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Collocation Errors Made by Arab Learners of English
Collocation Errors Made by Arab Learners of English
Authors
Dr Abdulmoneim Mahmoud
Abstract
Systematic and in-depth analyses of EFL learners' lexical errors in general and of
collocation errors in particular are relatively rare. This study presents empirical
data verifying the informal observations and theoretic assertions that EFL learners
produce 'unnatural' word combinations. A total of 420 collocations were found in
42 essays written by Arabic-speaking university students majoring in English.
About two thirds of these collocations (64%) were incorrect and 80% of these
were lexical collocations as opposed to grammatical ones. Sixty one percent of
the incorrect combinations could be due to negative transfer from Arabic. The fact
that post-intermediate and advanced students of EFL have a relatively large stock
of vocabulary might have motivated interlingual transfer in the belief that it would
be easy to find the EFL equivalents of the Arabic lexical items. These findings
suggest the necessity of direct teaching of collocations, inclusion of bilingual
glossaries in the EFL course books, and designing bilingual collocation
dictionaries.
Introduction
A learner's interlanguage is distinguished from the full-fledged language of a
competent speaker by the fact that the former exhibits features indicating the
incomplete mastery of the code. The learner's language is characterized by
linguistically incorrect and/or contextually inappropriate forms and expressions.
Both types of deviations are labeled 'errors' when they result from a lack of
competence in the language. In addition to linguistic and pragmatic deviations, an
interlanguage may exhibit certain forms that are linguistically and pragmatically
correct but still sound 'unnatural' or 'strange', (Bridges, 1990; Emery, 1987;
Swan, 1995). This 'strangeness' is captured by an inclusive definition of 'error'
such as the one proposed by Lennon (1991, p.182): "a linguistic form … which, in
the same context, would in all likelihood not be produced by the learner's native
speaker counterpart."
While the field of language teaching and learning is rich in studies of foreign
language learners' linguistic and pragmatic errors, (see e.g. Kharma and Hajjaj,
1997; Lott, 1983; Ringbom, 1992; Swan and Smith, 1987), research on
'strangeness' of linguistic forms and expressions is lagging behind. Impetus to
studies on 'strangeness' is given by the fact that post-intermediate and advanced
learners of EFL may not face structural and pragmatic problems, nevertheless,
their language sounds 'unnatural, or 'odd'. Therefore, studies are needed such as
that reported by Mahmoud (2003) where university students' errors in binomials
were analyzed. The need for such studies stems from the fact that EFL students'
lexical errors have not been given due attention, (see also Taiwo, 2004). The
present study sheds light on EFL learners' errors in the use of collocations.
Kharma and Hajjaj (1989) touched briefly on this area in an attempt to cover as
many areas as possible.
They wrote a short paragraph on Arab students' collocation errors based on data
collected by means of multiple-choice questions focusing only on verb-noun
combinations. Only two options were given in some cases and four in other cases.
The purpose of the present study is to collect, classify and analyze the collocation
errors in the free written English of post-intermediate and advanced Arab learners
of EFL, thus adding one more ring to the still short chain of studies in the area of
lexis in general and the area of collocations in particular. An analysis of
collocation errors can reveal the problems that EFL learners encounter and the
causes of these problems in that area and help teachers and EFL specialists find
appropriate ways of dealing with them in the EFL course.
Regarding the types of collocation, there are open collocations and restricted
ones. In open collocations, the words can cluster with a wide range of other
words whereas in restricted collocations, they are fixed like idioms, (for more
information see e.g. Al-Salmani, 2001; Emery, 1991). Such word combinations
are also classified respectively as grammatical and lexical collocations.
Grammatical collocations are combinations where a preposition is used with a
noun, a verb or an adjective, (e.g. by accident, admiration for, agree with,
account for, afraid of, amazed at). Lexical collocations include:
(for more elaborate linguistic analyses of collocations see e.g. Al-Salmani, 2002;
Baker, 1992; Emery, 1991).
