Feature Article:
3226699
Defining Phased Array Bandwidth
Randy Larry Haupt , Haupt Associates, Boulder, CO 80303 USA
Chad Kidder , IMSAR, Springville, UT 84663 USA
INTRODUCTION
Phased arrays outperform individual antennas through
electronic beam steering, adaptive nulling, and multiple
beams [1]. High cost and narrow bandwidth offset these
benefits in many situations. Both 5G communications and
modern radars need the advantages offered by phased
arrays, so major research efforts focus on reducing the
cost and increasing the bandwidth. High resolution radars
and high data rate communications systems challenge the
bandwidth limits of current antenna array technology.
Understanding the constraints that limit array bandwidth
provides insight into the design of arrays that transmit/
receive wideband signals.
In general, wideband arrays for radar and communica-
tion systems means that the array transmits/receives a nar-
rowband signal over a large frequency range. This type of
wideband array has a bandwidth determined by the array
components, such as the elements and electronics. More
recent array designs include transmitting and receiving a
wideband signal, so they have a bandwidth defined by
wideband components as well as an array architecture that
mitigates grating lobes and compensates for large array
size and wide scan angles. An antenna array functions as a
digital filter whose characteristics contribute to the system
bandwidth. In the past, most research centered on wide-
band components. Since the turn of the last century,
research interest into wideband array components and
architectures has blossomed.
Figure 1 displays a timeline that breaks phased array
technology into three periods. Narrowband arrays domi-
nated the first period until about 1960. In 1960, Polk
examined an array’s transient response by calculating the
time needed to establish a steady-state array pattern for
Authors’ current address: Randy Larry Haupt is with
Haupt Associates, Boulder, CO 80303 USA (e-mail:
haupt@ieee.org). Chad Kidder is with IMSAR, Spring-
ville, UT 84663 USA (e-mail: ckidder@ieee.org). (Corre-
sponding author: Randy Larry Haupt.)
Manuscript received 7 November 2021, revised 22 April
2021; accepted 30 November 2022, and ready for
publication 9 December 2022.
Review handled by Christof Schupbach.
0885-8985/22/$26.00 ß 2022 IEEE
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DOI. No. 10.1109/MAES.2022.
stepped sinusoidal excitation [2]. An array’s transient
response was reported to depend on array directivity (size)
as a function of frequency [3]. Main beam broadening and
pulse/symbol dispersion were found to be related but not
identical [4]. Others demonstrated pulse/symbol disper-
sion in series-fed slotted waveguide arrays and explained
how to decrease the dispersion by breaking the array into
corporate fed subarrays composed of smaller slotted
waveguide arrays [5], [6]. A relationship between beam-
width and bandwidth (B) was discovered for a uniform
series-fed uniform array with elements spaced half a
wavelength apart [7]
beamwidth ¼ B=f c (1)
where f c is the center frequency. This result, called aper-
ture filling, holds when the pulse/symbol width equals the
time needed for the pulse/symbol to traverse and fill the
slotted waveguide [8]. As long as the antenna bandwidth
encompasses the signal bandwidth, a matched filter per-
fectly recovers a noiseless signal [9], [10]. Series end-fed
arrays, series center-fed arrays, and corporate-fed arrays
widen a radar pulse and decrease the SNR at the matched-
filter output [11], [12]. In [13], Shrader quantified the dis-
persion in wideband corporate-fed arrays in order to
decide if time delay is needed. At this point (about 1990),
attention turned toward arrays that transmit and receive
wideband signals. A chirp waveform causes the antenna
beam to scan as the frequency changes. Linearly varying
the phase shifts at the elements eliminates pulse/symbol
dispersion due to the chirp waveform [14], [15], [16],
[17]. Increased interest in wideband array feeds and ele-
ments in the early 2000s led to new innovations [19], [20]
to battle the bandwidth limitations inherent in the feeds.
More recently, the development of time delay units and
digital beamforming (DBF) enables arrays that transmit/
receive signals with a very wide bandwidth [21], [22],
[23], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30].
Three different bandwidths associated with phased
arrays are defined in the section “Definition of
Bandwidth.” Section “Antenna Array Pattern” sets up the
array model in the time and frequency domains. Opera-
tional bandwidth is discussed in the section “Instantaneous
Bandwidth.” Section “Operational Bandwidth” explains
FEBRUARY 2023

