Casting

Contents
• Manufacturing Processes (Final)

– Overview
– Property enhancing process
 Heat treatments
– Shaping processes
 Metals casting
 Metals forming
 Machining (Subtractive manufacturing)
 Powder metals
 3-D printing (Additive manufacturing)
– Joining process
 Welding
– Surface processes
• Failure of Engineering Components

267
Assoc.Prof.Dr.-Ing. Patiphan Juijerm Iron and Steel Institute of Thailand (ISIT)
Department of Materials Engineering, Kasetsart University 1st-2nd Fl., Bureau of Industrial Sectors Development Building,
Bangkok 10110, Thailand
Overview
Final
268
Metals Casting
269
Metals Casting
• Melt the metal

• Pour it into a mold
• Let it freeze
270
Nucleation and Solidification of Metals
Pure metals
271
Nucleation and Solidification of Metals
Solid solution alloys
272
Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries

• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net
shape
• Can produce very large parts
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
273
Disadvantages of Casting
• Limitations on mechanical properties

• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some
processes; e.g., sand casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
• Environmental problems
274
Metal Casting Processes
Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove

part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by the
time to make mold rather than casting itself
Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can

be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries are limited by the need to
open the mold
275

part

open the mold
276
Expendable mold processes
• Sand casting
• Shell Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
277
• Sand casting
• Shell Molding
278
Sand casting
• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

significant majority of total tonnage cast.
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals

with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel,
and titanium.
• Castings range in size from small to very large.
• Production quantities from one to millions.

279
Sand casting
Sand Casting Production Sequence
280
Sand casting (Pattern)
Characteristic Wood Aluminium Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weight E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Corrosion resistance E E P E P
Swelling P E E E E
E = Excellence; G = Good; F = Fair; P = Poor

281
Sand casting (Pattern)
cope and drag pattern

split pattern
solid pattern match-plate pattern
282
Sand casting (Core)
• Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring.
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity
and the core to form the casting's external and internal surfaces.
• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity

during pouring, called chaplets.
283
Sand casting (Mold)
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion.
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in

sand.
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten

metal.
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink

without cracking the casting.
• Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make other

molds?
284
Sand casting (Gating & Riser)
• Gating system: is a channel or network of channels, by which

molten metal flows into the cavity from outside the mold.
o The gating system consists of a downsprue (or simply sprue),

through which a metal enters a runner that leads into the
main cavity.
o Pouring cup, found at the top of the downsprue. It is often

used to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal flows
into the downsprue.
• Riser: is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of liquid

metal for the casting to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification .
285
• Sand casting
• Shell Molding
286
Shell Molding
Shell molding is a casting process in which the mold is a thin shell
of sand held together by thermosetting resin binder.
287
Shell Molding
Shell molding is a casting process in which the mold is a thin shell
of sand held together by thermosetting resin binder.
• Advantages:
o Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
o Good dimensional accuracy
o Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
o Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
o More expensive metal pattern
o Difficult to justify for small quantities
o Shell sand have much lower permeability than
sand used for green-sand
288
• Sand casting
• Shell Molding
289
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Expanded Polystyrene Process (Lost-foam process) uses a
mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which
vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold.
290
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Expanded Polystyrene Process (Lost-foam process) uses a
mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which
vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold.
• Advantages:
o Pattern need not be removed from the mold
o Simplifies and speeds mold-making, due to
two mold halves are not required as in a
conventional green-sand mold.
o Polystyrene is inexpensive and can be easily
processed into patterns having very
complex shapes, various sizes, and fine
surface details.
• Disadvantages:
o A new pattern is needed for every casting
o Economic justification of the process is 291
highly dependent
Assoc.Prof.Dr.-Ing. on cost of producing
Patiphan Juijerm Iron and Steel Institute of Thailand (ISIT)
patterns.
• Sand casting
• Shell Molding
292
Investment Casting
Investment Casting (Lost-wax process): A pattern made of
wax is coated with a refractory material to make the mold, after
which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal
293
Investment Casting
Investment Casting (Lost-wax process): A pattern made of
wax is coated with a refractory material to make the mold, after
which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal
• Advantages:
o Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be
casted.
o Close dimensional control and good surface
finish.
o Wax can usually be recovered for reuse.
o This is a net shape process - additional
machining is not normally required.
• Disadvantages:
o Many processing steps are required.
o Relatively expensive process.
o Parts are usually small in size. 294
• Sand casting
• Shell Molding
295
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
Plaster Mold Casting is similar to sand casting except mold is made of

plaster (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O) with the addition of talc and silica flour to
improve strength and control the time required for the plaster to set.
Ceramic Mold Casting is similar to the plaster-mold casting process, with

