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Masters Theses Student Theses and Dissertations

1966

The effect of initial moisture content on the swelling

characteristics of Putnam soil
William Howell Branum

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 THE EFFECT OF INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT ON THE
SWELLING CHARACTERISTICS OF PUTNAM SOIL

BY

WILLIAM HOWELL BRANUM _,I 4'/-1-

THESIS
submitted to the faculty of the

UNIVERSITY OF MIS SOUR I AT ROLLA

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Rolla, Missouri

1966

Approved by

--""'q-~~~~-.J:____
. 7:,--.,~~(advisor)z;foL ~ /kJ

r2aL~
 ii

ABSTRACT

The literature on swell and swell pressure in expansive soils was

reviewed. The effect of initial moisture content on the swelling

properties of untreated Putnam silt loam was investigated by performing

free swell and swell pressure tests on specimens with varying initial

moisture contents compacted to a constant dry density. The free swell

tests were conducted by allowing the samples to swell freely under a low

load (the weight of the plunger and the porous stone in the swelling

apparatus) and measuring the volume change that resulted. The swell

pressure tests were performed using two different procedures: (1)

determining the load necessary to prevent swelling, and (2) reconsolidating

the sample after swell had taken place.

It was found that initial moisture content of a compacted expansive

soil is directly related to the swelling characteristics of the soil.

 iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author gratefully acknowledges Dr. Thomas S. Fry, Professor of

Civil Engineering, for his guidance and counseling in the preparation of

this paper.

Appreciation is also extended to Marvin Byington for his assistance

in collecting the laboratory data.

 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

ABSTRA.CT ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ii

ACKN OWI.,E OOMENT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • iii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• v

LIST OF TABLES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• vi

I. INTRODUCTION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1

II. REVIEW OF LITERATlJR.E ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••• 2

III. MATERIAL, PROCEDURE, AND EQUIPMENT •• 11

IV. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 18

v. CONCLUSIONS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 26

APPENDIX A- RESULTS OF SWELL TESTS.............................. 28

BI BLI OORAPIIY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • 67

VITA. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 69
 v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE PAGE

1 SILICA TETRA.IIEDRA.L. • • . • . . . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • . . . . . • . • 4

2 ALUMINUNA HYDROXIDE OCTAHEDRAL.......................... 4

3 FORM ELEMENT OF MONTMORILLONITE......................... 5

4 ELEMENTARY MONTMORILLONITE.............................. 5

5 MONTMORILLONITE CRYSTAL. • • • . • • . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . . • . . . . . . • 6

6 DISPERSED STRUCTURE . • • • • • • • . • . • . . • . • . • • • . • . . . . . . . . . • . • . . • 6

7 FLOCCULATED STRUCTURE . • . • • . • . • • • . • • • • • . . . . • . . . • . . . . • • . . . • 6

8 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE •••....•••••••.•••••..••..•• 12

9 SWELL APPA.RA.TUS • • • • • • • . • • . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . • • . . . . • • . . • . • . 16

10 STANDARD PROCTOR DENSITY CURVE •••.••••••.•.•...•.....•••• 29

11 CCI1PACTION CURVES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 30

12 DIAL READING- LOG TIME CURVES .•••••.•....•...•••...••• 32

10
13 VOID RATIO- LOG PRESSURE CURVES .•••••...••••.....••... 55
10
14 VOLUME CHANGE -INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT .•..••.•..•.....• 61

15 SWELL PRESSURE- INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT .•••.•••..•••••• 62

16 FINAL MOISTURE CONTENT - INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT . . • . . . • • 63

17 DEGREE OF SATURATION- INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT ••••..•..• 64

18 COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY - INITIAL MOISTURE

CONTENT • • • . • . • . • • • • • • • • . • . . . . . • . • • • • • . . . • • . . • . . • . . . • . • . • . 65

19 SWELLING INDEX- INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT .•.••.••.••.•.•• 66

 vi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I RESULTS OF INITIAL INVESTIGATION OF PUTNAM SOIL. • • • • • • • • 13

II RESULTS OF SWELL TESTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • 31

 I • INTRODUCTION

Expansive soils are encountered at construction sites throughout the

United States. An attempt is usually made to avoid these soils as

construction materials because of the difficulty in predicting the volume

change characteristics; however in many instances due to the immediate

availability or the high cost of transporting other soils to the

construction site, it is impossible or impractical to avoid using these

materials. As a result of the problems associated with expansive soils,

extensive research has been and is presently being conducted in an

attempt to more nearly enable the engineer to predict swelling character-

istics. Due to the complexity of the problem, this investigation is not

concerned with developing any new concepts for dealing with expansive

soils; but instead, it is intended to give an insight to further research

in the same area. If the swelling characteristics of a high volume change

soil can be altered by such things as controlling the initial moisture

content, density or compactive effort during construction, the monetary

savings that result would be well worth the research involved.