how sampling, beam squint, and symbol/pulse dispersion
impact the instantaneous bandwidth.
DEFINITION OF BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth defines a continuous range of frequencies that
meet a specification. Bandwidth definitions associated
with antenna arrays include the following:
1) Signal bandwidth. Most signals have distinct pulses
or symbols. A pulse or symbol of width t s has a
bandwidth bounded by a low frequency flos and a
s
high frequency fhi
Bs ¼ fhi
s
 flos ¼ 1=t s : (2)
The time between the 3 dB points of the pulse/symbol
usually determines t s . Radars with short pulse widths
have high resolution and short communication symbols
have high data rates. The array must operate over a fre-
quency range that includes the signal bandwidth.
2) Instantaneous bandwidth. The array instantaneous
bandwidth (Bia ) is defined by
Bi ¼ fhi
i
 floi : (3)
Figure 1.
Timeline showing three periods in array technology development.
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Image licensed by Ingram Publishing
It describes the bandwidth associated with the discrete
sampling properties of an array. Element spacing, array size,
and maximum scan angle set limits on the lowest (floi ) and
i
highest (fhi ) frequencies in the instantaneous bandwidth.
3) Antenna or operational bandwidth. The IEEE defini-
tion of antenna bandwidth is [31] “the range of fre-
quencies within which the performance of the antenna
conforms to a specified standard with respect to some
characteristic.” The array or antenna bandwidth is
given by
Ba ¼ fhi
a
 floa : (4)
Inside the antenna bandwidth, the array adequately
receives any CW signal starting at a low frequency (floa )
a
up to a high frequency (fhi ). The hardware or components
that make up the array like elements, phase shifters, ampli-
fiers, feed network, etc., must have a minimum bandwidth
of Ba . Outside this range of frequencies, the antenna per-
forms below acceptable standards. The values of floa and
a
fhi depend on one or more of the following specifications
that come from operational requirements:
 Antenna gain. The upper and lower frequency limits
define the region where the antenna gain stays
above 3dB or half of the peak gain at the center
frequency.
 SWR. The upper and lower frequency limits define
the region where the SWR is less than 2 or the
reflection coefficient < -10 dB. In other words, at
least 90% of the power goes to the antenna.
 Polarization. A circularly polarized antenna has a 0
dB AR at the center frequency. The high and low
frequencies where the AR increases to 3 dB marks
the polarization bandwidth.
 Array pattern. A mask defines limits to the main
beam and sidelobes over the range of frequencies
composing the bandwidth.
Figure 2 distinguishes between these three bandwidths.
The signal bandwidth is a subset of the instantaneous band-
width, which in turn is a subset of the antenna bandwidth.
The long pulse/symbol in the time domain has a narrow
bandwidth in the frequency domain that fits within Ba and
Bi in Figure 2. A short pulse/symbol in the time domain has
35
 Defining Phased Array Bandwidth

where k ¼ 2p= and dn ¼ 2pft n . Time-harmonic notation

suppresses the ej2pft term in (6). A phased array has phase
shifters that change the signal phase at element n by dn .
Small antennas have an element pattern (relative elec-
tric field) at a single frequency approximated by

eðuÞ ¼ cos g u (7)

where g is usually close to 1. The array pattern at a single

frequency is the product of the element pattern and the
array factor

apðuÞ ¼ eðuÞAF ðuÞ: (8)

