adjusting the choke to keep the pre-
calculated drill pipe pressure on schedule according to the graph. To use “Wait and
Weight” method in horizontal wells is not recommended due to that it requires a lot of
calculations and the kill fluid has to be pumped to the bit at reduced rate to control the drill
pipe pressure, with the result that the influx will stay trapped in the horizontal section.
The following graph shows the drill pipe and casing pressure while circulating out the influx
at the previous example using “Wait and Weight” method. See Fig 101.
1200
1100
1000
900 ICP
800
KOP
700
EOB
PRESSURE
600
FCP
500
400
Csg. Pressure
300 Gas at EOB
200
100
000
STROKES
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500 9000 10500 12000
Fig 101
05.14 Driller’s Method
This method is also called the “constant drill-pipe pressure method” and consist of two
steps. First step to circulate out the influx without changing drilling fluid density and second
to displace OMW with the KMW. This method does not require the same calculations as
the “Wait and Weight” method and are therefore more simple, but not recommended due
to using reduced rate for circulating the result could be that the influx will stay trapped in
the horizontal section.
The following graph shows the drill pipe and casing pressure while circulating out the influx
at the previous example using “Driller’s Method”. See Fig 102.


1200
1100
1000
DP Pressure
900
800
700
PRESSURE
600
500
400 KMW at EOB
Csg. Pressure
Gas at EOB
300
200
100
000
STROKES
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 18000 21000 24000
Fig 102
06.14 Horizontal well kill method
To circulate out a influx in a horizontal well bore the annular flow must be so high that the
flow becomes turbulent and test have showed that a annular velocity of at least 100 ft/min
is required. The industry recommendation is to use the “Driller’s Method” with modification
to handle an influx in a horizontal well and the following is only guidelines.
Prepare calculations for using “Driller’s Method”.
Calculate open hole strokes from bit to end of horizontal section.
Keep constant casing pressure while bringing pumps to required SPM to give
minimum 100 ft/min annular velocity.
Keep constant drill pipe pressure while flushing influx out of horizontal section.
Keep constant casing pressure while bringing pumps down to reduced circulating
rate.


Continue circulating influx out of the well bore using “Driller’s Method”
With influx out of well bore keep constant casing pressure while pumping kill fluid to
bit using reduced circulating rate.
With kill fluid at bit keep constant casing pressure while bringing pumps to required
SPM to give minimum 100 ft/min annular velocity.
Keep constant drill pipe pressure while flushing light drilling fluid out of the
horizontal section.
Keep constant casing pressure while bringing pumps down to reduced circulating
rate.
Continue circulating light drilling fluid out of the well bore using “Driller’s Method”.


15 Running/Pulling Pipe.
01.15 Introduction
Most well control incidents take place during tripping pipe for different reasons, but in
general they can all be considered to be negligence from the drilling team. The negligence
could be due to a single circumstance or a combination of several circumstances. The
reasons for well control incidents during tripping could for the following reasons:
1. The effect of pumping a slug.
2. Inadequate hole fill.
3. Hole not taking correct amount of fluid.
4. Hole not giving correct amount of fluid.
02.15 Pumping Slug
Pumping a slug prior to pulling out of hole is a well-known procedure in the drilling
industry. The slug is a heavy pill of drilling fluid with a density higher than the drilling fluid
used during drilling. The slug is pumped into the drill pipe prior to start pulling the drill
string out of hole and due to its higher density will create a U-tube effect allowing the fluid
level inside the drill string to drop. The drill string can then be pulled dry avoiding any
pollution on the rig floor, so the roughnecks do not get in contact with the drilling fluid.
Prior to pumping a slug it is important that calculation are made to determine the amount
of fluid that will be drained back into the trip tank due to the U-tube effect as this will be
indicating if the well is in balance. Tripping should not start before the U-tube effect is
finished and the correct amount of this effect has been measured in the trip tank.
As the amount of slug pumped is known together with the internal capacity of the drill pipe
in use the following formulas can be used to determine the level drop inside the drill pipe
and the volume to be drained back into the trip tank:
Slug pumped (bbl)

Length of slug = -----------------------------------
DP Capacity (bbl/ft)
Slug MW (ppg)
Level Drop = Length of slug (ft) x -------------------------- — Length of slug (ft)
Original MW (ppg)
Trip tank return = Level Drop (ft) x DP Capacity (bbl/ft)


Example:

Slug density 14.5 ppg
Slug volume 22 bbl
Drill pipe capacity 0.01776 bbl/ft
The slug is pumped and the surface lines displaced by original drilling fluid. The Topdrive
is disconnected and the slug allowed to drop. See Fig 103
Calculate: Length of slug.