Putnam silt loam, a type of soil found in northern Missouri,

exhibits the characteristics of an expansive soil. The Missouri Highway

Department(l)*considers it to be one of the poorest soils found in

Missouri for use as sub-base or subgrade material in highway construction.

This investigation is concerned with a study to determine the effect of

the initial moisture _content on the swelling properties of Putnam silt

loam.

wNymbers refer to entries in the Bibliography.

 2

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

When soil undergoes the process of consolidation, water is forced out

of the voids and the voids are filled with soil particles resulting in a

decrease in volume. The process of swell is the opposite of consolidation

in that water is taken into the soil and forces the particles apart;

consequently, an increase in volume occurs. This swelling decreases the

shearing strength and ultimate bearing capacity of the soil and may cause
2
problems very similar to differential settlement.( )

According to its true definition, swell can occur only in soils that

contain clay minerals. Bulking of sand should not be confused with

swelling even though an increase in volume may occur with moist sand, as

compared to dry sand. This volume change will take place only if moist

sand is loosely reshoveled. The moisture films may prevent the sand

grains from touching each other once the films are formed, but they cannot

force the particles apart during the process of their formation, as is

3
the case in the swelling clays.( ) Consequently, swell pressure will not

be developed either.

Swell and swelling pressure can occur as the result of elastic

restitution on removal of a load, adsorption of water on the surface of

soil particles and expansion of the particles due to integration of water

into the particles.< 4 ) The most prevalent of these is adsorption. An

elementary knowledge of clay mineralogy is necessary to understand the

phenomenon of adsorption.

The molecular structures of clay minerals are very complicated.

However, they can be separated into essentially two groups, (1) the

silica tetrahedron (SI0 ), and (2) the aluminum hydroxide octahedral

2
(Al(OH) ). A silica tetrahedral consists of a silica atom surrounded by
3
 3

four oxygen atoms arranged at the apexes of equilateral triangles as shown

in Figure 1. The aluminum hydroxide octahedral (also known as Gibbsite)

is formed in the shape of an octahedral crystal in which the aluminum atom

occupies the center of the structure with the oxygen and hydroxyl ions

arranged above and below (Figure 2). If two tetrahedrals and one octahedral

are oriented as shown in Figure 3, the element formed is the three-layer

clay mineral known as montmorillonite (the clay mineral assumed to be

present in Putnam silt loam). Successive sheets of these elements may be

stacked on top of each other as in Figure 4, forming variations of

montmorillonite. In this case, the bonds between sheets are 0 ions

which are weak thus allowing water molecules to enter between the

montmorillonite sheets.(S)

Montmorillonite does not occur as a perfect crystalline structure.

Instead, isomorphic substitution of bivalent magnesium or iron ions for

trivalent aluminum ions takes place (Figure 5) creating a positive charge

deficiency. Because of this unbalance, various cations such as Na+ and

dipolar water molecules are attracted to the surface of the montmorillonite

particles.( 6 )

In addition to soil composition, swelling properties are dependent

upon the dry density of the soil, initial moisture content, and availa-
7
bility and properties of water.( ) One of the most important of these

factors is dry density. This is explained by considering the number of

soil particles within a given volume. The more particles present in a

unit volume, the greater will be the surface area available for adsorption

of water, as a result, the swelling potential will be greater. This

belief is supported by Leonards(S) in his statement," ..• it was found that

swelling in the presence of water, at a specified confining pressure,

 4

Silica

Building Block
Symbol

I \

Figure 1 Silica Tetrahedral

Gibbsite
Building Block
Symbol

·I_ _ _ _ ----11

Figure 2 Aluminum Hydroxide Octrahedral

Q Oxygen e Silicon

0 Hydroxyl ·~ Aluminum
 s

Form Element of Montmorillonite.

Figure 3

Good Bond

Very Poor Bond

Elementary Montmorillonite· Sheets

Joined to Form Montmorillonite
Particle.

Figure 4
 6

Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedral Sheet

Gibbsite Sheet

Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedral Sheet

Montmorillonite

0 Oxygen e Ferric or Magnesium ion

e Silicon 0 Hydroxyl

<P· Aluminum

Figure S

c::::J c::::::J t::::f· t::=::::J

c:::J 1=:=:1 c::::J. c:::::1
s:::=:::J c:::J t::::::::::z ~
t::::::::J .c=lt::.=l 1==1 t::::::l

Dispersed Flocculated
Structure Structure

Figure 6 ·Figure 7
 7

increases as the amount of compaction increases." The increased

compaction would result in more clay particles occupying the same volume.