Note that the element contribution in (8) is a vector,

Figure 2.
Bandwidths of short and long pulses/symbols compared with the
antenna and instantaneous bandwidths.
a wide bandwidth in the frequency domain. The signal band-
width of the short pulse/symbol fits inside the antenna band-
width in Figure 2 but not the instantaneous bandwidth.
Consequently, this array adequately receives the narrow
band signal (long pulse/symbol), but not the wideband signal
(short pulse/symbol).
ANTENNA ARRAY PATTERN
In Figure 3, the weighted (wn ) and time delayed (t n ) sum
of N signals (st ) from the linear array with elements
located at xn ¼ ðn  1Þd produces the output signal
X
N  xn  An array that under samples the signal (large element
sr ðtÞ ¼ wn st t þ sin u þ t n
n¼1
c spacing) produces aliasing in the form of grating lobes.
where c is the speed of light. The array factor represents
the weighted and phase shifted sum of one frequency or
tone from each element. Let st ðtÞ ¼ ej2pft to obtain
because it includes polarization. Equation (8) approxi-
mates mutual coupling when eðuÞ is either an average ele-
ment pattern or the element pattern in an infinite array
[32].
INSTANTANEOUS BANDWIDTH
An array is a discrete spatial filter that has an instanta-
neous bandwidth. Element spacing and array size deter-
mine this instantaneous bandwidth and limit the number
of elements and maximum scan angle of the array. The
cost and size of an array are proportional to the number of
elements, so designers strive to minimize the number of
elements while meeting all design specifications. Element
spacing determines the spatial sampling, which must con-
form to the Nyquist sampling theorem of two samples per
wavelength at the highest frequency.
(5)
Grating lobes limit the highest operational frequency of an
array. For a uniformly spaced linear array along the x-axis
with element spacing d, grating lobe peaks occur at um
found from [32]

X
N sin um ¼ sin us þ m=d; m ¼ 1; 2; . . . : (9)
wn ej2pf ðtþ c sin uþt n Þ
xn
AF ðuÞ ¼
n¼1 The first grating lobe appears at um ¼ 90 , the maxi-
X
N
mum scan angle, so substituting um ¼ 90 into (9) leads to
¼ wn ejðkxn sin uþdn Þ (6)
n¼1
a formula for the maximum element spacing for an array
given by

hi
d¼  (10)
1 þ sin us;max

where us;max is the maximum scan angle. The formula in

(10) prevents the large drop-off in directivity when the
grating lobe emerges at approximately d ¼  at broadside
as shown in Figure 4. The decline in directivity for isotro-
pic elements becomes sharper as N increases, because the
Figure 3. main beam and grating lobe beamwidths become smaller.
Uniform linear array. According to (7), the element pattern has nulls at 90 , so

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 Haupt and Kidder

the beam squint deviation from the desired scan angle as a

function of frequency for us ¼ 15 ; 30 ; 45 ; and60 . A
wideband signal has a main beam smeared across an angu-
lar extent determined by the bandwidth and scan angle.
As an example, a 20 element uniform linear array (d ¼
hi =2 ¼ 3.57 cm) transmits a signal consisting of frequen-
cies between 3.7 and 4.2 GHz. The phase shifters scan the
main beam to us when f ¼ f c . Beam squint causes the
main beam to move toward endfire at 3.7 GHz and toward
broadside at 4.2 GHz as shown in Figure 6. The beams at
Figure 4.
Directivity as a function of element spacing for three different
the frequency extremes further separate as the scan angle
sizes of linear arrays at broadside as well as isotropic and cos u increases to us ¼ 60 . A signal arriving at exactly 60o
element patterns. when us ¼ 60 will have its low and high frequencies
attenuated more than its center frequency, because only
the center frequency array pattern points at 60o. Signal fre-
quencies above and below the center frequency are not
received by a main beam peak. This reduced gain off of
the center frequency causes a sharp pulse/symbol to
become rounded as will be shown in the next section.
A possible definition of beam squint bandwidth is [33]

