Hydrochloric Acid
M Abdollahi, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
S Nikfar, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
This article is a revision of the previous edition article by Christopher P. Holstege, volume 2, pp 538–540, Ó 2005, Elsevier Inc.
l Name: Hydrochloric acid
l Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number: 7647-01-0;
Other Registry Numbers: 113962-65-5, 218625-68-4,
51005-19-7, 61674-62-2
l Synonyms: 4-D Bowl Sanitizer; ;Acide chlorhydrique
(French); Acido clorhidrico (Spanish); Acido cloridrico
(Italian); Anhydrous hydrochloric acid; Aqueous hydrogen
chloride; Bowl Cleaner; Caswell No. 486; Chlorane;
Chloorwaterstof (Dutch); Chlorohydric acid; Chlorowodor
(Polish); Chlorure d’hydrogene (French); Chlorure d’hy-
drogene anhydre (French); Chloruro de hidrogeno
(Spanish); Chlorwasserstoff (German); Cloruro de hidro-
geno anhidro (Spanish); The European Inventory of
Exciting Commercial Substances 231-595-7; Environmental
Protection Agency Pesticide Chemical Code 045901;
Emulsion Bowl Cleaner; Hazardous Substances Data Bank
545; Hydrochloric acid; Hydrochloride; Hydrogen chloride
(HCl); Hygeia Creme Magic Bowl Cleaner; Muriatic acid;
Muriaticum acidum; NSC 77365; Now South Safti-Sol
Brand Concentrated Bowl Cleanse with Magic Actio;
Percleen Bowl and Urinal Cleaner; Spirits of salt; UN 1050
(anhydrous); UN 1789 (solution); UN 2186 (refrigerated
liquefied gas); UNII-QTT17582CB; Varley Poly-Pak Bowl
Crème; Varley’s Ocean Blue Scented Toilet Bowl Cleaner;
White Emulsion Bowl Cleaner; Wuest Bowl Cleaner Super
Concentrated
l Molecular Formula: HCl
l Chemical Structure:
HCl
Background
The earliest suggested discovery of hydrochloric acid is attrib-
uted to the Persian chemist ‘Jabir ibn Hayyan’ (c.AD 800). Free
hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the sixteenth
century by Libavius. During the Industrial Revolution in
Europe, demand for alkaline substances increased. A new
industrial process by Nicolas Leblanc (Issoudun, France)
enabled cheap large-scale production of sodium carbonate
(soda ash). Until the British Alkali Act 1863 and similar legis-
lation in other countries, the excess HCl was vented to air. After
the passage of the act, soda ash producers were obliged to
absorb the waste gases in water, producing hydrochloric acid
on an industrial scale. In the twentieth century, the Leblanc
process was effectively replaced by the Solvay process without
a hydrochloric acid by-product. After the year 2000, hydro-
chloric acid is mostly made by absorbing by-product hydrogen
chloride from industrial organic compounds production. Since
960 Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Volume 2
1988, hydrochloric acid has been listed as a Table II precursor
under the 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit
Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances because
of its use in the production of heroin, cocaine, and
methamphetamine.
Uses
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is commonly used for the neutrali-
zation of alkaline agents, as a bleaching agent, in the produc-
tion of chlorides, for refining or in the production of tin and
tantalum, for pickling and cleaning of metal products, in
electroplating, in removing scale from boilers, for the neutral-
ization of basic systems, as a laboratory reagent, as a catalyst
and solvent in organic syntheses, in the manufacture of fertil-
izers and dyes, for hydrolyzing starch and proteins in the
preparation of various food products, and in the photographic,
textile, and rubber industries.
Environmental Fate and Behavior
Exposure Routes and Pathways
Exposure may occur via dermal, ocular, enteral, parenteral, or
inhalation routes.
Physicochemical Properties
Appearance: Colorless, fuming liquid
Odor: Pungent odor of hydrogen chloride
Solubility: Infinite in water with slight evolution of heat.
Soluble in cold water and diethyl ether
Density: 1.18
pH: For HCl solutions: 0.1 (1.0 N), 1.1 (0.1 N), 2.02 (0.01 N)
%Volatiles by volume at 21
C (70
F): 100
Boiling point: 53
C (127
F) Azeotrope (20.2%) boils at
109
C (228
F)
Melting point: 74
C (101
F)
Specific gravity: 1.1–1.19 (20 and 22% HCl solutions)
Vapor pressure (mmHg): 190 at 25
C (77
F)
Vapor density: 1.267
Odor threshold: 0.25–10 ppm
Environmental Persistency (Degradation
and Speciation) and Bioaccumulation
When released into the soil, this material is not expected to
biodegrade. Rapidly hydrolyzes when exposed to water.