Swelling properties are directly related to the amount of water that

can be taken in by the soil. Since only a certain amount of water can be

accepted by the mass, it is evident that swell potential is dependent on

the initial moisture content.( 7 ) Seed and Chan( 9 ) support this idea in

their investigations of compacted clays. They state," .•• samples com-

pacted dry of optimum exhibit higher swelling characteristics and swell

to higher water contents than do samples of the same density compacted wet

of optimum." They indicate that this may be due to structure because of

the fact that investigations with compacted clays have revealed that soils

compacted dry of optimum moisture content are likely to have a flocculated

structure (Figure 7) while soils compacted wet of optimum moisture content

tend to have a dispersed structure (Figure 6). Although structure may

play some role in the swelling mechanisms, the initial moisture content

at which the soil is compacted may be more important.

Swell will not occur unless free water is available. Investigations

have shown that the electrolyte concentration of the water may affect the

swelling characteristics depending on the type of ions in the water and

whether or not there are ions already adsorbed on the soil particles. If

the ions present in the water have the ability to replace the ions ad-

sorbed in the soil, the substitution may appreciably alter the expansive

properties of the soil. An example of this would be the substitution of

Ca++ ions in the water for the Na+ ions adsorbed on the soil particles
. . 1 (10)
resulting in a decrease in swe 111ng potent1a •

Finn and Strom(ll) list two other factors for consideration; (1) the

void ratio and (2) the degree of saturation. The swelling characteristics
 8

of a soil are effected by these two variables because they are a function

of the initial moisture content and compaction energy .

. (12) . .
Terzagh1 expressed h~s "mechan~cal concept of swelling" in the

statement, " .•• the flow of water into or out of a soil is exclusively due

to the existence of a hydraulic gradient with a purely mechanical origin."

It is believed when a soil takes in water, causing swell, the water in the

soil is in a state of tension. This tensile stress would explain

Terzaghi's idea of the hydraulic gradient.

Another approach to the idea of swell is the energy concept.(lJ)

According to this theory, it would be best to place the soil in a state of

equilibrium, in other words, the soil would be in its preferred structure

and the demand for water would be satisfied. Soils not placed in a state

of equilibrium would have a tendency to reach this condition resulting in

a volume change. According to the ideas expressed by this concept,

swelling characteristics could be controlled by regulating the density

and moisture content during placement.

The use of some engineering properties to aid in the recognition of

swelling clays and the prediction of their swelling potential has been
14
investigated by Holtz and Gibbs.< ) They found that it was possible to

get an indication of the swelling potential of a soil if the colloid con-

tent and the results of Atterberg limit tests were known. The colloid

content is an indication of the amount of surface area of the particles

present in the soil, and since the colloidal particles contribute more to

expansion than any other material in the soil, it follows that the higher

the percentage of colloids present, the greater will be the swelling

potential. The plasticity index is defined as the range of values for

moisture content during which a soil remains in a plastic state. In view

 9

of the fact that moisture occupies space in the soil mass, a change in

moisture content would result in a change in volume of the mass;

consequently, since the plasticity index defines a range of moisture

contents, it would be indicative of the volume change characteristics of

the soil. The shrinkage limit is defined as the moisture content at which

a soil mass occupies its minimum volume. This would be a valuable tool

when used in conjunction with the two ideas listed previously since a low

shrinkage limit would indicate that a soil could begin changing volume at

a low moisture content.

Holtz and Gibbs(l 4 ) performed laboratory investigations of swell very

similar to those performed by the author with the exception of measuring

swell pressure in the consolidometer. They found that it was possible to

predict the swelling potential of a soil foundation by duplicating in the

laboratory, as closely as possible, the field conditions of in place

density, moisture content, and load to be applied by the structure and

then performing swell tests on those samples.

The Atterberg Limits were investigated as an instrument for predicting

. . (15)
swell1ng potent1al by Seed, Woodward, and Lundgren. They found that

swelling potential could be predicted within limits of ± 33 per cent by

using the plasticity index. The explanation of the relationship of

swelling characteristics of a soil to the plasticity index of the soil has

been discussed previously in this chapter.

6
Ranganatham and Satymarayana(l ) conducted studies following the same

concept of using the Atterberg Limits for predicting swelling properties;

however, they were dissatisfied with the plasticity index and investigated

the idea of using the shrinkage ratio as a substitute. By definition,

no volume change occurs below the shrinkage limit and the soil is in a

viscous liquid state above the liquid limit; therefore, it would be safe to
 10

make the assumption that the greater the numerical difference between the

liquid limit and the shrinkage limit (shrinkage ratio), the greater would

be the swell potential. By using the shrinkage ratio, Ranganatham and

Satymarayana were able to predict the swelling characteristics within a

range of± 34 per cent.

