329
is given in Table IV. As already indicated, features
such as a random continuous filament structure with
low binder content, crimp hetween bonds, and high
filament separation combine to give unique products.
They result in some unasual performance characteris-
tics and permit new combinations among properties
such as tear and tensile strength, flexihility and fabric
pore structure. In addition, the use of a synthetic
polymer base for the products contributes properties
typical of the synthetic fibers, and use of thermo-
plastic polymers for both fiber and binder permits
ready emhossability and control of product surface.
----- .-- -- . -.
TABLE IV. Spunbonded Products
The properties availahle from spunbonded structures
have suggested application in areas such as sub-
strates for coated fabric, rubber structures, stiffening
Migration of Fibers in Yarns
Part I: Characterization and Idealization of Migration
J. W., S. Hearle, B. 1 S. Gupta and V. 2
, B. Merchant
Manchester College of Science and Technology, University of Manchester, England
Introduction
’I’wo features arc necessary to generate strength
and cohesion in spun yarns. One of these is twist
which causes the occurrence of transverse forces
gripping the fiber and the other is variation in fiber
position within the yarn so that some parts of all
1
Present address: North Carolina State of the University
of North Carolina, Raleigh, North Carolina.
2
Present address: Khatau Mills, Bombay, India.
and reinforceinent uses, Prutective coverings and
filtration. It is expected that further investigation
will lead to application in a wide range of industrial
and utility uses. ,
’
Acknowledgment
The work reported- here includes
contributions
from a number of the research staff of the Pioneering
Research Laboratory and the 1 ew Products Division
Laboratory in the Du Pent Textile Fibers Depart-
ment. Special acknowledgment is due to Dr. B.
Nlagel for assistance in the development of structure-
-
..---_ property correlations. ’
’
Literature Cited
1. Buresh, F. M., "Nonwoven Fabrics," New York,
Reinhold, 1962, p. 61.
2. Cusick, G. E., Hearle, J. W. S., Michie, R. I. C.,
Peters, R. H., and Stevenson, P. J., J. Textile Inst.
54, 52-64 (1963).
3. Grace, H. P., A.I. Ch.E. J, 2, 307-336 (1956).
4. Michie, R. I. C., Skinner’s Record 37, 461-464
(1963).
5. Michie, R. I. C., Textile Res. J. 33, 403-411 (1963)
6. Michie, R. I. C., Peters, R. H., and Taylor, W., Tex-
tile Res. J. 33, 325-329 (1963).
7. Petterson, D. R., "On the Mechanics of Non-Woven
Fabrics," Sc.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 1958.
.l/an~smipt re~ eit~ed !1’ot~er~ber &dquo; 19n4.
#I
Behavior
fibers are gripped. 1’eirce [6} aporeciated the need
for the interchange of position, while :B1ortol1 {~5~
gave it the name of migration and introduced the
tracer filer terhoiyue as a means of it. studying
Morton also propsed a mechanism which would
lea(i to a more or less regular migration. Fibers
lviog alop the axis of a twisted yarn will be follow-
iiig a shorter path and, hence, will be under a lower
tension than those l~-iiig near the outside; the low-
 330
tension fibers can be expected be displaced by the
to
others, leading to a cyclic interchange of position.
Hearle and Merchant [3] have investigated the
nature of the interchange in a roodel seven-ply
structure. More recently Hearle and Rose [2~ have
’I’his icleal helical geometry can be m(xlifit’{l to
take account of migration. The ideal migration
pattern is defined as ooe in which the fiber migrates
regularly and uniformly from the outside to the
center of the yarn and then hack to the outside, in

discovered another geometric cause of migration. such a way that the density of packing of fibers in
The occurrence of migration in continuous filaments the yarn is constant throughout the yarn. If we
yarns has been demonstrated by Riding [7, 8]. imagine a leogth of yarn divided up into zones with
,
The pattern of fiher migration within a yarn must increments of radius dr, as illustrated io Figure 2;
influence its properties, and this control of iiiigra- theo the leogth of fiber dy crossing each zone must
tion is a possible way of controlling yarn properties. tx· proportional to the volume of the zone.
However, in practice, migration is not measured or
controlled, but merely happens as a consequence of
the operation of the twisting mechanism, I f new
methods of spinning are to be introduced, it is ,
important that they should lead to migration ; and
the particular pattern of migration which occurs
’ ,

will influence the yarn properties.