Exhibits extensive evaporation from soil surfaces. Transport
through soil may contaminate groundwater and will dissolve
some of the soil materials (especially those with carbonate
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386454-3.00735-1

bases). Acid will be neutralized to a large degree by contact with
carbonates in soil.
If released to air, hydrogen chloride will be removed by
rainfall. If released to water, hydrogen chloride dissociates
readily in water to chloride and hydronium ions, decreasing
the pH of the water. A Henry’s law constant of
2.04  10þ6 mol l1 atm1 (4.90  1010 cu m atm mol1)
has been reported for hydrochloric acid. This Henry’s law
constant indicates that hydrochloric acid is expected to be
essentially nonvolatile from water surfaces. If released into
soil, hydrogen chloride will evaporate from dry soil surfaces
and dissociate into chloride and hydronium ions in moist
soil. Hydrogen chloride does not accumulate in the food
chain.
Exposure and Exposure Monitoring
HCl is emitted during coal burning. It is a significant constit-
uent of emissions from coal burning and it is a more potent
acidifier of certain ecosystems in particular wetlands than sulfur
(S) or nitrogen (N) compounds.
Routes and Pathways (Including Environmental
Release)
Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid’s production and use
in the production of chemicals, or for applications such as
a metal pickling, ore refining, food processing, manufacture of
fertilizers and dyes, and in the rubber and textile industries may
result in the release of hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid
to the environment through various waste streams. Hydrogen
chloride can be formed during the burning of many plastics.
Hydrochloric acid is found in the gases evolved from volca-
noes, particularly ones found in Mexico and South America.
Hydrochloric acid is also found in the digestive tract of most
mammals.
Human Exposure
Occupational exposure to hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric
acid may occur through inhalation and dermal contact with
these compounds at workplaces where hydrogen chloride or
hydrochloric acid is produced or used. Data indicate that the
general population may be exposed to hydrogen chloride or
hydrochloric acid via inhalation and dermal contact with
consumer products containing these compounds.
Mechanism of Toxicity
HCl causes local pH changes and denatures proteins. This leads
to edema formation and tissue necrosis. HCl produces a coag-
ulation necrosis characterized by the formation of a scar.
Ingested HCl may give rise to damage of the esophagus and
stomach. Gastric damage may occur secondary to pooling of
HCl in the antrum as a result of pylorospasm. Patients who
survive ingestions of HCl may develop stricture formation,
Hydrochloric Acid 961
gastric atony, and gastric outlet obstruction. When inhaled,
HCl typically deposits in the upper respiratory tract and causes
damage. Concentrated HCl can penetrate to the level of the
bronchioles and alveoli and cause subsequent damage to these
regions.
Acute and Short-Term Toxicity (or Exposure)
Animal
In animals, HCl is a severe irritant of the eyes and respira-
tory system. The 30 min LC50 values in rats and mice are
4701 and 2644 ppm, respectively. Animals exposed to high
concentrations of HCl gas developed necrosis of the tracheal
and bronchial epithelium, pulmonary edema, atelectasis,
emphysema, and damage to the pulmonary blood vessels
and liver. Chronic exposure to 10 ppm for 6 h a day did not
cause neoplastic lesions or serious irritant effects in the nasal
epithelium of rats. In experimental animals, exposure to
a concentration of 1350 ppm hydrogen chloride gas caused
clouding of the cornea after 1.5 h and exposure to
3000 ppm for 6 h caused slight erosion of the corneal
epithelium.
Human
Acute eye exposure to HCl gas or solutions of HCl may cause
eye irritation and permanent damage with loss of sight.
Dermal exposure may cause burns, with degree depending
upon the concentration and duration of the exposure.
Inhalation of HCl immediately causes severe irritation with
cough and choking sensation. Inflammation and ulceration
of the upper respiratory tract may occur. Pulmonary edema
can develop if HCl gas is inhaled deeply. Excessive exposures
(e.g., 1000–2000 ppm) for a few minutes can cause life-
threatening pulmonary edema. Severe breathing difficulties
may be delayed in onset. The current Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure
limit (PEL) for hydrogen chloride is 5 ppm as a ceiling limit.
Ingestion may cause corrosion of the mucous membranes,
esophagus, and stomach with dysphagia, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal pain, and hematemesis. Circulatory collapse and
death may occur.
Chronic Toxicity
Animal
Vapor concentrations of hydrochloric acid 100 ppm daily for
50 days in guinea pigs, pigeons, and rabbits resulted in
symptoms of only minor irritation. Chronic exposure caused
lesions in the nasal cavity in rats.
Human
Chronic exposure to HCl may cause erosion of the teeth,
bronchitis, and gastritis. Repeated exposure of the skin to dilute
solutions of hydrogen chloride may cause a rash. Photosensi-
tization in workers has occurred. Chronic inhalation can cause
nasal mucosa, larynx and tracheal hyperplasia.
