MOTIVATION

Session 16, 17, 18

DEFINING MOTIVATION
▪ Motivation can be defined as the internal and external factors that lead an individual to

engage in goal-related behaviour.

▪ Motivation is a complex psychological concept that can be understood through three

key components:

▪ intensity,

▪ direction, and

▪ persistence.
DEFINING MOTIVATION
Direction

▪ Direction refers to the specific goals or objectives that individuals aim to achieve.

▪ It answers the question of "what" motivates a person.

▪ Motivation is not a one-size-fits-all concept; it is highly individualized and can vary from

person to person.

▪ Direction involves setting clear, meaningful, and achievable goals that align with one's

values, desires, and needs.

DEFINING MOTIVATION
Intensity

▪ Intensity refers to the level of effort and energy a person is willing to invest in pursuing a

particular goal or task.

▪ It represents the "how much" aspect of motivation.

▪ People may exhibit varying degrees of intensity in their motivation based on factors like

the perceived importance of the goal, the potential rewards, and their personal values
and interests.
DEFINING MOTIVATION
Persistence

▪ Persistence, also known as endurance or consistency, is the third component of

motivation.

▪ It reflects the duration or length of time a person is willing to work toward their goal,

even in the face of obstacles, setbacks, or challenges.

▪ Persistence is vital for achieving long-term goals because motivation often fluctuates

over time.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
NEED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
▪ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,

▪ Alderfer’s ERG theory,

▪ McClelland’s theory of needs, and

▪ Herzberg’s two factor theory

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Every human being has a hierarchy of five needs:
▪ Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and
other bodily needs.
▪ Safety. Includes security and protection from physical and
emotional harm.
▪ Social. Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship.
▪ Esteem. Includes internal esteem factors such as self-
respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem
factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
▪ Self-actualization. Drive to become what we are capable of
becoming; achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maria is a 45-year-old woman who has gone through significant life changes.

• In her early adulthood, Maria struggled to meet her physiological needs. She had to work

multiple jobs to afford rent, food, and basic necessities. Maria's primary focus was on ensuring
her survival and comfort (Physiological Needs)

• As Maria's financial situation stabilized, she shifted her focus to safety needs. She invested in a

secure home and took out insurance policies. Her goal was to ensure that she and her family
were protected and safe from external threats (Safety Needs)

• With her basic needs met, Maria sought companionship and love. She got married and started a

family. Her focus was on building strong bonds with her spouse and children, nurturing those
relationships (Social Needs).
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
▪ As Maria's children grew and her family life stabilized, she pursued a career and personal

interests. She sought recognition for her achievements at work and actively engaged in activities
that boosted her self-esteem and confidence (self-esteem needs).

▪ In her mid-40s, Maria reached a point where her lower-level needs were largely satisfied. She

began to explore her passions and interests more deeply. Maria pursued a long-held dream of
becoming an artist, which allowed her to express herself creatively and achieve self-fulfillment.
She also started volunteering to give back to her community (Self-actualization needs).
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY - LIMITATIONS
▪ The hierarchy implies a strict, linear progression from one level to the next, suggesting that

one need must be largely satisfied before moving on to the next. In reality, people often
experience simultaneous needs and may fluctuate between levels based on changing
circumstances and life events.

▪ Lacks strong empirical evidence to support its hierarchical structure and the specific ordering

of needs.

▪ Maslow placed a strong emphasis on self-actualization as the pinnacle of human

development. However, some argue that this concept is subjective and difficult to define
objectively.
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
There are three groups of core need - existence, relatedness, and growth.

▪ Existence needs: Concerned with our basic material existence requirements. They include the

items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs.

▪ Relatedness needs: Concerned with our desire for maintaining important interpersonal

relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be
satisfied, and they align with Maslow’s social need and the external component of Maslow’s
esteem need.

▪ Growth needs: Concerned with our intrinsic desire for personal development. This group

includes the intrinsic component of Maslow’s esteem need and the characteristics included
under self-actualization.
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
▪ Unlike Maslow's hierarchy, Alderfer's ERG theory acknowledges that individuals can be

motivated by needs from multiple categories simultaneously. For example, a person

can pursue relatedness and growth needs simultaneously without fully satisfying their
existence needs.

