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Module 02 : Derivatives of Algebraic and Transcendental Functions

Lesson 01 : The Derivative (Rates of Change and Delta Process)
Week :4

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of the session, students are able to define derivatives in terms of limits, and differentiate functions using
the delta process.

PRE-LECTIO

A. Homework

1. Answer Problem Set 1.8.

B. Review

1. Review the concept of limits.

2. Read up on tangent and secant lines.

LECTIO

THE DERIVATIVE

The derivative is one of the two central concepts of Calculus (the other one is the integral). Its development can be
attributed to the four major problems that mathematicians were working on during the 17 th century*: the tangent
line problem, velocity and acceleration problem, minimum and maximum problem, and the area problem. These
problems involve the concept of limits, and limits are considered to be the backbone of calculus.

In this section, we are going to discuss the derivative in terms of the tangent line problem, and along the way, we
will encounter key concepts like Rates of Change and the Delta Process.

THE TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

The tangent line that we are most familiar with, perhaps, is the tangent line to a circle; it is the line that is
perpendicular to the radial line at a certain point (the point of tangency), say 𝑃 (see Figure 1a).

*Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz independently contributed to the invention of calculus.

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Figure 1. Tangent line to a curve at a point

For general curves, on the other hand, tangent lines are described differently. You might say that a line is tangent
to a curve when it touches the curve, but does not cross, at a certain point, as in Figure 1b; but, what about Figure
1c? So, you might say now that a tangent line is a line that touches or intersects a curve at exactly one point;
however, this definition would not work for Figure 1d. One thing’s for sure, nonetheless, all the curves in Figure 1
exhibit tangent lines at the specified point 𝑃. So, what exactly is a tangent line?

A tangent line is a line that touches or intersects a curve at a certain point and is “parallel” to the curve at that
point.

We say parallel because at the point of tangency, the tangent line and the curve are moving in the same direction.
This is now a more complete definition of the tangent line.

We’ve already established the definition; let us now look at how to solve for tangent lines.

Figure 2. Tangent line to a curve, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), at point 𝑃

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The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve at a certain point is, in essence, finding the slope of that tangent
line. Suppose we have a general curve, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), and we are asked to find the equation of the tangent line (by
solving for the slope first) at point 𝑃.

Recall that in order to find the slope, we need two points, say (𝑥, 𝑦) and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), and then we can use the formula
∆𝑦 𝑦1 −𝑦
𝑚= = . However, as you can see in Figure 2, we only have one known point, and that is the point of
∆𝑥 𝑥1 −𝑥
tangency. If we continue with our current approach, there’s no way we can solve for the slope of the tangent line.
What we can do for now, is to choose another point on the curve, say point 𝑄, and then connect point 𝑃 and 𝑄.
Doing this generates a secant line (see Figure 3).

̅̅̅̅
Figure 3. Secant line 𝑃𝑄

This secant line can be used to approximate the tangent line. Using the slope formula,

𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑥1 −𝑥 Substitute 𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥), 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), and 𝑥1 − 𝑥 = ∆𝑥
1

𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) ∆𝑦
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = where 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= This is now the slope of the secant line.
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

The slope of the secant line is called the Difference Quotient because it is the ratio between the difference of the
function values (𝑦-values) and the difference of the 𝑥-values. Furthermore, it denotes the Average Rate of Change
∆𝑦
– that is, ∆𝑥
is a measure of the rate at which 𝑦 is changing with respect to 𝑥 in the interval ∆𝑥. In general, it
describes how one quantity changes with respect to another quantity (we’ll look at an example later).
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What we obtained so far is the solution for the slope of the secant line (recall that we will be using the secant line
to approximate the tangent line). The problem now is how to determine the exact slope of the tangent line. This is
where we apply the concept of limits.

First, we will let point 𝑄 approach point 𝑃 along the curve (see Figure 4). As a result, the secant line becomes more
and more like the tangent line – that is, the slope of the secant line will approach the slope of the tangent line.

Figure 4. Tangent line approximation (secant line approaches the tangent line)

Notice how as point 𝑄 approaches point 𝑃, the horizontal distance between them, ∆𝑥, gets smaller and smaller; and
eventually approaches to zero. Therefore, to get the exact slope of the tangent line, we must take the limit of the
slope of the secant line, as ∆𝑥 approaches zero. In symbols,

∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

lim = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

This is now the slope of the tangent line to a curve at any point. This also represents the Instantaneous Rate of
Change because it measures the rate of change at an instant (i.e., at a single point). Ultimately, this equation is the
Derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥, and can be written as

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

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RATES OF CHANGE

A common use for rate of change is to describe the motion of an object in a straight line – that is, it
describes the change in position of an object over the change in time. In this case, we can denote the position as 𝒔
∆𝑠
and the time as 𝒕, where 𝑠 is a function of 𝑡; hence, ∆𝑡 represents the average rate of change, or more specifically,
the average velocity. Since 𝑠 is a function of 𝑡, then

∆𝑠 𝑠(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡)

=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

In addition, instantaneous velocity is expressed as

𝑑𝑠 𝑠(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡)

= lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Depending on the problem, we can say that 𝑡 is the initial time while 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 is the final time; hence, 𝑠(𝑡) is the
initial position while 𝑠(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) is the final position. Let’s look at an example.