The theoretical and experimental study of fiber
migration is thus of considerable itnpiortance.
Ideal Migration
Figure 1 illustrates the ideal helical geometry
usually aclopted in theoretical studies of the
structural mechanics of yarns. is circular .
The y(n
in cross section, and the fibers are assumed to follow
helical paths around concentric cylinders of coo-
staot radius. At an intermediate position, distant
r from the yarn axis, the helix an~;le is 9 and at the
surface the radius is Rand the helix aple a. The
length along the yarn from a given starting point is
denoted by z, and the length along a fiber by q.

Fig. 2. Fitter migrating outwards enters zone

of width dr at A and leaves at B.

Hut volume of 2xrdr and length of fiber

zone «

crossing zone (aq ar)dr, and thus (aq ar)

« r. «

This relation will be satisfied if r’ varies linearly-

with q. Figure 3 shows the regular migration
pattern which must be present. If the length of
hber in one migration period is equal to Q, and we
Fig.
’
1. Idealized helicalwarn.
’
consider a fiber starting from the center with
-
I
 331

For a given dement of the fiber (alotig which the

change in can t~e nentectcd). it follows from the
geometry of figure 1 that ..

Hut differentiating Equation 5, we get

and substituting in Equation 8, this leads, to

Fig. 3. Pattern of ideal mi~rati¡1I1 em-dope: (it) B’ariation

of r= with y: lhl v.tri.Ui«n mf r with y. For the first half period, C =
+ 1, and so intc~,rat-
iiig and putting r = 0 at z =
0, this gives
q =
() at r =
0, the ideal migration ecpationis for
the first cycle arc:

The leyth Z of a l1lit{ratioll cycle is given by

ln general, if m is the il1tegt’r nearest to q Q, the z =
Z 2 at (r R) =
1, so
equations arc:

·I’his equation corresponds to the expression for

yarn contraction derived by Nlortoii and Hearle [4].
Expressed io terms of Z, the ideal migration cujua-
tion for the first half cycle becomes

These two equations ran 1>t, written as one Putting- io the appropriate conditions for the
second hatf-period. oamely C = -1 and (r - R) 0 =

at z =
Z, it can he shown that the equation
where becomes

The above equation gives the change in radial

position of a fiber with the length measured along
the fiber. I t is usef ul also to derive the related Figure 4 shows the ideal migration pattern
equation showing the change of radial position with plotted against length along the yarn, together with
length along the yarn (i.e., parallel to the yarn axis). an approximation in which rZ varies linearly with z.
 332

Fig. S. (a) Division into elements of equal radial spacing:

(II) Division into zones of equal area.

5(b), so that the fibers arc e<)uaHy distributed he-

Fig. 4. Pattern of ideal and approximate miKratiol1 en- tween all zoltes. 111 order to achieve this, the
velopes for yarns with twist anKle of .¡()O: (a) variation of r,
with z; (b) variation mf r with z. radial position should he expressed in terms of
(r R)2. The idealmiKration pattern tht.’11 takes on
the forms shown in Figures 3(a) and 4(a), and this
Characterization of Migration Behavior ’

is much easier to handle alrilvtirallv.