Level drop.
Trip tank return
22 bbl
Length of slug = ----------------------- = 1239 ft
0.01776 (bbl/ft)
14.5 (ppg)
Level Drop = 1239 (ft) x ------------------- — 1239 (ft) = 187 ft
12.6 (ppg)
Trip tank return = 187 (ft) x 0.01776 (bbl/ft) = 3.32 bbl
PDP PDP
NATIONAL NATIONAL
Level drop
Length of slug
Length of slug
Trip tank increase
Fig 103


Effect on Bottom hole Pressure

Pumping a slug prior to pulling pipe out of hole will not have any immediate effect on the
bottom hole pressure due to the U-tube effect where pressure hydrostatic inside the drill
pipe and in the annulus equalise.
The bottom hole pressure will first be affected when the pipe is pulled so far out of the
wellbore that the slug is starting getting out of the bit and the heavy slug density get mixed
with the drilling fluid density. The increase in bottom hole pressure is not very high and is
normally not taken into consideration. In HPHT wells where a very small margin exist
between Pore pressure and Fracture pressure and a lot of tripping takes place
consideration must be made to the effect on the bottom hole pressure when pumping a
slug.
Effect of pumping slug when running tapered string
Slug calculations are normally based on pumping a heavy slug into a uniform string i.e. 5”
drill pipe from surface to the BHA. Several time this is not the case due to that drilling
takes place through 7” liners where either 4-1/2” or 3-1/2” drill pipe is used in the lower part
of the drill string. The effect of pumping a slug into a tapered string are many time not
understood by the drilling crew and the well shut in for the wrong reason with loss of rig
time and unnecessary concern.
To understand the problems with a slug in a tapered string it must be understood that
every feet of drilling/slug fluid represent a certain pressure hydrostatic in the wellbore.
When a slug goes from a 5” drill pipe into a smaller diameter drill pipe the length of the
slug will increase and thereby also the pressure hydrostatic created by the slug. This will
result in a further level drop and a trip tank increase. If this effect is not understood by the
drilling crew and the increase in the trip tank is not calculated before hand this increase
could be interpenetrated as an influx and the well shut in.
Example:
Slug density 14.5 ppg
Slug volume 22 bbl
Drill pipe capacity ( 5” ) 0.01776 bbl/ft
Drill pipe capacity ( 4-1/2” ) 0.0142 bbl/ft
22 bbl
Length of slug in 5” DP = ----------------------- = 1239 ft
0.01776 (bbl/ft)
22 bbl
Length of slug in 4-1/2” DP = ----------------------- = 1549 ft
0.0142 (bbl/ft)
Trip tank return = (1549 ft - 1239 ft) x 0.0142 bbl/ft = 4.4 bbl
or
Ph of slug in 5” DP = 1239 ft x 14.5 x 0.052 = 934 psi
Ph of slug in 4-1/2” DP = 1549 ft x 14.5 x 0.052 = 1168 psi

(1168 psi - 934 psi) x 0.0142 bbl/ft
Trip tank return = --------------------------------------------- = 4. 4 bbl
14.5 ppg x 0.052


As can be seen on the calculation an expected extra return into the trip of 4.4 bbl must be
expected when slug enter the 4-1/2” drill pipe and this volume needs to be calculated prior
to tripping to avoid any misunderstandings when pulling pipe out of hole.
03.15 Inadequate hole fill.
When pulling pipe out of hole it is important that the hole is kept full all the time to maintain
the pressure hydrostatic in the well bore. If the pipe is pulled without adequate hole fill the
level will drop in the well bore with the result of a decrease in the bottom hole pressure. If
the decrease in the bottom hole pressure gets severe the well might get in underbalance
resulting in an influx into the well bore. As all displacement and capacity figures is known
for the pipe in use on a drilling rig the pressure drop for tripping pipe can easily be
calculated using the following formulas:
Pulling dry Drill Pipe:

Drilling fluid density(ppg) x 0.052 x DP metal displacement(bbl/ft)
Pressure drop per ft. pulling dry pipe = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Casing capacity (bbl/ft) - DP metal displacement (bbl/ft)
Pulling wet Drill Pipe:
Drilling fluid density(ppg) x 0.052 x DP closed end displacement(bbl/ft)
Pressure drop per ft. pulling wet pipe = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Annular capacity (bbl/ft)
Pulling dry Drill Collars:
Length of DC (ft) x DC metal displacement (bbl/ft)
Level drop for pulling dry DC = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
Casing capacity (bbl/ft)
Pulling wet Drill Collars:
Length of DC (ft) x DC closed end displacement (bbl/ft)
Level drop for pulling wet DC = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Casing capacity (bbl/ft)
Example:

Drill pipe metal displacement ( 5” ) 0.00852 bbl/ft
Drill Collar capacity ( 6-3/4” ) 0.00768 bbl/ft
Drill Collar metal displacement ( 6-3/4” ) 0.03658 bbl/ft
Length of Drill Collars 450 ft
Casing capacity ( 9-5/8” – 47 lbs/ft ) 0.07287 bbl/ft
Calculate the pressure drop per ft. pulling dry Drill pipe:
12.6 x 0.052 x 0.00852