the exception that it uses refractory mold materials (mixture of fine-grained
zircon (ZrSiO4), aluminum oxide, and fused silica, which are mixed with
bonding agents) suitable for high-temperature applications.
296
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
Plaster Mold Casting is similar to sand casting except mold is made of

plaster (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O) with the addition of talc and silica flour to
improve strength and control the time required for the plaster to set.
Ceramic Mold Casting is similar to the plaster-mold casting process, with

the exception that it uses refractory mold materials (mixture of fine-grained
zircon (ZrSiO4), aluminum oxide, and fused silica, which are mixed with
bonding agents) suitable for high-temperature applications.
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
o Good accuracy and surface finish. o Mold must be baked to remove
o Capability to make thin cross sections moisture.
o Because of the low thermal o Mold strength is lost if over-baked.
conductivity of the mold, the casting o Plaster molds cannot stand high
cool slowly, and more uniform grain temperatures.
structure is obtained. 297

part

open the mold
298
Permanent mold processes
• Basic permanent mold casting
• Die casting
• Centrifugal casting
299
• Die casting
300
Basic permanent mold casting
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing. Due
to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated. Typical
parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain
castings for aircraft and missiles. Metals commonly
cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, 301
andAssoc.Prof.Dr.-Ing.
cast iron. Patiphan Juijerm Iron and Steel Institute of Thailand (ISIT)
Basic permanent mold casting
Advantages:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold
metal mold results in a finer grain and
structure, so castings are stronger
Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting
point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
302
• Die casting
303
Die casting
Die Casting is a permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is
injected into mold cavity under pressure.
Cold-chamber machine Hot-chamber machine

304
Die casting (Low Pressure)
Low pressure die casting

Instead of using gravity to assist in
the metal pour and flow in the mold,
a low pressure of up to 0.1 MPa (15
psi) gas is applied to the molten
metal. This maintenance of pressure
on the melt causes complete fill of
the mold and compensates for any
shrinkage on cooling. Thin wall
castings can be made.
305
Die casting (Low Pressure)
Low pressure die casting
Advantages:
 Very good strength values
 Complex geometries possible as
sand cores can be sued
 Higher material utilization, no need
for feeders
 High dimensional accuracy
Disadvantages:
 Slower casting cycles
 Minimum wall thickness approx. 3 306
Department of Materials Engineering, Kasetsart University
mm (in die)
1st-2nd Fl., Bureau of Industrial Sectors Development Building,
Die casting (High Pressure)
High pressure die casting

• Hot-chamber machine: Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure into the die. Applications limited
to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack plunger and
other mechanical components. Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and
magnesium. The pressures range up to 35 MPa, with an average of about
15 MPa. The metal is held under pressure until it solidifies in the die.
• Cold-chamber machine: Molten metal is poured into unheated

chamber from external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity. The metal is forced into the die cavity
at pressures usually ranging from 20 MPa to70 MPa, although they may
be as high as 150 MPa. The machines may be horizontal or vertical.
307


308


309

Advantages:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting
Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die
 High investment and operating costs
310
 Complicated,
Assoc.Prof.Dr.-Ing. Patiphan Juijermexpensive dies Iron and Steel Institute of Thailand (ISIT)
• Die casting
311
Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal Casting is a family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer
regions of die cavity.
• True centrifugal casting: Molten metal is poured into rotating

mold to produce a tubular part, e.g., pipes, tubes, bushings, and
rings.
312
Centrifugal casting
• Semicentrifugal casting: Centrifugal force is used to produce solid

castings rather than tubular parts. Molds use risers at center to
supply feed metal. For examples, wheels and pulleys.
313
Centrifugal casting
• Centrifuge casting: Mold is designed with part cavities located

away from axis of rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force. Used for smaller
parts
314
Contents
• Fundamentals of Casting
• Metallurgy of Cast Metals
• Metal Casting Processes
• Casting Quality
315
Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a casting

operation, resulting in quality defects in the cast product.
• Some of the defects are common to any and all casting process.
They include: Misruns, Cold shuts, Cold shots, Shrinkage cavities,
Microporosity, and Hot tearing.
• Other defects found primarily in sand casting include: Sand blows,

Pinholes, Sand wash, Scab, Penetration, Mold shifts, Core shifts,
and Mold Cracks.
316
Casting Quality
Misruns: castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity.
Typical causes include (1) fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient, (2)
pouring temperature is too low, (3) pouring is done too slowly, and/or (4) cross
section of the mold cavity is too thin.
317
Casting Quality
Cold shuts: occurs when two portions of the metal flow together but there
is a lack of fusion between them due to premature freezing. Its causes are
similar to those of a misrun.
318
Casting Quality
Cold shots: result from splattering during pouring, causing the formation of
solid globules of metal that become entrapped in the casting. Pouring
procedures and gating system designs that avoid splattering can prevent this
defect.
319
Casting Quality
Shrinkage cavities: is a depression in the surface or an internal void in

the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of
molten metal available in the last region to freeze. It often occurs near the top
of the casting, in which case it is referred to as a “pipe”. The problem can often
be solved by proper riser design.
320
Casting Quality
Shrinkage cavities: is a depression in the surface or an internal void in

the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of
molten metal available in the last region to freeze. It often occurs near the top
of the casting, in which case it is referred to as a “pipe”. The problem can often
be solved by proper riser design.
Metal Shrinkage Percent
Gray cast iron 0.83 – 1.3