Experimental studies of migration yidd values of
radial position (r. R) for different positions along
the yarn (z). Some complications arise if the yarns
are irregular or asymmetric, but these dimcutties
. are best discussed in connection with a description
of the experimental ~1Bethod.
Construction of the helix envelope provides a
gral)hi(-al expression of the migration behavior.
Vtortcm [5] introduced various parameters de-
signed give a numericat estimate of the migra-
to
tion. However, these parameters can be shown to
have certain defects, and it is desirable to introduce
other parameters. ’
It is not practical to measure q, the I~ngth aloy
the til>c·r, and so the parameters are calculated in
terms of the leiigth z alol1g the yartt. lo somc
circumstances, it is convenient to make the as-
sumption that (r R)2 varies liaearlv with z. This
is lot true for the idealized migration pattern as
shown by Equation 12, though the comparison io
Figure 4(a) shows that the differences are small.
I we let r = (r I~)2, the mi~;ratioo may theii hc
characterized by the following parameters:

1n characterizing the helix envetope. it is useful

to adopt an anatomy with the method of describing
where there are n observations of I’ made over a
an electric current. There are three main features
which must be described: first, the mean tiher
length Z,,.
(b) The amplitude of migration is best expressed
position (corresponding to the dc signal) ; second. analvtieally by the root mean square vitlue,
the amplitude of migration (corresponding to the
iiilillogoiis to the r.m.s. value of the alteraatip
anylitucle of the ac signal) ; and third, the rate of current. Thus:i
migration. Atternativety, the frequency of migra-
tion (corresponding to the frequency of the ac
signal) may lx, used..
Expression of the radial position in terms of (r R)
implies a clivision ioto elements of equal radical
spacing as io Figure 5 (a) and, thus, of increasing For an incomplete migration in which (r R)2
area as the radius increases. ’I’he helix envelope varies linearly with z as ia Figures 6, it is easily
of the complete idea! migration will have the form shown that
shown in Figures 3(b) and 4(h), with the filer of A ~r3 D
amplitude migration = =
(20)
present for tender lengths in the outer zones. It t is
preferable to take zones of equal area, as in Figure mean radial traverse = P = 2A = 2 ~ 3 D (21 )
 333

(c) The rate of migration is given by the slope of I 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -’ - - - - - ,- - - - - - - - -

the helixenvdope, but since both positive and ______ _______ ’

negative values occur, the r.m.s. slope should be ~ ____~__ ’

___._..______
___________

___ _

used. This leads to the introduction of the

parameter:
. ]
, >

,
out : :
oo
ZI2 z
mean migration intensity .1
-

Fig. 6. 11I(’()luplele ideal migra t ion.

sible to separate the effects of superimposed iiiigra-

tion patterns hliviiig different pericxis.
I t is instructive to calculate the values taken by
shown io the mean fiber position and the r.m.s. deviation
For the partial migration linear with z
when the migration follows the ideal pattern
Figure 6, we get : I
represented hy Equations 5 and 12-the value of
migration ~x~ric>cl migration intensity will, of course, be dependel1t
on the value of Q, the 1)eri(xi of the ideal migration.

migration frequency = I 4~3 D (25) Since half a migration lx~ricxl is tyoiral of the
B%,hole, it follows from Equations 16 and 12
Where the migration is irregular, these two ex-
mean fiber position
pressions may he used to calculate equivalent
an

migration period and aa equivalent migration

fre(lueiicB-.
Computer programs have heen worked out which
enahle the experimental values to be fed in and
used to compute the migration parameters.
’1’he three parameters express the most important
features of the migration behavior. ~I’o give a
fulleryicture, it would 1>e necessary to take account
of the irregularity of the migration pattern. in A similar substitution from Equation 12 in
effect, by expressing the migration behavior io Equation 17, followed by integration, yields
terms of the three parameters, an actual migration r.n~.s. deviation
.