B ¼ f hi  f lo (13)
pffiffiffi
where f hi > f c occurs when AF ðuhi Þ ¼ AF pffiffiðu
ffi s Þ= 2 and
f lo < f c occurs when AF ðulo Þ ¼ AF ðus Þ= 2 as shown in
Figure 5. Figure 7. This bandwidth definition depends on the maxi-
Beam squint as a function of frequency for four center frequency mum scan angle. It also depends on the size of the array
scan angles.
due to the definitions of f hi and f lo . Larger arrays have
narrower beamwidths, so uhi and ulo are closer together,
the array pattern in (8) does not cause the sharp decline in
which leads to f hi and f lo being closer together and a
directivity due to the grating lobe. Grating lobes can be
reduced through aperiodic element spacing. Breaking up
the periodicity in the element grid of a large array
increases manufacturing cost and creates a nonuniform
temperature profile across the aperture.

BEAM SQUINT AND ARRAY BANDWIDTH

A phased array scans its main beam by placing an appro-
priate linear phase shift across the aperture at the center
frequency (fc). Beam squint results from scanning the
main beam with a linear phase shift across the elements. A
received uniform linear array of N elements spaced d apart Figure 6.
Array factors for a 20 element array with a 12.66% bandwidth.
has its main beam pointing at us when f ¼ f c

X
N
d
AF ðuÞ ¼ ej2pðn1Þcðf sin uf c sin us Þ : (11)
n¼1

The main beam peak squints or deviates from the

desired scan angle by
 
fc
Dus ðf Þ ¼ sin 1 sin us  us (12)
f Figure 7.
When the main beam scans to us at the center frequency, then the
when f 6¼ f c . Narrowband frequency steered arrays scan main beam squints to uhi at the high frequency and ulo at the low
the main beam using this formula. Figure 5 has a plot of frequency.

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 Defining Phased Array Bandwidth
smaller bandwidth. Assume the high and low frequencies
that cause beam squint at ulo and uhi defined in Figure 7
define the bandwidth. Substituting Dus ðf hi Þ ¼ u3dB =2
and Dus ðf lo Þ ¼ u3dB =2 into (12) yields values for f hi and
f lo , which are substituted into (13) to obtain
f sin us;max f sin us;max
B¼  c   c  (14)
sin us;max  u3dB =2 sin us;max þ u3dB =2
where the 3-dB beamwidth is u3dB ¼ ulo  uhi .
SIGNAL DISPERSION BANDWIDTH
A phased array’s bandwidth also depends on the mini-
mum pulse/symbol width (t min ) that “fills” its received
aperture at its highest scan angle (Figure 8). If a pulse/
symbol is less than the minimum width (t s < t min ),
then some elements receive the pulse/symbol when
others do not. A pulse/symbol minimally fills an aper-
ture when its leading edge arrives at the last element
of a linear array while its trailing edge arrives at the
first element of the array. These bounds lead to the
receive array bandwidth being defined as
1 c
B¼ ¼ :
t min Nd sin us;max
The bandwidth depends on the linear array size (Nd) and
the maximum scan angle (us;max ).
The bandwidth definition in (15) depends upon how
t s andt min are defined. For the rectangular pulse/sym-
bol in Figure 8, there is a clear definition for pulse/
symbol width. In reality, however, the pulse/symbol
width may be defined by the 3 dB width (t 3dB ), the
null-to-null width (t n2n ), or some other definition.
When designing an array, the application determines
which definition of ts is appropriate. The impact of
intersymbol interference (ISI) in a communications
array or two-way aperture filling in an active remote
Figure 8.
Minimum pulse/symbol width for the array fill time.
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Figure 9.
20 element uniform linear array of isotropic elements (d ¼ /2)
transmits a rectangular pulse/symbol with t ¼ Nd/c at four differ-
ent scan angles. The pulse/symbol on the wavefront expanding
from the array is magnified in the dashed line box.
sensing application should be considered. Most appli-
cations require “full support” meaning that the data
signal fills the aperture.
Consider a rectangular pulse/symbol of length t ¼
Nd=c transmitted from a 20 element uniform linear array
with d ¼ =2. A pulse/symbol transmitted from broadside
has no dispersion as shown in Figure 9—the rectangular
(15) pulse/symbol maintains sharp edges. As the array scans,
the time difference between the signal leaving the first ele-
ment and the last element increases, which in turn causes
the pulse/symbol length to increase and have rounded
edges. The rectangular boxes in Figure 9 show a magnified
view of the pulse/symbol that is on the wavefront. Note
how the pulse/symbol width expands as the scan angle
increases.
The pulse/symbol dispersion in an array is due to the
disparate path lengths from the plane wave front (dashed
line in Figure 8) through the elements to the receiver—
akin to multipath propagation in wireless systems. When
the signal is at broadside, all of the paths to the receiver
are of identical length—much like a line of sight signal in
wireless propagation. Time delay is needed to completely
compensate for this dispersion.
Assume that a raised cosine pulse/symbol (a ¼ 0:5)
with a null-to-null width of t n2n ¼ 2.3 ns (t 3dB ¼ 0.86 ns)
arrives at the 20 element linear array in the previous
example. Figure 10 shows the normalized received signal
for four scan angles. A pulse/symbol incident at broadside
has no dispersion. At 30 , t n2n ¼ 2.5 ns (t 3dB ¼ 1.0 ns).
At 45o , tn2n ¼ 3.0 ns (t 3dB ¼ 1.2 ns). At 60 , t n2n ¼ 3.5
ns (t3dB ¼ 1.5 ns). Thus, increasing the scan angle forces
the data rate to decrease in order to reduce the intersymbol
interference (ISI) in a communication system. A radar
loses target resolution with the increased pulse/symbol
width. Figure 11 has a plot of pulse/symbol width versus
scan angle for a raised cosine pulse/symbol (a ¼ 0:5)
width of t n2n ¼ 2.3 ns and t 3dB ¼ 0.86 ns. That is a 52%
increase in the null-to-null pulse/symbol width and a 74%
FEBRUARY 2023
 Haupt and Kidder