----------------------------------- = 0.0867 psi/ft
0.07287 - 0.00852


Calculate the pressure drop per ft. pulling wet Drill pipe:
12.6 x 0.052 x (0.01776 + 0.00852)

------------------------------------------------ = 0.3696 psi/ft
0.07287 - (0.01776 + 0.00852)
Calculate level drop for pulling dry Drill Collars:
450 x 0.03658
----------------------- = 226 ft
0.07287
Calculate level drop for pulling wet Drill Collars:
450 x ( 0.03658 + 0.00768)

------------------------------------- = 273 ft
0.07287
For different reasons it could be necessary drop the level in the annulus, but by doing so
the bottom hole pressure will be reduced. If pulling pipe without filling the hole the amount
of pipe that can be pulled before the well loses its overbalance can be calculated by using
the following formulae:
Pulling dry Drill Pipe:

Overbalance (psi) x (Casing Capacity - DP metal displacement)
Pipe to pull before well starts to flow (ft) = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Drilling fluid density x 0.052 x DP metal displacement
Pulling wet Drill Pipe:
Overbalance (psi) x (Casing Capacity - DP closed end displacement)
Pipe to pull before well starts to flow (ft) = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Drilling fluid density x 0.052 x DP closed end displacement
Example:

Drill pipe metal displacement ( 5” ) 0.00852 bbl/ft
Drill Collar capacity ( 6-3/4” ) 0.00768 bbl/ft
Drill Collar metal displacement ( 6-3/4” ) 0.03658 bbl/ft
Length of Drill Collars 450 ft
Casing capacity ( 9-5/8” – 47 lbs/ft ) 0.07287 bbl/ft
Depth of well (TVD/MD) 10000 ft
Formation gradient 0.6995 psi/ft


Dry pipe to pull before the well starts to flow:
10000 x (0.6995 - 12.6 x 0.052) x (0.07287 - 0.00852)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 5107 ft
12.6 x 0.052 x 0.00852
Wet pipe to pull before the well starts to flow:
10000 x (0.6995 - 12.6 x 0.052) x [(0.07287 - (0.00852 + 0.01776)]

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 1198 ft
12.6 x 0.052 x (0.00852 + 0.01776)
04.15 Hole not taking correct amount of fluid.
As mentioned before then all displacement and capacity of the tubular used on a drilling rig
should be known so the correct calculated amount of fluid can be measured filling the hole
as the pipe is pulled out of the hole. This measurement is carried out by the use of the Trip
tank where the fluid volume can be measured either visual or by an electronic measuring
devise. Any deviation in the correct calculated amount of fluid means that some
abnormalities is taking place down hole and tripping must be stopped and the problem
evaluated and rectified.
If the hole is taking more fluid than calculated per stand tripped out of hole either wet or
dry some dynamic losses is taking place and the situation needs to be evaluated. Minor
dynamic losses when pulling out of hole could turn into severe losses when running back
into the hole due to surge pressure created. Consideration should be made to run back to
bottom and cure losses prior to comments tripping.
If the hole is taking less fluid than the calculated per stand tripped out of hole either wet or
dry indicates that the hole could be swabbing. The reason for swabbing could be due to
balled bit/ BHA or due to very high viscosity combined with a low BHA annulus capacity.
The less amount of fluid that the hole has taken could be formation fluid that has been
swabbed into the well bore and depending on the amount of swabbed fluid the bit should
be run or strip back to bottom and the well circulated clean prior to commence tripping or
alternative pumping out of hole. If the formation is tight the swabbed fluid could come from
the drill pipe with the result that the fluid level inside the drill pipe has been lowered and
thereby the pressure hydrostatic. If the level drop inside the drill pipe becomes severe the
hydrostatic pressure inside the drill pipe might drop below formation pressure. This result
could be that the formation starts producing and formation fluid could enter the drill string
creating complications. Prior to tripping it is of extreme importance that swab pressure is
calculated and the correct pulling speed found to avoid swabbing tendency.
05.15 Hole not giving correct amount of fluid.
When running the drill string into the well bore it is of equal importance that the fluid
coming back for the pipe run is measured as any deviation from the calculated amount


means that some abnormalities is taking place down hole. The tripping has to stopped and
the problem rectified prior to continue running in.
If the volume coming back is higher than the calculated volume this could indicate that the
bit or drill string is plugged and that the pipe is not filled as running in. Circulation has to be
established and the bit/string unplugged before continue tripping. If a drill pipe float is
installed in the drill string circulation should be broken every 1500 ft to avoid excessive
collapse pressure on the drill string.
If the volume coming back is less than the calculated volume the reason could be that the
tripping speed is to high and excess surge pressure is created on the formation with result
in losses. Prior to tripping it is of extreme importance that surge pressure is calculated and
the correct running speed found to avoid breaking down the formation.

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Well Control Training Manual JOA 00 1