▪ ERG theory allows for the possibility of frustration-regression. If an individual is unable

to satisfy a higher-level need (e.g., growth), they may temporarily regress to seeking
satisfaction of a lower-level need (e.g., relatedness) as a coping mechanism.
 ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
Sarah is a 35-year-old professional who has navigated various career choices throughout
her life.

Existence Needs:

▪ In her early career, Sarah prioritized her existence needs. She focused on finding a stable

job that provided a steady income to cover her basic living expenses. She was concerned
about job security and the stability of her workplace. Sarah chose a job with a reputable
organization that offered a competitive salary and benefits, which helped her meet her
existence needs.
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
Relatedness needs:

As Sarah's career progressed, her relatedness needs became more prominent. She sought
out opportunities to build strong relationships with her colleagues and clients. Sarah
became known for her excellent interpersonal skills, actively participating in team-building
activities and networking events. She valued the sense of belonging and camaraderie
within her workplace, and her career choices reflected her desire to foster positive
relationships.
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
Growth needs:

In recent years, Sarah's started pursuing additional education and training to enhance her
skills and knowledge. She actively sought out challenging projects that allowed her to
stretch her capabilities and take on more responsibilities. Sarah's career choices now
reflect her desire for personal growth and self-fulfillment, as she aims to reach her full
potential in her chosen field.
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
Frustration-Regression in ERG Theory

▪ Scenario: Consider the case of Alex, a mid-level manager in a competitive corporate

environment. Alex has been working diligently for several years to advance in his career,
primarily motivated by his need for growth (G) and the desire to achieve greater levels of
success and recognition.

▪ However, Alex faces a series of setbacks at work. Despite his efforts, he is passed over for

a promotion that he had been working toward for a long time. Additionally, the
organization undergoes a restructuring, which leads to increased job insecurity and
uncertainty about the future.
Frustration-Regression: As a result of these setbacks and the increased uncertainty, Alex's
focus on his need for growth (G) becomes frustrated. He feels that his efforts have not been
rewarded, and the path to career advancement is unclear. This frustration leads to a
temporary regression to lower-level needs in the ERG theory:

Relatedness Needs (R): Alex begins seeking support and reassurance from his colleagues
and friends within the organization. He spends more time nurturing his social connections,
as he finds solace in the camaraderie and emotional support provided by his relationships.

Existence Needs (E): Due to the job insecurity caused by the restructuring, Alex becomes
more concerned about the stability of his employment. He starts to focus on how he can
meet his basic financial needs and considers adjusting his lifestyle to accommodate
potential changes in his income.
MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
Focuses on three fundamental needs that drive human behavior. McClelland's theory suggests
that these needs are not innate but are instead learned and developed over time.

Need for Achievement (nAch):

▪ This is the need to excel, achieve, and accomplish challenging goals.

▪ Individuals with a high need for achievement are motivated by a desire to outperform

themselves and others.

▪ People with a strong nAch tend to set realistic but challenging goals, take calculated risks, and

prefer situations where they receive feedback on their performance.

MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
Need for Affiliation (nAff): Need for Power (nPow):

▪ The need for affiliation pertains to the desire ▪ The need for power involves the desire to

for social interaction, companionship, and influence, control, and have an impact on
positive relationships with others. others and one's environment.

▪ Individuals with a high need for affiliation are ▪ People with a high need for power are

motivated by a strong desire to belong and be motivated by a desire to lead, make

liked by others. decisions, and have authority.

▪ They often seek out opportunities for

teamwork, cooperation, and interpersonal
connections.
MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
John is a 30-year-old professional who has been working in various roles over the past decade.

Need for achievement (motivated by challenging goals, a sense of accomplishment, and the
desire to excel):

From a young age, John has always set ambitious goals for himself. He was a competitive
student, always aiming for top grades. In his early career, he consistently sought out projects
that allowed him to tackle challenging problems and set high performance standards. He takes
pride in achieving his goals and often seeks feedback to improve his performance. John derives
satisfaction from accomplishing tasks that require effort and skill.
MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
John is a 30-year-old professional who has been working in various roles over the past decade.