In this chapter, an attempt was made to give an insight to some of

the problems that are associated with expansive soils by reviewing the

literature that was written by leading authors in this field. It can be

observed that there are many problems in this area. This literature was

instrumental in the decision to research the topic of the effect of the

initial moisture content on the swelling characteristics of Putnam silt

loam.
 11

III. MATERIAL, PROCEDURE, AND EQUIPMENT

Material

The material used in this investigation was untreated Putnam silt

loam as found in northern and north central Missouri. It was chosen

because of its high volume change characteristics, because it covers a

large area in Missouri, and because it has a record of poor engineering

behavior.

The results of a grain size analysis performed on the soil are shown

in Figure 8. A four per cent solution of sodium hexametaphosphate

(commercial Calgon) was used to disperse the soil for the hydrometer

analysis. In a dry state, there were lumps of soil retained on the number

ten sieve, but after crushing and wetting, all of the material was finer

than the number ten sieve.

An X-ray analysis was performed on the soil by Dr. Norbert 0.

Schmidt in the soils laboratory at the University of Illinois. The

results of this test indicated that the clay minerals were predominantly

montmorillonite with a trace of illite and kaolinite.

Because the Atterberg Limit tests are used frequently to determine

the swelling potential of a soil; these tests were performed. Holtz and

Gibbs,< 14 ) in their investigations with swelling clays, have compiled a

table by which a prediction of swelling characteristics of a particular

soil can be made if the plasticity index, colloid content, and shrinkage

limit are known. The results of the Atterberg Limits tests, when compared

to the values in the table, indicate that Putnam soil has medium to high

swelling potential.

The results of the preliminary tests performed are summarized in

Table I.
 100 II - - j; . -~ I
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Grain Size (millimeters)

Figure 8. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

1-'
N
 13

TABLE I

Results of Initial Investigation of Putnam Soil

CHARACTERISTIC VALUE

Specific Gravity 2.70

Liquid Limit 58%

Plastic Limit 28.4%

Plasticity Index 29.6

Shrinkage Limit 12%

X-Ray Analysis Montmorillonite (Primarily)

Unified Classification CH

BoP.R. Classification A-7-6

F.AoA. Classification E-8

 14

Procedure and Equipment

The soil was pulverized so that the largest size fraction would pass

the number ten sieve. The crushed material was allowed to air dry for a

minimum period of three days at which time the hyd~oscopic moisture con-

tent was determined. Varying amounts of water were mixed with four pound

samples of soil in a Lancaster mixer in preparation for compaction tests

used to determine the optimum moisture content and maxi~um dry density.

This was accomplished by using the standard Procto~ test procedures in

which the soil and water mixture was compacted in a four inch Proctor

mold with the motorized Hogentogler tamping device. The hammer weighed

5.5 pounds and was allowed to drop from a height of twelve inches. An

attempt was made to place the soil in the mold in three equal lifts

tamping each lift with 25 blows of the hammer. The portion of soil

protruding out of the mold was kept below a ma~imum of 0.25 inches.

Samples were discarded if the protruding soil exceeded this li~itation.

The value of maximum dry density was found to be 91.5 pounds per cubic

foot at a moisture content of 21.5 per cent. An attempt was made to use

this value of maximum dry density as a constant fo~ all the swelling tests

performed by allowing a variation of not more than+ 0.5 pounds p~r cubic

foot. Whenever a compacted sample had a dry density that varied by more

than+ 0.5 pounds per cubic foot from the ma~i~um dry density, th~

sample was discarded and another sample was prepared. This procequre was

repeated until the dry density for each moistur~ content was within the

prescribed limits.
To determine the compactive effort required to obtain ma~imu~ d~y

density at any moisture content, a systematic p~ocedure ~as followed to

determine the values of dry density for different compactive e{fo~ts at a

 15

given moisture content. This was accomplished by compacting the soil in

three equal layers tamping each layer with 25, 30, and 35 blows per layer

at the same moisture content. This process was repeated for moisture

contents of approximately 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, and 24 per cent so that a

family of curves could be plotted. From this family of curves, it was then

possible to select the number of blows per layer required to give maximum

density at a predetermined moisture content.

Free swell tests were performed on each specimen by trimming a sample

into a swell apparatus as shown in Figure 9 and supplying water to the

sample. The samples were allowed to swell under a load of 0.2 pounds per

square inch (the weight of the plunger and porous stone) until no notice-

able change occurred over a twenty-four hour period. The total elapsed

time for this to occur varied from four to seven days; however, in most

instances, no further swell took place after four days.