White cast iron 2.1
Malleable cast iron 0.78 – 1.0
Aluminium alloys 1.3
Magnesium alloys 1.3
High-manganese steel 2.6
321
Casting Quality
Microporosity: consists of a network of small voids distributed

throughout the casting caused by localized solidification shrinkage of the final
molten metal in the dendritic structure. The defect is usually associated with
alloys, because of the protracted manner in which freezing occurs in these
metals (solidification over a temperature range).
322
Casting Quality
Hot tearing (hot cracking): occurs when the casting is restrained from
contraction by an unyielding mold during the final stages of solidification or
early stages of cooling after solidification. In sand-casting and other
expendable-mold processes, it is prevented by compounding the mold to be
collapsible. In permanent-mold processes, hot tearing is reduced by removing
the part from the mold immediately after solidification.
323
Casting Quality (Sand casting)
Sand blow: is a defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by

release of mold gases during pouring. It occurs at or below the casting surface
near the top of the casting. Low permeability, poor venting, and high moisture
content of the sand mold are the usual causes.
324
Pinholes: also caused by release of gases during pouring, consist of many

small gas cavities formed at or slightly below the surface of the casting.
325
Sand wash: an irregularity in the surface of the casting that results from
erosion of the sand mold during pouring, and the contour of the erosion is
formed in the surface of the final cast part.
326
Penetration: refers to a surface defect that occurs when the fluidity of the
liquid metal is high, and it penetrates into the sand mold or sand core. Upon
freezing, the casting surface consists of a mixture of sand grains and metal.
Harder packing of the sand mold helps to alleviate this condition.
327
Mold shift: refers to a defect caused by a sidewise displacement of the

mold cope relative to the drag.
328
Core shift: similar to mold shift, but it is the core that is displaced, and the
displacement is usually vertical. Core shift and mold shift are caused by
buoyancy of the molten metal.
329
Mold crack: occurs when mold strength is insufficient, and a crack

develops, into which liquid metal can seep to form a “fin” on the final casting.
330
Casting Quality
Inspection methods:
o Visual inspection to detect defects such as misruns, cold shuts and

severe surface flows.
o Dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have been

met.
o Metallurgical, chemical, physical and other tests concerned with

the inherent quality of the cast material.
331
Contents
• Manufacturing Processes (Final)

– Overview
– Property enhancing process
 Heat treatments
– Shaping processes
 Metals casting
 Metals forming
 Machining (Subtractive manufacturing)
 Powder metals
 3-D printing (Additive manufacturing)
– Joining process
 Welding
– Surface processes
• Failure of Engineering Components

332

Casting

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Contents

• Manufacturing Processes (Final)

• Failure of Engineering Components

• Melt the metal

Solid solution alloys

• Can create complex part geometries

• Limitations on mechanical properties

Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove

Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can

Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove

Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can

• Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

• Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals

• Castings range in size from small to very large.

• Production quantities from one to millions.

Sand Casting Production Sequence

Characteristic Wood Aluminium Steel Plastic Cast iron

E = Excellence; G = Good; F = Fair; P = Poor

cope and drag pattern

solid pattern match-plate pattern

• Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring.

• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity

• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion.

• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in

• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten

• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink

• Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make other

• Gating system: is a channel or network of channels, by which

o The gating system consists of a downsprue (or simply sprue),

o Pouring cup, found at the top of the downsprue. It is often

• Riser: is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of liquid

• Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

• Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

• Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

• Expanded Polystyrene Process

• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

Plaster Mold Casting is similar to sand casting except mold is made of

Ceramic Mold Casting is similar to the plaster-mold casting process, with

Plaster Mold Casting is similar to sand casting except mold is made of

Ceramic Mold Casting is similar to the plaster-mold casting process, with

Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove

Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can

• Basic permanent mold casting

• Basic permanent mold casting

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

• Basic permanent mold casting

Cold-chamber machine Hot-chamber machine

Low pressure die casting

Low pressure die casting

High pressure die casting

• Cold-chamber machine: Molten metal is poured into unheated

High pressure die casting

• Cold-chamber machine: Molten metal is poured into unheated

High pressure die casting

• Cold-chamber machine: Molten metal is poured into unheated

High pressure die casting