Need for affiliation (the desire for social interaction, companionship, and positive relationships
with others):

John values his relationships and connections with colleagues and friends. He is known for his
friendly and approachable demeanor in the workplace, often taking the initiative to build
rapport with team members. He enjoys collaborative projects and seeks opportunities to work
closely with others. John also prioritizes work-life balance and values spending time with family
and friends.
MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
John is a 30-year-old professional who has been working in various roles over the past decade.

Need for Power (the desire to influence, control, and have an impact on others and one's
environment):

Although John doesn't seek power for dominance or personal gain, he has displayed leadership
qualities throughout his career. He takes on leadership roles willingly, not to exert control but to
guide and inspire his team members. John is skilled at negotiating and resolving conflicts within
his team. He values the ability to make decisions that benefit the larger group and the
organization.
MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
• McClelland's theory emphasizes that individuals possess varying levels of these needs, and

these needs can influence their behavior, career choices, and job performance.

• The theory has been applied in the context of organizations, where it has been used to

understand and predict employee behavior, leadership styles, and job satisfaction.

• McClelland believed that these needs could be developed and strengthened through

training and experience, making it possible for individuals to adapt and change their
motivation patterns over time.
HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
This theory posits that there are two distinct sets of factors that influence employee satisfaction and
dissatisfaction, and they operate independently of each other. These factors are:

Hygiene Factors (Maintenance Factors):

▪ These factors are often referred to as "dissatisfiers" or "hygiene factors" because their absence or

inadequacy can lead to dissatisfaction among employees.

▪ Hygiene factors are related to the work environment and the context in which employees perform

their jobs. It includes salary and benefits, working conditions, company policies, interpersonal
relationship with peers and supervision.

▪ When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; however, neither will they be

satisfied.
HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
Motivational Factors (Satisfaction Factors):

▪ Motivational factors are factors that contribute to job satisfaction and motivation. They are often

referred to as "satisfiers" or "motivators.“

▪ These factors are related to the nature of the job itself and the intrinsic rewards associated with it.

▪ They include factors such as sense of accomplishment and progress in one's work, recognition for

one’s work, the possibility of career growth and development, opportunities for personal growth
and the intrinsic interest and challenge of the work itself.

▪ To truly motivate employees and increase their job satisfaction, organizations should focus on

enhancing the presence of motivational factors in the workplace

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
▪ Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory suggests that increasing the presence of motivational factors in
the workplace can lead to higher job satisfaction and motivation.

▪ Unlike hygiene factors, which prevent dissatisfaction when adequate, motivational factors
continue to enhance job satisfaction and motivation as they are increased.

▪ Herzberg’s research led him to conclude that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction,
as was traditionally believed. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not
necessarily make the job satisfying.

▪ Herzberg proposes a dual continuum: the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No Satisfaction,” and
the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction.”
HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
▪ Expectancy theory

▪ Goal setting theory

▪ Self determination theory

▪ Self-efficacy theory

▪ Reinforcement theory

▪ Equity theory
EXPECTANCY THEORY
▪ This theory assumes that people weigh the potential costs and benefits of their actions

before deciding how to act.

▪ Motivation (M) = Expectancy (E) * Instrumentality (I) * Valence (V)

▪ Expectancy (E): Expectancy refers to an individual's belief that their effort will lead to the

successful completion of a task or achievement of a goal.

"Can I accomplish the task if I try?"

EXPECTANCY THEORY
▪ Instrumentality (I): Instrumentality relates to the belief that if the task is successfully

completed, it will lead to a specific outcome or reward.

"If I do accomplish the task, what will I get as a result?“

▪ Valence (V): Valence represents the value or attractiveness an individual assigns to the

anticipated outcome or reward.

"How much do I want or value the outcome?"

EXPECTANCY THEORY
Imagine a salesperson named Sarah working for a retail company. Sarah's motivation to
achieve high sales numbers is influenced by expectancy theory:

▪ Expectancy (E1 - Effort to Performance Expectancy):

Sarah believes that if she puts in extra effort and works hard, she can perform well in her
sales role. She thinks that her effort will lead to successful performance.

▪ Instrumentality (E2 - Performance to Outcome Expectancy):

Sarah is aware that the company has a commission-based compensation system for sales.
She expects that if she performs well and achieves her sales targets (successful
performance), she will earn a substantial commission as a reward.
EXPECTANCY THEORY
▪ Valence (V - Reward Valence):

Sarah highly values the financial rewards she receives through the commission structure.
These rewards, including a bonus, additional income, and recognition, are significant
motivators for her.
GOAL SETTING THEORY
▪ Under the theory, intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of

work motivation.