Swelling pressure was measured by determining the load required to

prevent swelling and reconsolidating the sample after free swell had taken

place.

The normally accepted method of applying enough load to keep the

sample from swelling was accomplished in a Farnell unconfined compression

machine. The samples were compacted in the Proctor molds to maximum dry

density at varying moisture contents, trimmed into the swelling apparatus

and placed in the unconfined compression machine so that the loading head

was just in contact with the plunger in the swelling apparatus. Water

was then supplied to the sample and the swelling pressure was exerted

against the loading head of the Farnell machine. The loading head was

attached to a calibrated proving ring so that the load could be read

directly off the dial gauge and swelling pressure computed. The samples
 16

Porous Stone
f\\\\"j
Soil Sample
WI&I

~--Plunger
Cap--
Sleeve
I
II
I I
I I
I I Swell
Ring
____ J L_:__
"--Plastic
Tube

Base

Figure 9 Swell Apparatus

 17

left in the machine until no change in load was recorded over a twenty-

four hour period, as in the free swell tests. The total elapsed time

required for this was relatively close to the time required for the free

swell tests.

The second method of determining swell pressure was accomplished by

consolidating the samples after they had been allowed to swell freely.

The samples were prepared in the same manner as those in the first swell

pressure test. However, after the samples were trimmed into the swelling

apparatus, the void ratio was computed and they were allowed to swell in

the same manner as the free swell tests. After swelling had stopped, the

apparatus was placed into the Fairbanks loading frame and consolidated to

the point where the void ratio was less than the original void ratio of

the sample. For the sake of uniformity, all consolidation tests were

ended after the application of the 8 tons per square foot load. The

swelling pressure was then determined by selecting the pressure that would

be required to produce a void ratio equal to the initial void ratio. This

value was found from the void ratio - log pressure curve (Figure 13) .
10
 18

IV. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

The compaction curves discussed in Chapter III that were used to

determine the compactive effort required to obtain maximum dry density

at varying moisture contents are shown in Figure 11. As can be ob-

served, the curves are somewhat irregular in shape. This is probably

due to the slight variations in moisture content. Because the procedure

was very time consuming, the tests were not repeated if the moisture

content did not vary more than± 0.5 per cent from the moisture content

attempted; therefore, the curve for each moisture content is only an

approximation. However, these curves were quite useful in determining

the compactive efforts required for the preparation of the swell test

samples.

The results of the swell tests performed are presented graphically

in Figures 14-19 and in tabulated form in Table II.

From Figure 14 it can be observed that as the initial moisture

content of the compacted soil increases there is a general decrease in

the percentage of volume change that occurs. This was discussed in

Chapter II; however, a more thorough explanation of this trend can be

made on the basis of two somewhat related concepts, (1) the surface

energy of the soil and (2) the engineering properties of the soil.

According to the surface energy concept, the soil particles in a

given volume have a deficiency of positive charges. A definite number

of cations or water molecules is required before this charge can be

satisfied. Assuming that the water used in this investigation was free

of cations and that the water molecules alone satisfied the charge

deficiency, there would be a restricted quantity of water necessary to

reach internal equilibrium within the sample. An attempt was made to

 19

keep the dry density of the soil as nearly constant as possible and even

though some slight variations did occur, it is believed that they are

insignificant insofar as this discussion is concerned. It is assumed

that the same number of soil particles would be present in a unit

volume of soil if the dry density is a constant. If these assumptions

are made, the same total volume of water would be necessary to satisfy

the positive charge deficiency in each sample tested; therefore, if

each sample had been compacted completely dry or with the same initial

moisture content, all of them would have had the same percentage of

volume change after addition of water. But, this was not the case in

this investigation. Since every sample was compacted at a different

initial moisture content, each sample had a different requirement for

water to reach internal equilibrium. As this initial moisture content

increased, the amount of additional water required to reach equilibrium

decreased. This resulted in the occurrence of less volume change with

increasing initial moisture content.

The problem can be approached using the idea of engineering

properties in much the same manner as discussed above. The Atterberg

Limits have been cited previously as being good indicators of the

swelling potential of a soil. It was stated that between the shrinkage

limit (minimum volume) and the liquid limit (viscous liquid) most of

the volume change occurs. According to this statement, a definite

amount of water is required to increase the moisture content from the

shrinkage limit to the liquid limit during which time swelling of the

soil mass would occur. Theoretically when the moisture content is near

the shrinkage limit the soil would have its greatest potential for

swelling. It follows then, that if the initial moisture content were

 20

above the shrinkage limit, the soil would have less potential for

swelling and would possibly exhibit less volume change. However, it

should not be overlooked that some of the water present in the mass

will occupy void spaces and will not cause appreciable volume change.

