26 ENGINEERING DESIGN A critical element in the successful development of new products is the use of new tools. Manufacturing automation and design automation have become more accessible. The specific tools vary with the job. Computers are generally on the desks of the person designing the product and the person planning how to make the product, and computers operate the equip- ment making the product. However, these tools cannot be effective unless they are able to communicate with each other, Integration of technology has meant that standardized interfaces exist and standard data descriptions are agreed on. Computers must talk a common language or translators between computers must be available. The topic of communication between differ- ent computer types (platforms) is important to CE. CE requires the integration of groups of people as well as the integration of computers and related technology. ‘The U.S. federal government implemented an initiative originally called computer-aided logistic support (CALS) that involves data standards to support CE and organizational changes in the government's purchasing to create the savings expected from CE. Similarly, a number of other countries have instituted CE and data standards organizations to further the implementa- tion of CE. CALS goals will be met over several decades. Standards are set for digital communi- cation between contractors and subcontractors as well as with the government. In conjunction with this program, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) established standards for conformance. Associations are organized in specific industries to facilitate elec- tronic data interchange (EDI). Also, CE-related programs have been initiated by the U.S. Department of Commerce and other agencies. Many government requests for proposals (RFP) for major manufactured products such as aircraft, satellites, and ships require that bidders give evidence that they will be using CE. Although new technology speeds the design and planning tasks, it also presents problems. Organizations implementing new tools such as CAD or computer-aided engineering (CAE) have found the tools difficult to learn and use. New technology often causes job responsibilities to change and may eliminate certain positions, although it may add new ones. Overcoming such problems may require new training, incentives, and participation by the affected employees. ‘Many organizations have found that increasing participation by employees in important deci- sions is a valuable asset. Empowering the employee often creates a more motivated employee who makes a greater contribution to the organization's objectives. Moreover, the idea of the boss~employee relationship has been found to be less productive than a teamwork approach (1). Concurrent engineering is in concert with this participatory concept. Although automation and computer technology present implementation problems, they also present opportunities for improved communications. Just as the telephone changed communi- cations between people, computers present a new dimension. Computerized mail, for example, makes efficient communications between individuals and groups possible. Electronic meetings of teams can be held without everyone being in the same room or even working at the same time. EDI computer software is helping to move documents among people so that paperwork is avoided. Images of paperwork, such as drawings, purchase orders, and specifications, can be quickly transferred between computers rather than the slower movement of physical paper documents. In the past, much of the delays in converting a product idea into a delivered product were caused by “waiting for the paperwork.” 2.3. THE MOTOVATION FOR CONCURRENT ENGINEERING To be a world-class competitor a company must bring its high quality products quickly to market (2). In the late 1980s, the Japanese were able to create a new automobile in roughly half the time taken by American companies. The reason for the long delay in the American case was the typical procedure by which new products were developed. Engineers first design a product and only once that is complete do later tasks such as manufacturing engineering and marketing begin. Having engineers first finish their design and then “throw it over the wall” to manufac- turing was the common U.S. practice. In contrast, CE emphasizes teamwork by which several people from different disciplines work together while they simultaneously complete the development of a new product, Such parallel completion of tasks should be executed quicker than when doing the tasks sequentially. This may sound relatively easy, but it turns out that a number of technologies are necessary and considerable cultural change must take place in an organization for CE to succeed. Many different disciplines are involved in product development. For example, new products require the planning or assembly procedures; inspection; maintenance; marketing; input from vendors,