Figure 10. Figure 12.

Pulse/symbol dispersion as a function of scan angle. Phased array bandwidth as a function of the number of elements.

Figure 13.
Figure 11. Element pattern causes the main beam to squint back toward
Pulse/symbol width as a function of scan angle. broadside as it is scanned for the 20 element linear array.

increase in the 3 dB pulse/symbol width over the 0 to 60

subarray (with time delay at the subarray output) with-
scan range.
out causing signal dispersion.
Grating lobes defined by (9) limit the highest fre-
quency of the instantaneous bandwidth. Pulse/symbol dis-
persion and beam squint determine the lowest frequency.
Beam squint and dispersion bandwidths are related [13].
Subtracting (15) from the highest frequency then substitut-
OPERATIONAL BANDWIDTH
ing (10) into the result yields a formula for the lowest fre- Hardware determines the array operational bandwidth.
quency in the signal bandwidth [34] Operational bandwidth is the intersection of frequencies
  in the bandwidths of all the hardware components
1 1
flos ¼ fhi
s
1  : (16)
N sin usmax N

The fractional signal bandwidth in (2) results from

rearranging (16) and dividing by the center frequency
ELEMENT BANDWIDTH
s
  Typically, the element impedance defines the bandwidth,
fhi 1
Bs ¼ 1þ (17) but polarization may play a role as well [35]. The isolated
Nf c sin usmax
element characteristics change when placed in an array
where f c ¼ ðfhi
s
þ flos Þ=2. A plot of (17) for four differ- due to mutual coupling. An average element pattern or an
ent maximum scan angles when f hi ¼ 10 GHz appears element pattern from an infinite array approximates the
in Figure 12. The highest allowable signal frequency mutual coupling effects on the antenna pattern. Mutual
occurs at the highest possible antenna frequency, coupling changes the element impedance as a function of
s
which is fhi ¼ fhi
a
. Then, the phased array has a band- scan [32].
width that only depends on the number of elements in The element pattern creates its own beam squint due to
the array and the maximum scan angle. Figure 12 is its decreasing amplitude away from broadside. Figure 13
useful for determining the maximum subarray size for shows the change in direction from the desired scan direction
a given bandwidth and maximum scan angle when (Dus ) versus scan angle for 20 element arrays having eðuÞ ¼
time delay is placed at the subarray output. For cos u element patterns. The element pattern pushes the main
instance, a linear array with a 10% bandwidth that beam peak toward broadside when compared to an isotropic
scans to 60 can have up to 22 elements in the element and is most prominent at lower frequencies.