A more detailed explanation of the preceding statement is necessary to

clarify the relationship of volume change to the amount of water

entering the soil during expansion. The change in volume that occurs

in an expanding soil is not necessarily equal to the volume of water

that penetrates the sample. If voids are present in the compacted soil,

some of the water that enters the sample will fill the voids and no

change in the overall mass will result. Only when the soil particles

start to adsorb moisture will the sample exhibit swelling character-

istics. Figure 16 is a graphical representation of the relationship

between the calculated final moisture content (the moisture content at

the end of expansion) and the initial moisture content. It can be

concluded that this computed moisture content is independent of the

initial moisture content except in an indirect manner. The initial

moisture content governs the dry density of a soil when compacted at a

standard compactive effort and in this respect only does it have an

effect on the final moisture content. The results of the swell tests

indicate that the calculated final moisture content varied only slightly

from test to test. This is explained by considering the change in

void ratio. As stated previously, volume change occurs when water is

adsorbed onto the surface of the soil particles. Therefore, the change

in void ratio is caused almost entirely by this adsorption and because

it has been assumed that the number of soil particles in each sample is

a constant, all of the samples should attain the same moisture content

after swelling has occurred.

 21

From Figure 15 it is evident that an increase in the initial

moisture content results in a considerable decrease in the swelling

pressure that develops. Therefore, it appears that the greater the

volume change that would occur in an unconfined unit volume of soil,

the greater would be the swelling pressure if that soil were prevented

from expanding.

There is a difference in the results of the two methods used to

determine swelling pressure. Essentially, the values of swelling

pressure determined from the results obtained from the Farnell un-

confined compression machine are lower than those obtained from the

consolidation tests. This can be explained by considering the physical

aspects of the two tests. In the consolidation test, water is forced

out of the soil resulting in a volume decrease. In the Farnell machine,

water is adsorbed by the soil particles but a volume increase is pre-

vented because the loading head keeps just enough load on the sample to

prevent expansion. A factor that should be considered in this

discussion is the change in void ratio of the soil. When the soil is

allowed to swell (before it is placed in the consolidation loading

frame) the particles are forced apart thereby reducing the density and

increasing the void ratio. As a result, not only is the amount of water

required to fill the void spaces satisfied but also internal equilibrium

of the soil mass is reached.

In the Farnell machine the sample has access to free water;

however, the sample does not change volume. The results are an increase

in the degree of saturation and no change in the void ratio and dry

density. Because the void ratio remains constant only the water re-

quired to fill the voids can enter the sample. It is doubtful that
 22

internal equilibrium of the mass is reached. As a result the sample

does not reach the same moisture content that it would if allowed to

swell freely.

Some points that are evident in the results of the consolidation

tests are discussed below.

It can be observed from Figures 12 and 13 that a change in initial

moisture content and the variations of compactive effort required for

maximum dry density cause considerable differences in the consolidation

characteristics. Beginning with Figure 12a, the dial reading - log

10
time curves have the appearance of undisturbed preconsolidated samples

for low loads {up to and including 1/2 ton per square foot). The curves

for the loads are almost flat (an indication of preconsolidation) up to

the curve for the 1/2 ton per square foot loading but the curve for 1

ton per square foot loading increases in slope indicating a possible

structure breakdown at a preconsolidation load of less than 1 ton per

square foot. It would seem reasonable to assume that the preconsoli-

dation is a result of the compaction energy delivered to the soil during

preparation for testing. Although the compactive effort was varied to

obtain maximum dry density at different initial moisture contents, the

preconsolidation load on all samples appears to be about 1 ton per

square foot. Apparently as the initial moisture content varied, the

amount of compaction energy absorbed by the pore water pressure also

varied so that the preconsolidation load remained nearly constant.

The degree of saturation of each sample should be considered in

this analysis. It can be observed from Figure 17 that in all cases

the initial degree of saturation was less than 80 per cent. The

sample should be at or near complete saturation before one of the basic

 23

assumptions made by Terzaghi in his theory of consolidation is

satisfied. In case the sample is not saturated consolidation is quite

rapid because of compression of the gasses and deformation and

rearrangement of soil particles. This is another possible explanation

for the flat dial reading - log time curves discussed above. It
10
should be noted that in Figure 17, the curve of degree of saturation-

initial moisture content approaches a straight line with a positive

slope. This is to be expected because as the amount of water in the

soil increases the degree of saturation increases, all other factors

remaining constant.

In Figure 18, the coefficient of compressibility, C , generally

c
decreases as the initial moisture content increases. A constant value

of C was expected for all tests because the dry density for each
c

sample was nearly a constant. The trend established in Figure 18 may

be explained by considering the variation in initial degree of

saturation. As the initial moisture content increased in each sample,

the degree of saturation was also increased; as a result, the wetter

samples more closely conformed to the assumptions made by Terzaghi

that the samples are saturated at the beginning of the consolidation

test.