962 Hydrochloric Acid
Reproductive Toxicity
No information is available on the reproductive or develop-
mental toxicity of hydrochloric acid in humans. In rats exposed
to HCl by inhalation, dyspnea, cyanosis, and altered estrus
cycles have been reported in dams and increases in fetal
mortality and decreases in fetal weight have been recorded.
Genotoxicity
May affect genetic material. Little data are available on geno-
toxicity in humans.
Carcinogenicity
There is inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity in humans
of hydrochloric acid. There is inadequate evidence for the car-
cinogenicity in experimental animals of hydrochloric acid.
Overall evaluation: hydrochloric acid is not classifiable as to its
carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3).
Clinical Management
The first priority in management of patients exposed to HCl is
assuring patency of the airway. Direct visualization of the
pharynx and vocal cords with fiber-optic devices may be
necessary after inhalational and oral exposures to assure lack
of injury. If signs of airway edema are present, intubation
should be considered as swelling may progress over ensuing
minutes and lead to airway obstruction. Fiber-optic intuba-
tion or orotracheal intubation with a laryngoscope can be
attempted. Emergent surgical airway intervention may be
necessary. Vomiting should not be induced. Gastric lavage,
syrup of ipecac, activated charcoal, and cathartics should be
avoided. There is questionable efficacy in giving water or milk
to an awake and minimally symptomatic person who has
ingested HCl. The utility of dilution decreases with time and
should not be administered to persons with vomiting, airway
compromise, significant abdominal pain, or altered mental
status. Following ophthalmic exposure to HCl, the eyes
should be irrigated immediately with water for at least 15 min
and continued until pH neutralization. If skin exposure
occurs, contaminated clothing should be removed and the
exposed areas flushed with water. The exposed person should
be moved to fresh air.
Ecotoxicology
Hydrochloric acid is expected to be toxic to aquatic life as
a result of pH shift. Lethal to fish from 25 mg l1 and above.
Exposure Standards and Guidelines
The reference concentration (RfC) for HCl is 0.02 mg m3
based upon study of chronic inhalational exposure in
rats resulting in hyperplasia of the nasal mucosa, larynx,
and trachea. The RfC is an estimate (with an order of
magnitude uncertainty factor applied) of a threshold dose
which for continuous inhalational exposure to humans,
including the most vulnerable subgroups, would not give
appreciable risk of a deleterious noncancer effect during
a lifetime.
The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) immediately dangerous to life and health value is
75 mg m3.
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) Emergency
Response Planning Guideline (ERPG-1) is 4.5 mg m3.
AIHA ERPG-2 is 30 mg m3.
American Conference of Governmental and Industrial
Hygienists and NIOSH OSHA ceiling 7 mg m3.
OSHA PEL is 5 ppm or 7 mg m3.
Regulatory Information
Class D-2A (Canada): Material causing other toxic effects
(very toxic). Class E: Corrosive liquid.
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
302/304/311/312 extremely hazardous substances and SARA
313 toxic chemical notification and release reporting.
On multiple United States chemical safety, employee
disclosure and other hazardous substances reporting require-
ments including spill or release notifications.
Miscellaneous
In Vitro Toxicity Data
Low concentrations of HCl were required to dramatically
reduce the spore concentration of Bacillus subtilis. Concen-
trations as low as 6 mg l1 can inhibit some plant stem
growth.
See also: Acids; Corrosives.
Further Reading
Anderson, K.D., Touse, T.M., Randolph, J.G., 1990. A controlled trial of cortico-
steroids in children with corrosive injury of the esophagus. N. Engl. J. Med. 323,
637–640.
Bond, G.G., Flores, G.H., Stafford, B.A., 1991. Lung cancer and hydrogen chloride
exposure: results from a nested case-control study of chemical workers. J. Occup.
Med. 33, 958–961.
Contini, S., Scarpignato, C., 2013. Caustic injury of the upper gastrointestinal tract:
a comprehensive review. World J. Gastroenterol. 19 (25), 3918–3930.
Cowan, D., Ho, B., Sykes, K.J., Wei, J.L., 2013. Pediatric oral burns: a ten-year review
of patient characteristics, etiologies and treatment outcomes. Int. J. Pediatr.
Otorhinolaryngol. 77 (8), 1325–1328.
Dilawari, J.B., Singh, S., Rao, P.N., 1984. Corrosive acid ingestion in man, a clinical
and endoscopic study. Gut 25, 183–187.
Evans, C.D., Monteith, D.T., Fowler, D., Cape, J.N., Brayshaw, S., 2011. Hydrochloric
acid: an overlooked driver of environmental change. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (5),
1887–1894.
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