▪ The core principles of the Goal-Setting Theory are as follows:

▪ Clear and Specific Goals: Goals should be clear, specific, and well-defined. Vague or

general objectives are less motivating because they do not provide a clear target for
individuals to work toward.

▪ Challenging Goals: Goals should be challenging but achievable. Setting goals that are

too easy may not motivate individuals to put in extra effort. Challenging goals
encourage individuals to stretch their abilities and strive for excellence.
GOAL SETTING THEORY
▪ Feedback: Frequent and timely feedback on progress toward goals is essential.

Feedback helps individuals track their performance, make necessary adjustments, and
stay motivated. It also provides a sense of achievement as milestones are reached.

▪ Commitment: Individuals should be committed to their goals. When people actively

participate in setting their own goals, they are more likely to be motivated to achieve
them.
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
SDT posits that people have three fundamental psychological needs:

▪ Autonomy: Autonomy is the need for individuals to have a sense of choice and control
over their own actions and decisions. When people feel that they are making choices
willingly, rather than being coerced or controlled, they experience a sense of autonomy.

▪ Competence: Competence refers to the need for individuals to feel capable and
effective in their actions. When people master new skills, achieve goals, or overcome
challenges, they experience a sense of competence.

▪ Relatedness: Relatedness is the need for social connection and a sense of belonging.
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
SDT distinguishes between two types of motivation:

▪ Intrinsic Motivation: This is the highest level of motivation, where individuals engage in an

activity because they find it inherently enjoyable, interesting, or personally meaningful.

Intrinsic motivation is driven by the satisfaction of the three psychological needs
(autonomy, competence, and relatedness).

▪ Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity to attain external

rewards or avoid punishments.

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
▪ It suggests that some caution in the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate is wise, and that

pursuing goals from intrinsic motives (such as a strong interest in the work itself) is more
sustaining to human motivation than are extrinsic rewards.

▪ Similarly, cognitive evaluation theory suggests that providing extrinsic incentives may, in

many cases, undermine intrinsic motivation.

SELF EFFICACY THEORY
▪ Self-efficacy theory refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of

performing a task.

▪ The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.

▪ So, in difficult situations, people with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen their

effort or give up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master
the challenge.
 SELF EFFICACY THEORY
The researcher who developed self-efficacy theory, Albert Bandura, proposes four ways self-
efficacy can be increased:

1. Enactive mastery (individual's direct experiences of successfully performing a task or

achieving a goal; Success in past endeavors can boost self-efficacy)

2. Vicarious modelling (observing similar others successfully perform a task. When people
see others like themselves succeed, it can enhance their self-efficacy)

3. Verbal persuasion (individuals can be influenced by verbal encouragement and feedback

from others. Positive reinforcement, constructive feedback, and encouragement can
increase self-efficacy)
 SELF EFFICACY THEORY
4. Arousal (physiological and emotional responses individuals experience when they are
faced with challenging or stressful situations. These responses can include heightened
alertness, increased heart rate, sweating, and various emotional reactions such as anxiety,
enthusiasm, excitement, or fear).
EQUITY THEORY
▪ According to equity theory, employees compare what they get from their job (their

“Outcomes,” such as pay, promotions, recognition, or a bigger office) to what they put into
it (their “Inputs,” such as effort, experience, and education).

▪ They take the ratio of their outcomes to their inputs and compare it to the ratio of others,

usually someone similar like a coworker or someone doing the same job.

▪ If we believe our ratio is equal to those with whom we compare ourselves, a state of

equity exists and we perceive our situation as fair.

EQUITY THEORY
EQUITY THEORY
Based on equity theory, employees who perceive inequity will make one of the below
choices:
1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid)
2. Distort perceptions of self (“I used to think I worked at a moderate pace, but now I
realize I work a lot harder than everyone else”).
3. Distort perceptions of others (“Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I thought”).
4. Choose a different referent (“I may not make as much as my brother-in-law, but I’m
doing a lot better than my Dad did when he was my age”).
5. Leave the field (quit the job)
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
▪ The theory assumes that behavior is a function of its consequences.