From Figure 13a, it can be observed that the void ratio - log 10

pressure curve is similar to the ideal curve for an undisturbed sample.

As the initial moisture content increases, it appears from Figures 13b

to 13f that the curves approach the ideal curve for a remolded

sample. Since all samples were remolded such a trend was not expected.

It appears that at lower initial moisture contents the soil is in an

energy state like that of a flocculated structure while those samples

at higher initial moisture contents tend to approach the dispersed

 24

structure. This would be supporting evidence for the statement made by

Seed and Chan(ll) that samples compacted dry of optimum tend to have a

flocculated structure while those compacted wet of optimum tend to have

a dispersed structure. This may also explain the reason for the de-

crease inC with an increase in initial moisture content.

c
Again, by observing the void ratio - log pressure curves, close
10
attention should be directed to the values of the swelling indices (C ) .
s
These values are remarkably constant. In Figure 13d, the loading cycle

was interrupted after the load of 4 tons per square foot had been

applied and consolidation allowed to take place. The sample was

decompressed and then recompressed to 8 tons per square foot. It can

be noted that the slope of the decompression curve (the swelling index,

C ) is approximately equal to the swelling index of the second

s
decompression curve; also, it is nearly equal to the vaiues of C for
s
the other test samples. This was quite disturbing at first because it

would indicate that regardless of the dry density and the load applied

to the sample, the rate of swelling would be a constant and also the

volume change that results at a particular initial moisture content

would be almost completely independent of the dry density. This

concept would tend to disprove the theory which states that the greater

the number of clay particles present in a given volume at a constant

moisture content, the greater will be the volume change. It has been

concluded that the theory involving the relationship of volume of

solids to volume change characteristics does hold and that the trend

that has been established in this testing program is due to the change

in degree of saturation. If this is true, the effect of the degree of

saturation prevails over the effect of dry density and tends to be more
 25

critical than dry density. By considering this aspect, it would appear

that by compacting expansive clay to some greater compactive effort

regardless of the moisture content (within reasonable limits) it would

be possible to keep the swelling characteristics constant even though

the density is increased. Assuming this is true, increased strength

and increased ultimate bearing capacity is obtained without increasing

the swelling properties. This concept could be a very important

consideration when working with expansive soils.

The graphical representations of the results of the swell tests

show some irregularities. This is probably due to the variation

allowed in dry density of± 0.5 pounds per cubic foot. Also the small

size of the equipment used may have had some effect. Slight

disturbance of the free swell samples could result in an error of two

or three dial readings which would cause an error of approximately four

per cent or more in the final results.

Even though it was nearly impossible to compact each sample at

exactly the maximum dry density at the several initial moisture

contents attempted, it is evident from the test results that the

initial moisture content, void ratio and degree of saturation are

critical factors to consider when dealing with expansive soils as

construction materials.
 26

V. CONCLUSIONS

The object of this study was to determine the effect of initial

moisture content on the swelling characteristics of untreated Putnam

silt loam. After reviewing the available literature on the subject

and analyzing the test results, the conclusions discussed below can

be made.

Swelling pressure and volume change characteristics of Putnam

soil are directly related to the initial moisture content. As the

initial moisture content increases the per cent volume change and the

amount of swelling pressure that will develop decreases.

A soil sample at a given dry density has a definite potential for

swelling. There is a definite volume of water that can be adsorbed

when the soil is wetted at the shrinkage limit. This volume of water

is not necessarily equal to the change in volume of the sample but is

dependent on the void ratio and the degree of saturation.

The results of the two methods employed for measuring swelling

pressure follow the same trend; however, the consolidation method tends

to give a more conservative answer from an engineering viewpoint than

does the method using the Farnell machine. The method employed in

practice would be dependent on the actual conditions that exist at a

construction site.