Example. A ball is dropped from a height of 100 feet. The ball’s height, 𝑠, at any time, 𝑡, is defined by the position
function 𝑠(𝑡) = −16𝑡 2 + 100, where 𝑠 is in feet and 𝑡 is in seconds. Find the average velocity of the
ball over each of the following time intervals.

a. [1, 2] b. [1, 1.5] c. [1, 1.1]

a. From 𝑡 = 1 to 𝑡 = 2, the ball falls from a height of 𝑠(1) to 𝑠(2).

𝑠(𝑡) = −16𝑡 2 + 100

𝑠(1) = −16(1)2 + 100

At 𝑡 = 1
= 𝟖𝟒 𝒇𝒕

𝑠(2) = −16(2)2 + 100

At 𝑡 = 2
= 𝟑𝟔 𝒇𝒕

∆𝑠 𝑠(𝑡+∆𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡)
∴ =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑠 𝑠(2) − 𝑠(1)
=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑠 36 − 84
=
∆𝑡 2−1
∆𝑠
∆𝑡
= −48 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 Average velocity over [1, 2].

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b. From 𝑡 = 1 to 𝑡 = 1.5, the ball falls from a height of 𝑠(1) to 𝑠(1.5).

𝑠(𝑡) = −16𝑡 2 + 100

𝑠(1.5) = −16(1.5)2 + 100

At 𝑡 = 1.5
= 𝟔𝟒 𝒇𝒕

∆𝑠 𝑠(𝑡+∆𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡)
∴ =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑠 𝑠(1.5) − 𝑠(1)
=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑠 64 − 84
=
∆𝑡 1.5 − 1
∆𝑠
∆𝑡
= −40 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 Average velocity over [1, 1.5].

c. From 𝑡 = 1 to 𝑡 = 1.1, the ball falls from a height of 𝑠(1) to 𝑠(1.1).

𝑠(𝑡) = −16𝑡 2 + 100

𝑠(1.1) = −16(1.1)2 + 100

At 𝑡 = 1.1
= 𝟖𝟎. 𝟔𝟒 𝒇𝒕

∆𝑠 𝑠(𝑡+∆𝑡)−𝑠(𝑡)
∴ =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑠 𝑠(1.1)−𝑠(1)
=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑠 80.64−84
=
∆𝑡 1.1−1
∆𝑠
∆𝑡
= −33.6 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 Average velocity over [1, 1.1].

Note that the average velocities are negative, indicating that the object is moving downward.

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THE DELTA PROCESS

So far, we established that the slope of a tangent line to a curve at any point is referred to as the instantaneous
rate of change; also, it denotes the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation. A function is differentiable at 𝑥 when
its derivative exists at 𝑥. The working equation presented above leads to the delta process of differentiation. Let us
now look at how to use the delta process of finding derivatives.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 with respect to 𝑥 using delta process.

Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 .

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
= lim Substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 .
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 − 𝑥 2 0
= lim Direct substitution of ∆𝑥 = 0 will lead to 0.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Expand.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥∙∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2 − 𝑥 2
= lim Combine like terms.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

2𝑥∙∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2
= lim Factor.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

∆𝑥 (2𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
= lim Cancel out ∆𝑥.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

= lim (2𝑥 + ∆𝑥) Evaluate the limit.

∆𝑥→0

= 2𝑥 + 0

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 This is the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

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EXAMPLE 2. Find the derivative of 𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 with respect to 𝑡 using delta process.

Since 𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡, then 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 and 𝑠(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) = (𝑡 + ∆𝑡)3 − 4(𝑡 + ∆𝑡).

𝑑𝑠 𝑠(𝑡+∆𝑡)−𝑠(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= lim ∆𝑡
Substitute 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 and
∆𝑡→0
𝑠(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) = (𝑡 + ∆𝑡)3 − 4(𝑡 + ∆𝑡).

(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)3 − 4(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝑡 3 + 4𝑡 0

= lim Direct substitution of ∆𝑡 = 0 will lead to .
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 0
Expand.

𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 ∙∆𝑡 + 3𝑡(∆𝑡)2 + (∆𝑡)3 − 4𝑡 − 4∆𝑡 − 𝑡 3 + 4𝑡

= lim Combine like terms.
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

3𝑡 2 ∙∆𝑡 + 3𝑡(∆𝑡)2 + (∆𝑡)3 − 4∆𝑡

= lim Factor.
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

∆𝑡 [3𝑡 2 + 3𝑡∙∆𝑡 + (∆𝑡)2 − 4]

= lim Cancel out ∆𝑡.
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

= lim [3𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 ∙ ∆𝑡 + (∆𝑡)2 − 4] Evaluate the limit.

∆𝑡→0

= 3𝑡 2 + 0 + 0 − 4

𝑑𝑠
= 3𝑡 2 − 4
𝑑𝑡 Derivative of 𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡, with respect to 𝑡.

1
EXAMPLE 3. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 with respect to 𝑥 using delta process.

1 1 1
Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 , then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 .

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
= lim 1 1
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 Substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 .

1 1
− 0
= lim 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 𝑥 Direct substitution of ∆𝑥 = 0 will lead to 0.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Combine the two fractions in the numerator.

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𝑥 − 𝑥 − ∆𝑥
[ ]
𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
= lim Simplify.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

− ∆𝑥
= lim Cancel out ∆𝑥.
∆𝑥→0 𝑥∙∆𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

1
= lim [− 𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)] Evaluate the limit.
∆𝑥→0

1
=−
𝑥 (𝑥 + 0)

𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑥2 Derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 , with respect to 𝑥

EXAMPLE 4. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1 with respect to 𝑥 using delta process.

Since 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1 , then 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = √𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 .

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
= lim Substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1 and
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = √𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 .

√𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 − √𝑥 − 1 0
= lim Direct substitution of ∆𝑥 = 0 will lead to 0.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Rationalize.

√𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 − √𝑥 − 1 √𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥 − 1
= lim ∙ + ∆𝑥 −1 + − 1
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥

𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 − 𝑥 + 1
= lim Combine like terms.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 (√𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥 − 1)

∆𝑥
= lim Cancel out ∆𝑥.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 (√𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥 − 1)

1
= lim Evaluate the limit.
∆𝑥→0 √𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥− 1

1
=
√𝑥 + 0 − 1 + √𝑥− 1

1
=
√𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥 − 1

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1
= 2√𝑥 − 1 Rationalize.

𝑑𝑦 √𝑥 − 1
= 2 (𝑥 − 1) Derivative of 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1 , with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

3
EXAMPLE 5. Find the derivative of 𝑦 = √𝑥 with respect to 𝑥 using delta process.

3 3 3
Since 𝑦 = √𝑥 , then 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = √𝑥 + ∆𝑥 .

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) 3
= lim Substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 3
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = √𝑥 + ∆𝑥 .
3 3
√𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − √𝑥 0
= lim Direct substitution of ∆𝑥 = 0 will lead to 0.
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
Rationalize.
3 3 3 3 3
√𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − √𝑥 √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + √𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + √𝑥 2
= lim ∙3 3 3
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + √𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + √𝑥 2

𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥
= lim 3 3 3
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ( √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + √𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + √𝑥 2 ) Combine like terms.

∆𝑥
= lim 3 3 3
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ( √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + √𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + √𝑥 2 ) Cancel out ∆𝑥.

1
= lim 3 3 3
Evaluate the limit.
∆𝑥→0 √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + √𝑥 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + √𝑥2

1
= 3 3 3
√(𝑥 + 0)2 + √𝑥 (𝑥 + 0) + √𝑥2

1
= 3 3 3
√𝑥 2 + √𝑥 2 + √𝑥2

1
= 3 Rationalize.
3 √𝑥2

3
𝑑𝑦 √𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑥
3
Derivative of 𝑦 = √𝑥, with respect to 𝑥.

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EVALUATION

PROBLEM SET 2.1

Find the derivative using delta process.

1. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 2

2. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 − 3)

3𝑥 − 5
3. 𝑦 = 𝑥−4

4. 𝑦 = √2𝑥 + 7

5. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1

𝑑𝑦
Answers: 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 − 10𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2) 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑦 7
3) 𝑑𝑥 = − (𝑥−4)2

𝑑𝑦 √2𝑥+7
4) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥+7

𝑑𝑦 𝑥 √𝑥 2 +1
5) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 +1

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REFERENCES

Calculus, 9th Edition, Ron Larson, Bruce H. Edwards

Differential and Integral Calculus by Feliciano and Uy

-END-
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