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 Defining Phased Array Bandwidth
Figure 14.
Types of array feeds.
FEED BANDWIDTH
The array feed network combines the signals from the ele-
ments and delivers the result to a receiver or distributes a
transmit signal to the elements. Figure 14 shows four dif-
ferent types of passive array feeds. A series feed uses one
feed line to sequentially connect all of the elements. The
signal travels a different length to/from each element. The
delay between elements makes this type of feed very nar-
rowband. A corporate feed has the same path length
between each element and the input/output, so it has a
wider bandwidth than a series feed. Breaking a long series
feed into corporate fed subarrays with series feeds extends
the array’s bandwidth. Lens antennas form beams by
focusing signals passing through a shaped medium. The
Rotman lens in Figure 14 is a wideband bootlace lens
(two back-to-back arrays with elements facing in opposite
directions [36]) with three focal points that can form mul-
tiple simultaneous beams [37].
Figure 16.
Example of the T/R module for the advanced tactical fighter.
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Figure 15.
Example of components in an active receive phased array.
ELECTRONICS BANDWIDTH
Active phased arrays have a lot of electronics behind the ele-
ments. Figure 15 is a simplified example of some of the com-
ponents between the element in a receive array and the
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in a receive array. Large
arrays often have time delay and amplifiers at the subarray
ports. Multiple mixers may be needed to downconvert a sig-
nal before the ADC. A large array has many subarray levels.
Bulky time delay units (TDUs) at the subarray outputs sig-
nificantly decrease beam squint and pulse/symbol dispersion
[38]. Filters remove spurious signals generated by the active
devices. The bandwidth of each of the components must
span the operational bandwidth of the array.
Figure 16 is an example of a transmit/receive (T/R) mod-
ule for the Advanced Tactical Fighter. This type of
module would appear after the element and before the
first combiner in Figure 15. The many stages in this T/
R module as well as the rest of the stages in Figure 15
must have a bandwidth that matches the operational
bandwidth.
FEBRUARY 2023

CONCLUSION
Most antennas have a bandwidth defined by shape, mate-
rial composition, and electronics. Phased arrays can be
electrically large, have electronic scanning, and sample
waveforms at discrete points. These characteristics pro-
vide many powerful advantages but come at a cost to
bandwidth.
Increasing an array’s performance requires processing
broadband signals over a wide operating bandwidth. It is
critical to understand the factors that limit bandwidth
when designing a phased array. Several key parameters
that determine array bandwidth include hardware band-
width, element spacing, array size, maximum scan angle,
and signal bandwidth. This article explored each of these
parameters and related their deleterious effects in the form
of grating lobes, signal dispersion, and beam squint. New
formulas for defining array bandwidth were presented
based on the limitations imposed by these parameters. In
addition, several new graphs relating bandwidth to phased
array characteristics were presented.
Representing electromagnetic waves in time-harmonic
form as almost all electromagnetics and antenna texts do,
works well for most simple antenna designs. The need for
large bandwidth arrays, requires antenna designers to rec-
ognize the time-dependent array requirements at the initial
stages of the project. Understanding the contributions to
the array bandwidth provides the antenna designer with
the means and vocabulary to discuss time-dependent
requirements with algorithm and waveform designers.
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