It can be concluded that the swelling properties of an expansive

clay can be altered by controlling the initial moisture content, dry

density, and degree of saturation. The degree of saturation may be

more critical than either the dry density or the initial moisture

content.
 27

It appears that Putnam silt loam is in a flocculated state at low

moisture contents and approaches a dispersed structure with increasing

moisture contents.
 28

APPENDIX A

RESULTS OF SWELL TESTS

 92
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Moisture Content (%)

Figure 10 Standard Proctor Density Curve

N
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 30

Moistute
Content
96 - ~ 18 %
19 %
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0 24%
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Compactive Ef f ort (B l ows/Layer )

Figure 11 COMPACTION CURVES

 TABLE II

RESULTS OF SWELL TESTS

Swelling Pressure Swelling Pressure

Approximate Initial (tons/ft .2) (tons/ft.2) Degree of
Moisture Content (%) % Swell (Farnell Machine) (Consolidation) Saturation (%) cc cs

18 12.4 1.02 1.23 60.2 0.67 0.098

19 11.6 0.89 1.05 60.8 0.58 0.098

20 10.2 0.84 1.00 63.6 0.52 0.105

21.5 7.8 0.69 0.88 69.3 0.49 0.100

23 7.4 0.51 0.75 74.5 0.42 0.097

24 6.2 0.43 0. 70 79.2 0.38 0.090

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Figure 13f VOID RATIO - LOGlO PRESSURE AT A MOISTURE CONTENT OF 24.5 PER CENT

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Initial -Moisture Content(%)

Figur.e 14 VOLUME CHANGE - INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT

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Initial Moisture Content (%)

Figure 15 SWELL PRESSURE - INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Initial Moisture Content (%)

Figure 16 FINAL MOISTURE CONTENT - INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT

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w
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18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Initial Moisture Content (%)

Figure 17 DEGREE OF SATURATION - INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Initial Moisture Content (%)

Figure 18 COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY - INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT

(j'\
V1
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18 19 20 21 22 23 ·24 25

Initial Moisture Content

Figure 19 SWELLING INDEX - INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT

~
~
 67

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. MISSOURI STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSION, Geology and Soil Manual (1962).

2. TAYLOR~ DONALD W., Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and

Sons, Inc., New York (1948).

3. TSCHEBOTARIOFF, GREGORY P., Soil Mechanics, Foundations and Earth

Structures, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York (1951).

4. SEED, HoBo, MITCHELL, Jo Ko, and CHAN, Co Ko, Studies of Swell and
~ Swell Pressure Characteristics of Compacted Clays,
Paper prepared for presentation at the 40th annual
meeting of the Highway Research Board, January, 1961.

5. SCOTT, RONALD F., Principles of Soil Mechanics, Addison-Wesley

Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Mass. (1963).

6. HEAGLER, JOHN B., JR., Personal Communication (1965).

7. PARCHER, JAMES V. and LIU, PING-CHUAN, Some Swelling Characteristics

'4<- of Compacted Clays, Journal of the Soil Mechanics
and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 91, #SM3, May, 1965.

8. LEONARDS~ GERALD Ao, Strength Characteristics of Compacted Clays,

Paper #2780, Transactions of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 120, (1955), page 1421.

9. SEED, Ho Bo, and CHAN, Co K., Structure and Strength Characteristics

of Compacted Clays, Journal of the Soil Mechanics
and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 85, #SM5,
Oct. 1959, pages 91-92.

10. TAYLOR, Ao Wo, Physico-Chemical Properties of Soils: Ion Exchange

Phenomena, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and
Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 85, #SM2, April,
1959.

11. FINN, WILLIAM D. and STROM, BJORN, Nature and Magnitude of Swell
Pressure, Highway Research Board Proceedings,
37th Annual Meeting, Vol. 37, (1958).

12. TERZAGHI, KARL, Theoretical Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, (1943) page 333.

13. DOBSON, DALE E., A Study of Chemical Stabilization of the Swell

Properties of Putnam Soil, Thesis, Missouri School
of Mines and Metallurgy (1963).
 68

14. HOLTZ, Wo Go and GIBBS, H. J., Engineering Properties of Expansive

Clays, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 80, Oct., 1954.

15. SEED, H. B., WOODWARD, R. Jo, JRo, and LUNDGREN, R., Prediction of
Swelling Potential for Compacted Clays, Journal of
the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 88, #SM3, June, 1962.

16. RANGANATHAM, B. V. and SATYANARAYANA, B., A Rational Method of

Predicting Swelling Potential for Compacted Expansive
Clays, Proceedings of the Sixth International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engi-
neering, Vol. I, University of Toronto Press,
Sept., 1965.
 69

VITA

William Howell Branum was born on September 8, 1941 in Hornersville,

Missouri, the son of Lloyd P. and Borease Ro Branum. He completed his

primary and high school education in the public school system of

Hornersville and he graduated from Hornersville High School in May, 1959.

He enrolled at the University of Missouri at Rolla in September,

1960 and received a bachelor of science degree in civil engineering from

that institution in January, 1965. At the same time he was commissioned

a second lieutenant in the United States Army Reserve.

In January, 1965, he enrolled as a graduate student at the

University of Missouri at Rolla to pursue a course of instruction leading

to a master of science degree in civil engineering.

He was married to the former Judith Ann Edmonston of Hornersville,

Missouri in 1963.