▪ Reinforcement refers to any event or stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the

likelihood of that behavior recurring in the future.

▪ Reinforcers can be positive (adding something desirable) or negative (removing

something undesirable)

▪ Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely

on what happens when he or she takes some action.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
▪ Reinforcement Theory is grounded in the principles of operant conditioning, a type of

learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that

follow it.

▪ In operant conditioning, behavior is referred to as "operant" because it operates on the

environment to produce a result.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
1. Positive Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable stimulus or reward is presented after a

behavior, making it more likely that the behavior will be repeated.

For example, a manager giving an employee a bonus for meeting a sales target is a form
of positive reinforcement.
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
2. Negative Reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive stimulus or condition is removed or

avoided after a behavior, leading to an increased likelihood of the behavior occurring again.

An example is a student studying hard to avoid the negative consequence of failing an exam.

3. Punishment:

Punishment, on the other hand, refers to any event or stimulus that follows a behavior and
decreases the likelihood of that behavior happening again.

Examples of punishment include criticism, fines, demotions, or loss of privileges.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
4. Extinction:

▪ Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer followed by

reinforcement, causing the behavior to decrease and eventually stop.

▪ In operant conditioning, this means that if a behavior is not reinforced, it will become less

frequent over time.

JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL EXERCISE
▪ How to enhance the motivation of B-school students using JCM?

▪ What techniques and activities can be included in the B-School curriculum to promote
student motivation based on the five components of Job Characteristics Model –

1. Task variety

2. Task identity

3. Task Significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback
▪ Task variety - Design tasks or activities to require a variety of skills

▪ Task identity - Design courses to include major tasks or assignments, which would provide

students a sense of achievement based on tangible outcomes.

▪ Task significance - Design tasks as well as communicate to convince students that the

knowledge and skills being acquired are important in the context of real-life situations and
their present and future goals.

▪ Autonomy - Give students agency, control, and choice in the learning process at the macro

and/or micro level.

▪ Evaluation and feedback - Design evaluation and feedback to be private, timely, frequent,

and substantive; specify strengths and weaknesses; emphasize learning and effort; and
offer specific guidance related to future efforts
TASK VARIETY
▪ Design may include comprehensive/short case analyses, functional analyses of a

company, group assignments, formal presentations, written papers, management

simulation or other games, experiential exercises, role-playing, class discussions,
debate on controversial topics, application of course concepts, software, multimedia,
and Internet.
TASK IDENTITY
Design may include:

▪ development of business or marketing plans for new products;

▪ a written paper on structural analysis of an industry;

▪ a semester-long management game, with student groups in charge of companies

competing in a simulated marketplace;

▪ formal presentations on major assignments;

▪ a research project, where students develop a research plan, collect and analyze data,

derive conclusions, and write a formal report.

 TASK SIGNIFICANCE
▪ Develop a publishable quality term paper in a graduate class targeted for a journal or a
professional meeting;
▪ Apply classroom learning to corporate or real-world contexts through the use of
experiential exercises or other methods;
▪ Be more informed about the value of knowledge and skills learned with the help of
corporate visitors, mock interviews,
▪ Develop projects or cases for external competition or grants;

▪ Develop a business or marketing plan for local businesses;

▪ Generate and recommend solutions for an existing corporation’s real problems, with the
top executives evaluating and comparing them with actual solutions.
AUTONOMY
▪ Involving students in designing a course within the parameters set by the instructors at
the start of a semester or presenting several course packages to choose from;

▪ Providing students a choice regarding tasks, activities, and the methods associated with
them (such as an opportunity to select between presentation and written paper;
choose a research topic; or choose the format and due time for exams, assignments, or
research projects);

▪ Giving students freedom to choose their own team members or vote a nonperforming
team member out of the group

▪ Avoiding autonomy-suppressing behaviors—such as suppressing criticisms and

independent opinions given by students
EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK
▪ Avoiding evaluations designed to emphasize social comparisons—such as an

announcement of highest or lowest scores—and global comments—such as very good

or very weak;

▪ Using rewards to symbolize students’ accomplishments

▪ Allowing immediate feedback on individual and group presentations from peers or

instructor;

▪ Encouraging open class discussions between groups regarding a case or topic