behavior is replaced by an ideal partial migration

which is linear with z, but has the same mean fiber
position, the same r.ro.s. deviation, and the same
mean roigration intensity. Values of mean fiber position aad r.m.s. deviation
lf the iiiigratioii is irregular, then the length over for various values of a are listediii ’I’able I.
which the measurements are made will influence the
values of the parameters. When dealing with staple I TABLE I. Values of Puameters for
Fibers
Showing Ideal Migration
fiber yarns, it is usual to consider the whole leiigth
of each tracer fiber. For continuous filament yarns,
if a long enough length of tracer fiber were examined
this would take up all possible positions io the yarn
and the mean fiber positions and r.ro.s. deviation
would be dependent solely oo the distribution of
d 1 ty of packing of the fibers. However, if ~
snorter lengths of tracer tit>er are considered, then
local values of mean hber position (subject to a
long terrn drift or &dquo;migration&dquo;) and r.m.s. deviation
would be obtained. By calculating values of the For the approximate treatment, in which (r ~R)=
parameters for different lengths, it would be pos- is taken to vary linearly· with z, it follows that in a
 334

complete miRration ironi the outside to the center of expressions o~’er methods of iiiiikiiig a satisfactory
’
’

analysis of practical studies of migration, as will be

’’

the yarn
described in later papers.
.
mean fiber psition = ~] ’
’

= ~ y3
’

r.nr.s. deviation =
0.289 Literature Cited
It is, of course, obvious on statistical grounds 1. Hearle’, J. W. S., to be published.
that the mean fiber position in a uniform yarn with 2. Hearle, J. W. S. and Bose, O. N., Part II of this
series (to be published)
complete migration must be close to 0.5: small 3. Hearle, J. W. S. and Merchant, V. B., J. Textile
differences arise due to complications of averaging. Inst. 53,
T537 (1961).
4. Morton, W. E. and Hearle, J. W. S., J. Textile Inst.
Summary 48, T159 (1957).
5. Morton, W. E. and Yen, K. C., J. Textile Inst. 43,
This paper, which is one of a series, has demon-
strated the proper analytical expressions to deal
T60 (1952);
Morton, W. E., Textile Res. J. 26,
325 (1956).
with fiber migration in yarns for both theoretical 6. Peirce, F. T., Textile Res. J. 17, 123 (1947).
and experimental purposes. The theoretical ex- 7. Riding, G., J. Textile Inst. 50, T425 (1959).
8. Riding, G., J. Textile Inst. 55, T9 (1964).
pressions can be utilized in the analysis of the
mechanics of a spun yarn ~1 ~. The experimental llanxscrip. reuivtd 11’oacmber 5, 1964.

The Vapor-Phase Dyeing of Cellulose Acetate

Part II: Rates of Absorption and Apparent Diffusion Coefficients
F. Jones and R. Seddon
1
Department of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing, The University of Leeds, Leeds 2, England
Abstract
The rates of absorption of saturated andvapors of some model com-
unsaturated
pounds and acetate film have been determined.
disperse dyes by secondary cellulose
Initial and integral diffusion coefficients for both types of system and the activation
energy of diffusion of azobenzene have been calculated. Low initial rates of absorption
from saturated vapor are attributed to a time-dependent surface concentration. Extrap-
olation of diffusion data for two disperse dyes to higher temperatures gives times of
half-dyeing of the same order as those observed in dyeing by dry-heat fixation methods.

I
.
-
. Introduction
The equilibrium saturation values and absorption
isotherms for some model compounds and pure
disperse dyes, when applied to secondary cellulose
acetate filrn by a vapor phase dyeing process, have
been described previously in Part I [5]. To ensure
the attainment of saturation equilibrium, it was
necessary to follow the course of absorption of dye
vapor until no further change was observed in the
system. The present paper is concerned mainly
with the rates at which these vapors are absorbed.
1Present address: Sandoz Products Ltd.,
Horsforth, Leeds,
England.
This method of vapor-phase dyeing is, in certain
aspects, analogous to the method of dyeing by
dry-heat fixation. This is especially so with
reference to rates of diffusion, since in both methods,
dye diffuses into an anhydrous unswollen substrate
at high temperatures. I’revious studies on the
sorption of organic vapors by cellulose acetate film
have been limited to the application of srnaller
molecules that diffuse readily into this polymer.
Long and Richman ~8~ found that methyl iodide
vapor exhibited anomalous &dquo;non-Fickian&dquo; be-
havior when absorbed by cellulose acetate below
its glass transition temperature. Data on the ab-