After more than a decade of foreign language study, many Arab learners of
English make collocation errors. According to Thomas (1984, p.187), this is
"hardly surprising, given the vast scope and very idiosyncratic use of lexical items
and collocations." As stated earlier, no elaborate studies that we know of have
attempted to quantify and analyze Arab students' errors in the use of English
collocations. What has been published on such errors so far is either a brief
account based on informal observation (e.g. Kharma and Hajjaj, 1989) or a
purely predictive contrastive analysis of collocations in English and Arabic (e.g.
Emery, 1987; Farghal and Shunnaq, 1999). Therefore, in this study we intend to
present empirical data verifying the theoretical claims and informal observations
about collocation problems encountered by Arab learners of EFL.
The students were not told that their use of collocations would be studied. Had
they been told, they might have underused or overused such word combinations.
As the essays were written as part of their weekly writing exercise, the language
they produced was linguistically natural. A total of 420 grammatical and lexical
collocations were found. These were listed and given to three native-speaking
university teachers of English to check whether they were correct. The
grammatical collocations amounted to 84 (20%). There were 336 (80%) lexical
collocations, most of which were Verb+Noun and Noun+Verb combinations. The
three judges agreed that 269 collocations were incorrect (i.e. unnatural), (see
Table 1).
Table (1)
A total of 269 collocations (64%) were incorrect; 224 (83%) of these were lexical
and 45 (17%) were grammatical. In all of the incorrect grammatical collocations,
the errors were cases of selection or addition of an incorrect preposition and most
of them seem to be due to negative interlingual transfer from Arabic.
Examples:
* by this way (in) - * by money (for) - * in the phone (on) - * on contact (in) -
* ends with (in) - * remind with (of) - * spend money in (on) - * addicted by (to) -
* affect in health - * seeking for help - * contact with him -* responsible from (for)
The incorrect lexical collocations were 224 (83.27%); 210 (94%) of these were
Verb+Noun combinations. The rest (14 - 6%) were Adjective+Noun combinations
as in:
[1] Word Choice: where the choice of one word or both words is incorrect
(A) One word incorrect
* repair his mistake - * make the homework - * Al-Qaidah arrangement
* pray the prayers - * work your work - * rest a full rest
Examples:
* grow fear in him (= yazra') * do by his advice (= ya'mal)
* abbreviate time (= yakhtasir) * do a mistake (= ya'mal)
* make an accident (= ya'mal) * big responsibility (= kabeera)
Some interlingual errors reflect students' problems within their first language. In
other words, students confused two similar words in Arabic and that confusion
was reflected in English. For instance, the error in * violate the promise could be
due to the fact that the student confused yukhlif (= to go back on) with yukhalif
(= violate). The error in *gain language could be due to the student's inability to
see the difference between yaksab (= gain / win) and yaktasib (= acquire) in
Arabic.
The intralingual errors were 105 (39%). These were regarded as intralingual
because transfer from Arabic (MSA or NSA) would not have led to such errors as
in:
Since phrasal verbs do not exist in Arabic, errors such as * break out problems
and * run off pain could not be interlingual. Confusion with similar words in
English may be the reason behind word combinations such as:
As it is the case with errors in grammar and spelling, for example, there is no
magic formula for correction of collocation errors. In addition to exposure to the
language through reading and listening, learners of EFL could benefit from direct
teaching and exercises aimed at raising awareness of collocations, (see Ellis,
1997; Williams, 2002). Depending on the students' cognitive development,
simplified contrastive comparisons between English and Arabic collocations might
help students see when to transfer and when not to. In fact, a survey of the
English language course books - Our World Through English series (OWTE) - used
at the preparatory and secondary levels in Oman was carried out for the purpose
of this study. Only three short exercises are given in a six-year curriculum and
these exercises incidentally touch on a few verb+noun combinations. The tasks
are intended to practice stative verbs, plural nouns, and adverbs of frequency.
More exercises are needed that focus on all types of word-combinations. Matching
tasks and collocation grids such as those suggested by Channell (1981) and
Nation (1990) could be included and recycled in the curriculum.
References
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from
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